“Agreement of the People, An” (Levellers), 44
America: “agrarian myth,” of 75; antidemocratic thought in, 119; capitalism in, 74, 103, 181; and Civil War, 99; concentration of wealth in, 60; early ideology of, 61; economic change in, 86; egalitarian tradition of, 3–4, 144, 146, 164; and the Enlightenment, 4, 57; equality in, 71; exclusion of class in, 10; and Greek thought, 28; and hierarchy, 49; ideology of inequality in, 167; and industrialization, 52, 100; institutional change in, 163; and laissez-faire individualism, 20; merging of capitalism and liberalism in, 152; modern toleration of inequality in, 2; and monopoly, 110; and postindustrialism, 171; and Progressivism, 128; and property, 77–78; radicalism in, 67; and republicanism, 4; repudiation of feudalism, 4, 13, 65, 90; resources of, 60; “Southernization” of, 143, 146; and subjective theory of value, 151; urbanization in, 52
American Apartheid (Denton and Massey), 199n. 12
American Economic Association, 141
American exceptionalism, 11, 61
anti-egalitarianism. See inegalitarianism
Areopagiticus (Isocrates), 34
aristocracy: and banking, 93; fear of, 13, 60–61, 158, 172; and feudalism, 82, 89; and Gilded Age, 153; and industry, 81, 121; institutions of, 57; new versions of, 61, 83, 180, 184, 191; and property, 73; and radicalism, 63; and wealth inequality, 86, 96, 118, 142;
Aristotle: constitutional theory of, 38; and democracy, 37; economic ethics of, 202–203nn. 25–26; and Hegel, 50; and inequality, 36–37, 55; and Jefferson, 75; moral categories of, 113 and nature of man, 34; and oligarchy, 37; and political community, 51; and property, 47; and secure constitution, 72; and self-sufficiency, 75
associational economy, 83
Bronner, Stephen Eric, 208n. 6
capitalism: and affluence, 161; antidemocratic character of, 7, 119; and big business, 102; and competition, 85; and conservatism, 160–161; and corruption, 96, 99; crisis of, 14, 151; depoliticization of, 79; development of, 14, 116, 142; and efficiency, 150; egalitarian critique of, 6; and egoism, 110–111; and the Enlightenment, 42; favoring of liberalism, 3, 59, 121, 151, 152; and Greece, 32; and industrialism, 63, 74, 86, 102–104, 109; and labor, 84–85, 95, 139–140; libertarian forms of, 154, 159; and Marx, 53, 95, 164; and modernity, 41, 89; and monopoly, 168; and muckrakers, 127; and natural right, 86; and neoliberalism, 152; and “new inequality,” 17; and political culture, 103; and postindustrialism, 18; and precapitalism, 74, 124; and Progressivism, 123, 145; and property, 110; and Republicanism, 179; and socialism, 133; and social power, 159, 161; and state intervention, 165; and urbanization, 96; and world markets, 17. See also economic modernity
classical liberalism. See liberalism
Common Sense (Paine), 145
Commonwealth of Oceana (Harrington), 44, 62
conservatism: assault on liberalism of, 3; and justification of inequality, 121, 153, 176, 180; and libertarianism, 148; and liberty, 121–123; and narrow interpretation of rights, 129; new legitimacy of, 143; opposition to labor of, 138; and social fragmentation, 69; and state intervention, 125
Constitution of Liberty, The (Hayek), 156
Conundrum of Class, The (Burke), 210n. 27
corporations: growing power of, 87, 101; and inequality, 89; legal classification of, 98, 142; and the liberal economic ethic, 116–117, 183; and modernity, 97–98; mythos of, 135; small vs. large, 92–93; state sponsoring of, 82
Declaration of Independence, the, 90, 109
Defense of Constitutions of Government of the United States (John Adams), 71
