INTRODUCTION
1. Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Vintage, 1993), 356.
2. J.F.C. Fuller, The Conduct of War, 1789–1961: A Study of the Impact of the French, Industrial, and Russian Revolutions on War and Its Conduct (New York: Da Capo Press, 1992), 107.
3. Paddy Griffiths, Battle Tactics of the American Civil War (Ramsbury, UK: Crowood Press, 2001), 9.
4. Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), 151.
5. Russell F. Weigley, “The Necessity of Force: The Civil War, World War II, and the American Way of War,” in War Comes Again: Comparative Vistas on the Civil War and World War II, ed. Gabor Boritt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 232.
6. James Reston Jr., Sherman’s March and Vietnam (New York: Macmillan, 1984), 6.
7. Victor Davis Hanson, “Sherman’s War,” American Heritage, November 9, 1999, victorhanson.com/wordpress/?p=5133.
8. White House, 2010 National Security Strategy of the United States, www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/national_security_strategy.pdf.
1. THE IRON HAND OF WAR
1. Alfred Stillé, War as an Instrument of Civilization: An Address Before the Society of the Alumni of the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia: Collins, 1862).
2. Andrew S. Coopersmith, Fighting Words: An Illustrated History of Newspaper Accounts of the Civil War (New York: The New Press, 2004), 14.
3. Archer Jones, Civil War Command and Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat (New York: The Free Press, 1992), 23.
4. Baron Antoine Henri de Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G.H. Mendell and W.P. Craighill (West Point, NY: U.S. Military Academy, 1862; Radford, VA: Wilder Publications, 2008), 89.
5. Karen Stokes, South Carolina Civilians in Sherman’s Path (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2003).
6. On the guerrilla war in Missouri, see Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).
7. On the environmental impact of the war on the South, see Lisa M. Brady, War upon the Land: Military Strategy and the Transformation of Southern Landscapes During the American Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012); see also Megan Kate Hudson, Ruin Nation: Destruction and the American Civil War (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012).
8. Fellman, Inside War, 101.
9. The Civil War was not the first war in which railroads had been used to transport supplies and soldiers. Railways played an important role in the Crimean War (1853–56) and particularly in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War, in which both sides made tactical use of the railway network to deploy their troops, particularly the French. But these precedents were small in scale compared to the more comprehensive militarization of the railway network by both sides in the Civil War. See Christian Wolmar, Engines of War: How Wars Were Won and Lost on the Railways (London: Atlantic Books, 2010).
10. John J. Tierney Jr., Chasing Ghosts: Unconventional Warfare in American History (Dulles, VA: Potomac Books, 2006), 37.
11. Charles W. Wills, Army Life of an Illinois Soldier, Including a Day by Day Record of Sherman’s March to the Sea (Washington, DC: Globe Printing Co., 1906), 121.
12. Jomini, Art of War, 34–35.
13. Fellman, Inside War, 163.
14. Lloyd Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet (New York: Konecky & Konecky, 1932), 295.
15. For a study of the Union shift toward “hard war,” see Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Grimsley distinguishes the “marked severities” that he regarded as the essence of the Union’s hard-war policy from subsequent manifestations of “total war.” On the impact of Southern guerrilla warfare on this transformation, see Clay Mountcastle, Punitive War: Confederate Guerrillas and Union Reprisals (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009).
16. Grimsley, Hard Hand of War, 152.
17. Lieut. Col. Freemantle, Three Months in the Southern States: April–June, 1863 (New York: John Bradburn, 1864), 110–11.
18. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 313.
19. Philip Sheridan, Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan, 2 vols. (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1888), 487–88.
2. UNCLE BILLY’S WAR
1. To Ellen Ewing, September 7, 1841, in Home Letters of General Sherman, ed. Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 14.
2. Lloyd Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet (New York: Konecky & Konecky, 1932), 137–38.
3. To Ellen Sherman, April 11, 1862, in Howe, Home Letters, 222.
4. Basil Henry Liddell Hart, Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993), 205.
5. Charles Edmund Vetter, Sherman: Merchant of Terror, Advocate of Peace (Gretna, LA: Pelican, 1992), 132.
6. Ibid., 169.
7. Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet, 329.
8. To Major R.M. Sawyer, January 31, 1864, in The Sherman Letters: Correspondence Between General and Senator Sherman from 1837 to 1891, ed. Rachel Sherman Thorndike (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1894), 232.
9. To Ellen Sherman, August 3, 1861, in Howe, Home Letters, 214.
10. Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet, 239.