democracy: and the American welfare state, 13; and Aristotle, 37; and capitalism, 113, 128–129, 193; culture of, 5; and the economic sphere, 173, 183; erosion of, 4, 10, 54, 130–131; expanded conception of, 140; and industrialization, 104, 183; and inequality, 80, 129–130, 171, 194; and Jefferson, 75, 130; and laissez-faire, 146, 171; and liberty, 122; and the market, 145; and neoconservatism, 19; and neoliberalism, 19; and Plato, 28; and Progressivism, 151, 173; republican character of, 60; and state/society relations, 139; and wage servitude, 96. See also socialized democracy
Democracy in America (Tocqueville), 81
democratic republicanism, 4, 10
De re publica (Cicero), 39
“Deserted Village” (Goldsmith), 205n. 57
Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio (Machiavelli), 42
Discours sur l’économie politique (Discourse on Political Inequality; Rousseau), 49, 199n. 2
Ecclesiazusae (Aristophanes), 32
Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts (Marx), 53
economic inequality: and the American Revolution, 57, 67, 191; arbitrariness of, 189; and aristocracy, 57, 88; and asymmetrical power relations, 11, 64, 89, 195; and autonomy, 14, 172; and banks, 93 and barbarism, 53, 88; and business interests, 146; and capital, 19, 122, 135; and Cicero, 39; and communitarianism, 31; and conservatism, 121, 153, 176, 180; contemporary tolerance of, 174; danger to justice of, 29; depoliticization of, 28, 79, 123, 146; and electoral politics, 195; empirical nature of, 144; and everyday people, 42, 133; and feudalism, 4; and the global system, 6; Greek discourse on, 28, 31 201–202nn. 8–25; and hierarchy, 11, 186; historical overview of, 1; idea of, 7; and individuals, 9; and the Industrial Age, 52; and industrialization, 30, 63, 100–104, 121, 161; inevitability of, 16; institutional interpretation of, 9, 29; and liberalism, 12, 141–142, 177; and liberty, 6, 175; and Marx, 53; and the media, 195; and merit, 79–80, 157, 180; modern increase of, 1, 141, 144; and modernity, 82, 100, 121, 145; and moral outrage, 5; and neoliberalism, 152; and the New Deal, 139; and optimism, 84; and perversion of government, 27; and Plato, 32, 35; and political association, 41; political character of, 1; and political community, 11, 72; and political fragmentation, 25, 28, 173; and popular sovereignty, 61; and pre-revolutionary years, 59, 68; previous centrality of, 3; and Progressivism, 17, 123, 126–127, 132, 173; and radicalism, 69; and Reconstruction, 105; and redistribution, 83; and the Reformation, 43; relationship to growth of, 168; repoliticization of, 11, 179–180; and republicanism, 185–186; and revolt, 14; and Roosevelt, 137–138; and self-interest, 112; and skill differentials, 199–200n. 14; and Smith, 47; as social good, 153; and socialism, 112–114, 117; and state intervention, 165; and subordination, 5; and suburbanization, 169; and tax burdens, 48; and technology, 89, 102, 108; threat to democracy of, 2; and transformation of work, 20; and urbanism, 59, 67–68, 102; validity of, 21, 78, 118; and Western political tradition, 25, 146
economic modernity: atomizing effects of, 14; as capitalism, 102–103; and corporations, 97–98; and corruption, 10, 112; institutional constraints of, 14; and political rights, 92, 194; rejection of, 17, 84, 107; and social fragmentation, 116. See also capitalism
Edelmann, Johann Christian, 48
egalitarianism: anti-hierarchical stance of, 23, 42; and citizenship, 190; and civic virtue, 185; communistic forms of, 176; critique of, 124, 150, 155, 193; decline of, 182; dominance in American political thought of, 3, 144, 146, 164; and early America, 60–61, 70; and Europe, 70, 119, 45, 60; and the good life, 37–38; Greek conception of, 34; and harmonization theory, 84; and Hegel, 50; and Locke, 62–63; in the nineteenth century, 52; and Plato, 34; and political community, 7; political dimension of, 88; and power, 6; and Progressivism, 127, 129; and radicalism, 42, 87, 133, 181; and self-regulation, 85; and socialism, 112–114, 119; and social solidarity, 21; Western tradition of, 55
England: commonwealth tradition of, 15, 61, 63; government of, 57; and industrialism, 52, 100; and laissez-faire, 124; and monarchy, 176; political economy of, 69; political equality in, 44; Protestantism in, 43; radicalism of, 56, 62; and the Revolution of 1688, 187; and subjective theory of value, 151; and urbanization, 52
Enlightenment, the: American foundations in, 4, 57; anti-aristocratic impulse of, 26, 196–197; and democracy, 2; and equality, 41; legacy of, 100; and property, 41, 44; radical strain of, 49; and threat of inequality, 28, 45–46
equality: and abolition of debts, 34; and the American Revolution, 67; and aristocracy, 82; and Aristotle, 36; and associational economy, 83; and capitalism, 96; and classical liberalism, 119; and classical political thought, 41; communistic forms of, 36–37; differing meanings of, 12; and the Enlightenment, 42; and envy, 156–157; and feudalism, 82; and gender, 10; illusory nature of, 152; and integrated political life, 26; and labor, 91, 96; and the law, 119; and liberalism, 181–182, 192; and liberation, 147, 156; and Montesquieu, 45; and the New Deal, 139–140; of opportunity, 59, 62, 96, 104, 107, 142; and Plato, 33; and political pressure, 11; and political stability, 26–27; and property, 62; and public institutions, 64; and race, 10, 105–106; radical forms of, 28, 41, 105; reorientation away from, 21; and Roosevelt, 137; and unionization, 11; utopian forms of, 32; and wages, 134
Essay on the Present Distribution of Wealth (Spahr), 128
Essay on the Roman Government (Moyle), 62
Europe: and concentration of wealth, 44, 48; and corruption, 66; and egalitarianism, 70, 119, 45, 60; in the eighteenth century, 73; and feudalism, 9, 42, 66, 184; and industrialism, 100; institutions of, 64; and laissez-faire, 217n. 10; and Marxism, 86; and social democracy, 143; and social division, 60
Fair Labor Standards Act, 137
“Federalist 10” (Madison), 37
feudalism: American repudiation of, 4, 13, 65, 90; and aristocracy, 82; “belated feudalism,” 191; and capitalism, 86; and commerce, 74; and corporations, 135; and early America, 177; and early modern period, 41; and English radicals, 62; and the Enlightenment, 42; and Europe, 9, 42, 66, 184; and industrialization, 135; and inequality, 49, 97; and labor, 43; lingering of, 6, 84, 182; and markets, 56; and master/servant relations, 58; and neofeudalism, 53, 86; and property, 67, 77; social arrangements of, 181
Folklore of Capitalism (Arnold), 135
Gallbraith, John Kenneth, 145
Hamilton, Alexander: inegalitarian thought of, 15, 78–79, 118–119, 193; and inequality, 60; and laissezfaire, 69; and progress, 79, 147, 164; and promotion of industry, 30; and Society for Useful Manufactures, 73
Harmony of Nature, The (Carey), 85
Hayes, Rutherford B., 118
Hegel, G. W. F.: and absolute freedom, 187; analysis of history of, 180; and Aristotle, 50; and bureaucracy, 115, 214n. 22; and civil society, 50, 136, 206–207n. 68; and the end of history, 20; and Greek philosophy, 27, 51; and inequality, 50, 55, 207nn. 70–71; and markets, 51; and social integration, 51
Holy Writing, The (Euphemeros), 32