11. Ibid., 269.
12. James M. Merrill, William Tecumseh Sherman (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1971), 231.
13. Bruce Catton, Never Call Retreat (London: Phoenix Press, 2001), 303.
14. Vetter, Sherman: Merchant of Terror, Advocate of Peace, 183.
15. Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet, 352.
16. Ibid., 398.
17. Ibid., 353.
18. To Ellen Sherman, June 26, 1864, in Howe, Home Letters, 298.
19. Marc Wortman, The Bonfire: The Siege and Burning of Atlanta (New York: PublicAffairs, 2009), 269.
20. James Marten, The Children’s Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 110.
21. Edward Caudill and Paul Ashdown, Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 21.
22. For the full exchange between Hood and Sherman, see William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1889). For Hood’s perspective, see John Bell Hood, Advance and Retreat: Personal Experiences in the United States and Confederate Armies (New Orleans: G.T. Beauregard, 1880).
23. See General Orders No. 100: Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field, avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lieber.asp.
24. Sherman, Memoirs, 128–29.
25. Ibid., 124–27.
26. Lance Janda, “Shutting the Gates of Mercy: The American Origins of Total War, 1860–1880,” Journal of Military History 59, no. 1 (January 1995): 7–26.
27. Sherman, Memoirs, 164–70.
28. Russell Weigley, “American Strategy from Its Beginnings Through the First World War,” in Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age, ed. Peter Paret, Gordon A. Craig, and Felix Gilbert (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 408–43, 415.
3. THE DESTRUCTION MACHINE
1. William of Malmesbury, A History of the Norman Kings, 1066–1125, trans. Joseph Stephenson (Burnham-on-Sea, UK: Llanerch Press, 1989), 25.
2. Sean McGlynn, By Sword and Fire: Cruelty and Atrocity in Medieval Warfare (London: Phoenix Press, 2009), 200.
3. John Hale, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (New York: HarperPerennial, 2005), 185.
4. John A. Lynn, The Wars of Louis XIV: 1667–1714 (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 1999), 181.
5. Ibid., 196.
6. Alexis de Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, trans. Jennifer Pitts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 70.
7. E.L. Doctorow, The March (London: Abacus, 2006), 62–63.
8. To Ellen Sherman, December 31, 1864, in Home Letters of General Sherman, ed. Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 321.
9. Burke Davis, Sherman’s March: The First Full-Length Narrative of General William T. Sherman’s Devastating March Through Georgia and the Carolinas (New York: Vintage, 1988), 29.
10. Lee Kennett, Marching Through Georgia: The Story of Civilians and Soldiers During Sherman’s Campaign (New York: HarperPerennial, 1995), 310–11.
11. Andrew J. Boies, Record of the Thirty-Third Volunteer Massachusetts Infantry from Aug. 1862 to Aug. 1865 (Fitchburg, MA: Sentinel Printing Co., 1880), 162.
12. David P. Conyngham, Sherman’s March Through the South (New York: Sheldon & Co., 1865), 247.
13. George W. Pepper, Personal Recollections of Sherman’s Campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas (Zanesville, OH: Hugh Dunne, 1866), 275.
14. Conyngham, Sherman’s March, 237.
15. Ibid., 268.
16. Pepper, Personal Recollections, 279.
17. Lloyd Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet (New York: Konecky & Konecky, 1932), 465.
18. William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1889), 2:249.
19. Ibid., 2:226–28.
20. Henry Hitchcock, Marching with Sherman (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 125.
21. Pepper, Personal Recollections, 277.
22. This figure of three hundred thousand was arrived at through Sherman’s sociological analysis of Southern society, and the particular classes that he held most responsible for causing the war.
23. Sherman, Memoirs, 2:213.
24. Ibid., 2:227–28.
25. George Ward Nichols, The Story of the Great March (New York: Harper & Bros., 1865), 279.
26. Sherman, Memoirs, 2:223.
27. Conyngham, Sherman’s March, 323.
28. Charles Wright Wills, Army Life of an Illinois Soldier (Washington, DC: Globe Printing Co., 1906), 342.
29. Richard Harwell and Philip N. Racine, eds., The Fiery Trail: A Union Officer’s Account of Sherman’s Last Campaigns (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 153.
30. Pepper, Personal Recollections, 337.
31. Richard Taylor, Destruction and Reconstruction: Personal Experiences in the Late War in the United States (London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1879), 325.