individualism: and agrarian economy, 59; atomizing effects of, 132, 136, 137, 162; and civic mindedness, 64, 66; and class structure, 80, 188; and democracy, 130; differing meanings of, 12; and hedonism, 142; and inequality, 109; and laissez-faire, 52, 67; and liberalism, 2, 128, 131, 134; and Locke, 62; and markets, 145; and property, 66, 134; and Protestantism, 100; radical forms of, 124–125, 151; and salvation, 43–44; and self-interest, 7, 113–114; and self-sufficiency, 14, 57; and small-scale economies, 108; and subjectivity, 149–150; and urbanism, 117
industrialism: and capitalism, 63, 74, 86, 102–104, 109; depoliticization of, 123; and Europe, 100; and Hamilton, 79; and inequality, 97, 123, 183; justification of, 122–123; and monopoly, 115; production system of, 140; and progress, 132; and Progressivism, 10, 20, 126; ravaging effects of, 165; and social fragmentation, 116; state/society interaction in, 150; and working people, 101
inegalitarianism: American tradition of, 13, 120, 166, 193; and human nature, 78; and industrial capitalism, 13; and late twentieth century, 125; and liberty of markets, 147; and political equality, 194; and social organization, 124; rise of, 193
inequality. See economic inequality. See also new inequality; political inequality
Island of the Sun (Iambolous), 32
Jefferson, Thomas: and agrarianism, 76–77; and critique of industrial capitalism, 30; and democracy, 130; and equality, 22; and government regulation, 60; and Greek thought, 75; and laissez-faire, 69; and liberalism, 75–77; and the market, 66; and republicanism, 59, 75; and the state, 77; and subservience, 178
Jungle, The (Sinclair), 127
King Coal (Sinclair), 127
labor: and capital, 19, 81, 84, 101, 118, 135; and capitalism, 85, 95, 104; and competition, 85–86; and contracts, 7; and equality, 75, 81, 96–97; and gender, 190; and guilds, 63; and individualism, 21, 66, 100, 117, 184; and industrialism, 97, 142; and intellect, 53; and liberalism, 12, 58, 62, 103, 124; and the “living wage,” 134; and markets, 102, 160; and the middle class, 43; and the New Deal, 128–129, 137–140; organization of, 92, 103, 111–112, 134, 182; and power, 43, 53; and property, 58–59, 61, 75, 95, 176; radicalization of, 98, 102, 107–108, 170; and republicanism, 82; and self-sufficiency, 84, 100, 108; segmentation of, 18, 167, 169; and servitude, 57, 83, 86–88; and wages, 7, 63, 87, 94, 142; weakening of, 143, 170; and wealth, 91
“Laboring Classes, The” (Brownson), 94
laissez-faire economics: antidemocratic character of, 192; corrosive effects of, 117, 126–127, 129, 183; and growth, 85, 101; ideology of, 67, 124, 128, 171; and inegalitarian-ism, 147–151, 158; and liberalism, 154, 165; and the market, 149–150; movements against, 52; and Progressivism, 2, 17, 126; and Reconstruction, 107; revival of, 145, 167, 193; and self-interest, 113; and the state, 133–134
liberalism: affinity with republicanism, 2, 56, 64; and agrarian economy, 59; atomizing effects of, 51; and civic republicanism, 180; and competition, 16, 63; and conservatism, 69; as defense of prevailing systems, 12, 131, 183; dual nature of, 63; economic interpretations of, 178, 180–182, 184; and economic reductionism, 148; and equality, 12, 119; and gender, 194–195; and individualism, 2, 12, 128, 131; and Jefferson, 75–77; and labor, 12, 58, 62, 103, 124; and laissez-faire, 117; and libertarianism, 158, 162, 182–183; and liberty, 12; and Locke, 61–62, 65, 76, 97; and logical positivism, 155; and the market, 141–142, 162; and negative vs. positive liberty, 165, 190; and the New Deal, 138–139; and postindustrialism, 171; and pseudoliberalism, 187; and race, 194–195; radical character of, 12; and the Reformation, 43; role in America’s founding, 2, 44, 61; shifting historical context, 136; and state/society relations, 75, 134; triumph of, over republicanism, 20