32. William Gilmore Simms, A City Laid Waste: The Capture, Sack, and Destruction of the City of Columbia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), 73. A well-known novelist before the war, Simms was known to Sherman’s soldiers as a pro-secession propagandist, and his Woodlands plantation was singled out for similar treatment. Not only did soldiers refuse his requests to protect his property, but they went on to loot his library, carrying away books as mementos.
33. Boies, Record of the Thirty-Third, 118.
34. Joseph T. Glatthaar, The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman’s Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 136.
35. Charles Edmund Vetter, Sherman: Merchant of Terror, Advocate of Peace (Gretna, LA: Pelican, 1992), 219.
36. Marc Wortman, The Bonfire: The Siege and Burning of Atlanta (New York: PublicAffairs, 2009), 338.
37. Raymond Hyser and J. Chris Arndt, Voices of the American Past, 2 vols. (Belmont, CA: Thompson Wadsworth, 2008), 1:274.
38. Karen Stokes, South Carolina Civilians in Sherman’s Path (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2003), 60.
39. Conyngham, Sherman’s March, 334.
40. Simms, City Laid Waste, 113.
41. Richard Wheeler, Sherman’s March: An Eyewitness History of the Cruel Campaign That Helped End a Crueler War (New York: HarperPerennial, 1978), 208; Conyngham, Sherman’s March, 346.
42. Daniel Heyward Trezevant, The Burning of Columbia, S.C.: A Review of Northern Assertions and Southern Facts (Columbia: South Carolinian Power Press, 1866), genealogytrails.com/scar/richland/burning_columbia.htm.
43. Hitchcock, Marching with Sherman, 92.
44. Karma Nabulsi, Traditions of War: Occupation, Resistance and the Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 30. Nabulsi’s book is a lucid and brilliant analysis of the philosophical, legal, and political dimensions of nineteenth-century precursors to “total war.”
45. A punishment that subsequently turned out to be unwarranted, when it was revealed that the quartermaster in question had not been murdered by guerrillas but had been captured by Confederate soldiers and shot while trying to escape. See Harry S. Stout, Upon the Altar of the Nation: A Moral History of the Civil War (New York: Penguin, 2006), 380.
46. Mark Coburn, Terrible Innocence: General Sherman at War (New York: Hippocrene Books, 1993), 86.
47. Sherman, Memoirs, 2:194.
48. For an account of Wilson’s raid, see James Pickett Jones, Yankee Blitzkrieg: Wilson’s Raid Through Alabama and Georgia (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976).
49. To Ellen Sherman, April 9, 1865, in Howe, Home Letters, 342.
50. To Ellen Sherman, April 5, 1865, in Howe, Home Letters, 340.
4. CIVILIANS AND SOLDIERS
1. Larry Zuckerman, The Rape of Belgium: The Untold Story of World War I (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 28.
2. Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 3.
3. Marcus Cunliffe, Soldiers and Civilians: The Martial Spirit in America 1775–1865 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1993), 344.
4. Marli F. Weiner, ed., A Heritage of Woe: The Civil War Diary of Grace Elmore, 1861–1868 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 103.
5. Felton made this much-quoted observation in an address to the Daughters of the Confederacy in Augusta, Georgia, in 1900. For an account of her own experiences in Georgia during the Civil War, see Rebecca Latimer Felton, Country Life in Georgia in the Days of My Youth (Atlanta: Index Printing Co., 1919).
6. Dolly Lunt Burge, A Woman’s Wartime Journal: An Account of the Passage over Georgia’s Plantation of Sherman’s Army on the March to the Sea, as Recorded in the Diary of Dolly Sumner Lunt (Mrs. Thomas Burge) (New York: Century, 1918).
7. William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1889), 2:254.
8. Karen Stokes, South Carolina Civilians in Sherman’s Path (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2003), 98.
9. Michael Golay, A Ruined Land: The End of the Civil War (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1999), 59.
10. Marc Wortman, The Bonfire: The Siege and Burning of Atlanta (New York: PublicAffairs, 2009), 326.
11. Stokes, South Carolina Civilians, 27.
12. To Ellen Sherman, June 27, 1863, in Home Letters of General Sherman, ed. Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 268.
13. Larry M. Logue, To Appomattox and Beyond: The Civil War Soldier in War and Peace (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996), 24.
14. Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Vintage, 1993), 87.
15. See Mary Boykin Chestnut, Mary Chestnut’s Diary (New York: Penguin, 2011).
16. Noah Andre Trudeau, Southern Storm: Sherman’s March to the Sea (New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), 313.