Liberal Tradition in America, The (Hartz), 207–208n. 4
libertarianism: ascendance of, 20, 148, 166–170, 192–193; and capitalism, 154, 159; and classical economics, 132; ideology of, 149, 151; and inequality, 16, 161, 168; and liberalism, 158, 162, 182–183; and liberty, 21–22, 126, 171; and neoconservatism, 188; and Progressivism, 162, 164; radicalization of, 124; and the state, 124, 189
Limitations of Police Power (Tiedeman), 128
Looking Backward (Bellamy), 114, 126
MacPherson, C. B., 200n. 1
Malthus, Thomas Robert, 122
Manchester (England), 100
Man Versus the State, The (Spencer), 124
markets: and allocation of capital, 160; and communities, 173, 186; and conservatives, 69; and creation of hierarchies, 11, 145; depoliticization of, 164, 193; discourse on impact of, 8, 28; in the eighteenth century, 56, 67; embrace of, 19, 55; and the Enlightenment, 46; freedom of, 143, 148, 159, 171; and Hegel, 51; and individualism, 145; and inegalitarianism, 8, 60, 141, 147, 188; and Isocrates, 35; and Jefferson, 66; and liberalism, 141–142, 162; and libertarianism, 160–161, 171, 188; manipulation of, 94; Mediterranean rise of, 27; and the merchant class, 68; and morality, 35; narrow imperatives of, 9; nationalization of, 65, 150; and natural inequality, 35, 147; and neoconservatism, 188; perceived finality of, 141; and preliberal labor relations, 86; and progress, 54; reform of, 128; role of the state in, 13, 55, 81, 137; skepticism of, 54; and social problems, 21, 101; and subjective theory of value, 151; unpredictability of, 157; and urbanization, 102
Marx, Karl: and critique of capitalism, 53, 99, 164; and institutional production processes, 158; and modernity, 54; and organization of society, 104; and socialism, 109–111
Massachusetts in Agony; or, Important Hints to the Inhabitants of the Province: Calling Aloud for Justice to be Done to the Oppressed (“Centinel”), 68
monopoly: and capitalism, 110, 112, 163; chartering of, 89; emergence of, 80, 104, 142; and industrialism, 115; and the state, 87, 168; threat to liberty of, 110, 112, 185
Montesquieu, Baron de, 45
National Association of Manufacturers, 138
National Farmer’s Alliance, 117
neoclassical economics, 148
New Deal, the: and democracy, 13, 20, 167, 173; and equality, 13, 125; and freedom, 165; and inefficiency of the market, 149; and the liberal-capitalist consensus, 104; and liberalism, 140, 166, 182; and organized labor, 128; and Progressivism, 134–135; reaction against, 141, 143, 162, 164, 168; and separation of politics and economics, 51–52; and social welfare, 5; and the state, 2, 137–139
New York Evening Post, 94
Nichomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 36, 202n. 26
Nietzsche, Friedrich, 119
Notes on the State of Virginia (Jeffereson), 75
Observations on the Sources and Effects of Unequal Wealth (Byllesby), 91
Octopus, The (Norris), 127
Omaha Declaration of 1896, 117
One Market Under God (Frank), 217n. 8
Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, The (Millar), 74
participatory economy, 70
Ploutos (Aristophanes), 32
polis. See Greek city-state
political inequality: and early America, 58–59; and eighteenth-century America, 14; interrelation to economic inequality of, 14, 88, 90; legitimation of, 48; and oligarchy, 136; power relations of, 64; and Republicanism, 58–59
Political Theory of Possessive Individualism, The (MacPherson), 204n. 48
Principles of Political Economy (Carey), 85
Principles of Political Economy (Mill), 53
private property: and Adams, 71; agglomeration of, 31; and Aristotle, 36; and capitalism, 110; and Cicero, 38–39; distribution of, 30, 34, 146; elimination of, 26; and the Enlightenment, 41; and feudalism, 67, 77; and free contract, 188; and Hegel, 50; and inequality, 27; and Jefferson, 77; labor theory of, 58, 61–62, 75, 93–95, 181; and liberalism, 2, 58, 62; and Locke, 44, 58; and Mill, 53; and Millar, 74; and Plato, 31; and power, 26, 59, 62; proper use of, 29; and Reconstruction, 105; and republicanism, 58, 62; and Rome, 38; and Rousseau, 8; and the state, 88, 139
Professional Ethics and Civic Morals (Durkheim), 99
Progress and Poverty (George), 110
Progressive Era: and capitalism, 123, 145; and democracy, 151, 173; and egalitarianism, 17; and laissez-faire economics, 2; philosophy of, 2, 125; policy makers in, 104, 125; political impact of, 141, 144–145; and social liberalism, 161, 166
Progressivism: attacks on inequality of, 10, 126, 134; and industrialism, 10, 20, 126; and liberalism, 182–183; and market regulation, 149; and morality, 132; politics of, 52, 125–130; and social integration, 144
Promise of American Life, The (Croly), 129
Public and Its Problems, The (Dewey), 136
public good: competing views of, 5; danger of inequality to, 15, 176; and democracy, 131; denaturing of, 192; and egalitarianism, 6, 179; and Hamilton, 60; and Madison, 70–71; and private interests, 31; and republicanism, 59, 78, 188; and Rousseau, 49; and the state, 136; and the wealthy elite, 27
refeudalization. See feudalism
“Relation of the State to Industrial Action, The” (Henry Carter Adams), 128
religion of inequality. See Social Darwinism
republicanism: affinity with liberalism of, 2, 56, 64; and capitalism, 179; and Cicero, 39; and civil society, 175–176, 180, 182; and domination, 12; economic ethic of, 86; erosion of, 103; and freedom, 12; Greek conception of, 33; and Montesquieu, 45; philosophy of, 58, 185; and private property, 58, 62; and radicalism, 140; role in America’s founding, 2, 44, 61; and social power, 63
“Republic of the Golden Rule,” 116
Rights of Man to Property!, The (Skidmore), 87
Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit (Knight), 149
Second Treatise of Government (Locke), 44
Short History of Paper Money and Banking in the United States, A (Gouge), 93
“Socialism and the Worker” (Sorge), 110
Society for Useful Manufactures, 73
strict equality. See utopianism
Symbols of Government, The (Arnold), 135
Tableau economique (Quesnay), 82
taxation: as burden, 79, 172, 187; and elites, 15, 48; exemption from, 76, 79; regressive forms of, 194; and regulation of inequality, 60, 71, 130–131; and rents, 109; and Roosevelt, 137–138; and the single tax, 110–111; and the state, 48, 110
Tiedeman, Christopher, 128
unionization. See labor, organization of
United States of America. See America
utopianism: and absolute equality, 176; and agrarianism, 78; and anarchism, 41; and Aristophanes, 32; and civic virtue, 186; and communal sharing of property, 26; and communism, 41; and Iambolous, 32; illusory nature of, 96; and leveling, 69; literary devices of, 114; and modernity, 71; and morality, 135; novels of, 214n. 20; and Socialism, 111
Washington, Booker T., 106
Wealth Against Commonwealth (Lloyd), 112
Wealth and Democracy (Phillips), 9
welfare state: construction of, 137, 155, 166; and democracy, 13; muting of class dissent of, 168; reaction against, 2, 22, 163, 178; redistributional character of, 13
What’s the Matter with Kansas? (Frank), 219n. 1
Working Man’s Manual, The (Simpson), 89
Working Man’s Political Economy (Pickering), 95