17. Vasily Grossman, A Writer at War: A Soviet Journalist with the Red Army, 1941–1945 (New York: Vintage, 2007).
18. Andrew S. Coopersmith, Fighting Words: An Illustrated History of Newspaper Accounts of the Civil War (New York: The New Press, 2004), 216–17.
19. Stokes, South Carolina Civilians, 47.
20. Ibid., 46
21. William Gilmore Simms, A City Laid Waste: The Capture, Sack, and Destruction of the City of Columbia (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2005), 90.
22. Weiner, Heritage of Woe, 84.
23. Philip Dray, At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America (New York: Modern Library, 2003), 125.
24. Trudeau, Southern Storm, 155.
25. Henry Hitchcock, Marching with Sherman (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 70–71.
26. William Dusinberre, Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 210.
27. To Ellen Sherman, July 10, 1860, in Howe, Home Letters, 178.
28. David P. Conyngham, Sherman’s March Through the South (New York: Sheldon & Co., 1865), 277.
29. For a detailed account of this grim episode, see Trudeau, Southern Storm, 380–84. Davis was not censured by Sherman for his actions, but they were widely criticized in Washington when they became known and may have contributed to the subsequent decision by Congress not to confirm his promotion. Davis’s behavior at Ebenezer Creek was also criticized by some of his own soldiers, one of whom was moved to observe, “Where can you find in all the annals of plantation cruelty anything more completely inhuman and fiendish than this?” See Joseph T. Glatthaar, The March to the Sea and Beyond: Sherman’s Troops in the Savannah and Carolinas Campaigns (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985), 64.
30. Michael Fellman, “Lincoln and Sherman,” in Lincoln’s Generals, ed. Gabor S. Boritt (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 150.
31. W.E.B Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (State College: Pennsylvania State University, 2006), 18.
32. Stokes, South Carolina Civilians, 77.
33. Ibid., 112–15.
34. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations; or, The Principles of Natural Law (1758), www.lonang.com/exlibris/vattel, bk. 3, chap. 8.
35. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the Civil War (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), 312–13.
36. Ibid., 154–55.
37. Glatthaar, March to the Sea, 37.
38. Mark Grimsley, The Hard Hand of War: Union Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861–1865 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 169.
39. Burke Davis, Sherman’s March: The First Full-Length Narrative of General William T. Sherman’s Devastating March Through Georgia and the Carolinas (New York: Vintage, 1988), 41.
40. Stokes, South Carolina Civilians, 58.
41. John McElroy, Andersonville: A Story of Rebel Military Prisons (Toledo: D.R. Locke, 1879), 393.
42. George W. Pepper, Personal Recollections of Sherman’s Campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas (Zanesville, OH: Hugh Dunne, 1866), 311.
43. George Ward Nichols, The Story of the Great March (New York: Harper & Bros., 1865), 153.
44. Richard Harwell and Philip N. Racine, eds., The Fiery Trail: A Union Officer’s Account of Sherman’s Last Campaigns (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 132.
45. Trudeau, Southern Storm, 213.
46. S.A. McNeil, Personal Recollections of Service in the Army of the Cumberland and Sherman’s Army (Richwood, OH: 1910), 69–70.
47. Hitchcock, Marching with Sherman, 77.
48. Ibid., 125.
5. “MORE PERFECT PEACE”
1. Noah Andre Trudeau, Southern Storm: Sherman’s March to the Sea (New York: HarperPerennial, 2008), 547–48.
2. William T. Sherman, From Atlanta to the Sea, ed. B.H. Liddell Hart (London: Folio Society, 1961), 9.
3. Trudeau, Southern Storm, 526.
4. Alfred Castel, Articles of War: Winners, Losers, and Some Who Were Both in the Civil War (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001), 230. Castel also gives a much more detailed critique of Sherman’s performance during the Atlanta campaign in Decision in the West: The Atlanta Campaign of 1864 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).
5. Wesley Moody, Demon of the Lost Cause: Sherman and Civil War History (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2011), 118.
6. Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe, ed., Home Letters of General Sherman (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 337.
7. Lloyd Lewis, Sherman: Fighting Prophet (New York: Konecky & Konecky, 1932), 499.
8. Archer Jones, Civil War Command and Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat (New York: The Free Press, 1992), 216.
9. Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Vintage, 1993), 369.
10. William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman, 2d ed., 2 vols. (New York: D. Appleton, 1889), 1:293.
11. Frank Moore, ed., Rebellion Record: A Diary of American Events: Documents and Narratives, vol. 9 in Sabin Americana, 1500–1926 (Independence, KY: Gale Digital Collections, 2012), 203.
12. To Ellen Sherman, April 28, 1865, in Howe, Home Letters, 349.
13. Sherman, From Atlanta to the Sea, 402.
14. John H. Kennaway, On Sherman’s Track; or, The South after the War (London: Seeley, Jackson & Halliday, 1867), 106.
15. Karen Stokes, South Carolina Civilians in Sherman’s Path (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2003), 100.
16. See, for example, Alan Conway, The Reconstruction of Georgia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1966). According to Conway, the damage inflicted by Sherman’s army was limited to “little more than a fortieth of the state’s acreage, albeit of its richest areas, and the major part of Georgia remained untouched by actual warfare” (p. 20).
17. Stokes, South Carolina Civilians, 68.
18. Marli F. Weiner, ed., A Heritage of Woe: The Civil War Diary of Grace Elmore, 1861–1868 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 125.
19. “Reconstruction in South Carolina,” New York Times, September 13, 1865.
20. Baron Antoine-Henri de Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G.H. Mendell and W.P. Craighill (West Point, NY: U.S. Military Academy, 1862; Radford, VA: Wilder Publications, 2008), 33.
21. On Reconstruction and the general postwar situation in the South, see Eric Foner’s magisterial Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1988).
22. Carl Schurz, Condition of the South, 1865, 39th Congress, Senate, executive document, 1st session, no. 2, wwnorton.com/college/history/america9/full/docs/CSchurz-South_Report-1865.pdf.
23. Stephen Graham, Children of the Slaves (London: Macmillan, 1920), 158.
24. Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), 160.
25. Sherman to U.S. Grant, December 28, 1866, quoted in Lance Janda, “Shutting the Gates of Mercy: The American Origins of Total War, 1860–1880,” Journal of Military History 59, no. 1 (January 1995): 7–26.
26. For accounts of the Washita battle, see George Bird Grinnell, The Fighting Cheyennes (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915). Also see Stephen E. Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer: The Parallel Lives of Two American Warriors (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1976).
27. Janda, “Shutting the Gates of Mercy,” 21.
28. Ibid.
29. To Ellen Sherman, September 16, 1883, in Howe, Home Letters, 391.
30. Eugene C. Tidball, “No Disgrace to My Country”: The Life of John C. Tidball (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2002).
31. Royster, Destructive War, 392.
32. Edward Caudill and Paul Ashdown, Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 143.
6. SOLDIERS
1. Steven E. Woodworth, Sherman: Lessons in Leadership (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), xi.
2. Michael Pearlman, Warmaking and American Democracy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999), 215.
3. Ibid., 211.
4. On the evolution of the U.S. Army in this period, see Carol Reardon, Soldiers and Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military History, 1865–1920 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990); also see Timothy K. Nenninger, The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881–1918 (Westport, CT: Greenwoood Press, 1978).
5. Reardon, Soldiers and Scholars, 97–98.
6. John Codman Ropes, Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts 10 (1895): 148–51, quoted in J.F.C. Fuller, The Conduct of War, 1789–1961: A Study of the Impact of the French, Industrial, and Russian Revolutions on War and Its Conduct (New York: Da Capo Press, 1992), 110–11.
7. Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippines War: 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 95.
8. Ibid., 60.
9. Louise Barnett, Atrocity and American Justice in Southeast Asia (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2010), 81.
10. For Bell’s circulars, see Robert D. Ramsey III, A Masterpiece of Counterguerrilla Warfare: BG [Brigadier General] J. Franklin Bell in the Philippines, 1901–1902, Long War Series Occasional Paper 25 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2012).
11. Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 264. May attributes much of the death toll caused by Bell’s operations to an increase in malaria, partly because so much livestock had been slaughtered that mosquitoes were more likely to feed off humans.
12. Michael Fellman, In the Name of God and Country: Reconsidering Terrorism in American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010), 230.
13. T.R. Brereton, Educating the U.S. Army: Arthur L. Wagner and Reform, 1875–1905 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), p. 91.
14. Colin Powell with Joseph E. Persico, A Soldier’s Way: An Autobiography (London: Arrow Books, 2001), 87.
15. Bernd Greiner, War Without Fronts: The USA in Vietnam (New York: Vintage, 2010), 251.
16. Kendrick Oliver, The My Lai Massacre in American History and Memory (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 160–61.
17. Charles Royster, The Destructive War: William Tecumseh Sherman, Stonewall Jackson, and the Americans (New York: Vintage, 1993), 358.
18. Oliver, My Lai Massacre, 161.
19. On search-and-destroy operations and U.S. war atrocities, see Greiner, War Without Fronts.
20. Julian J. Ewell and Ira A. Hunt Jr., Sharpening the Combat Edge: The Use of Analysis to Reinforce Military Judgment (Washington, DC: Department of the Army, 1995).
21. Jonathan Schell, The Real War (New York: Random House, 1988), 244.
22. James William Gibson, The Perfect War: Technowar in Vietnam (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2000), 234–37.
23. Ibid., 234.
24. Russell F. Weigley, The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), 204–5.
25. Basil Henry Liddell Hart, Strategy, 2d ed. (New York: Meridian Books, 1967), 212.
26. Fuller, Conduct of War, 243.
27. For an analysis of Chaffee’s career and U.S. mechanized warfare before World War II, see George F. Hoffman, Through Mobility We Conquer: The Mechanization of U.S. Cavalry (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2006).
28. Ladislas Farago, Patton: Ordeal and Triumph (Yardley, PA: Westholme Publishing, 2005), 283–84.
29. Basil Henry Liddell Hart, The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart, vol. 1 (London: Cassell, 1965), 170.
30. Dwight Eisenhower, D Day to VE Day 1944–45: General Eisenhower’s Report on the Invasion of Europe, ed. Tim Coates (London: Stationery Office, 2001), 155. On the Third Army’s campaigns in Normandy, see Martin Blumenson, D-Day and the Battle for Normandy: Breakout and Pursuit, U.S. Army Green Book (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1993).
31. Farago, Patton, 492.
32. General staff of Douglas MacArthur, Reports of General MacArthur: The Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 1994), 100.
33. After-action report on Manila quote from Thomas M. Huber, “The Battle of Manila: Tactical Lessons Relevant to Current Military Operations” (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, n.d.), battleofmanila.org/pages/01_huber.htm.
34. Charles B. MacDonald, The Last Offensive: U.S. Army in World War II—The European Theater of Operations (Atlanta: Whitman Publishing, 2012), 262.
35. The leftist historian and activist Howard Zinn also participated in this raid as a pilot and later wrote a powerful account of it in tracing his subsequent evolution toward pacifism. See Howard Zinn, The Bomb (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2010).
36. James Reston Jr., Sherman’s March and Vietnam (New York: Macmillan, 1984), 16.
37. John T. Smith, The Linebacker Raids: The Bombing of North Vietnam, 1972 (London: Arms & Armour Press, 1998), 11.
38. Fuller, Conduct of War, 241.
39. William C. Sherman, Air Warfare (repr., Maxwell Air Force Base, AL: Air University Press, 2002), 6.
40. For an account of these debates, see Michael Sherry, The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987).
41. Ibid., 135.
42. Adrian R. Lewis, The American Culture of War, 2d ed. (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011), 40.
43. Conrad C. Crane, Bombs, Cities, and Civilians: American Airpower Strategy in World War II (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 33.
44. U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Franklin D’Olier, chair, Morale Division, The United States Strategic Bombing Survey: The Effects of Strategic Bombing on German Morale, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Strategic Bombing Survey, 1947), babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015008510300;view=2up;seq=4; and United States Strategic Bombing Survey Summary Report (European War) (Washington, DC: Strategic Bombing Survey, 1945), www.anesi.com/ussbs02.htm.
45. Robert F. Dorr, Mission to Berlin: The Men Who Took the War to the Heart of Hitler’s Reich (Osceola, WI: Zenith Press, 2011), 184.
46. John Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986), 41.
47. Sherry, Rise of American Air Power, 315.
48. Ibid., 282.
49. Ibid., 287–88.
50. Interestingly, in his co-written book Wilson’s Ghost, McNamara cites Sherman’s “War is cruelty” message again, in an argument about the conduct of war and a critique of the American self-image of always fighting on the side of good versus evil in war. See Robert McNamara and James G. Blight, Wilson’s Ghost: Reducing the Risk of Conflict, Killing, and Catastrophe in the 21st Century (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003), 130. As the title suggests, the book is primarily concerned with preventing wars rather than escalating their destructiveness.
51. This was the central thesis of Gar Alperovitz’s Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Potsdam (London: Pluto Press, 1994).
52. Reginald Thompson, Cry Korea: The Korean War—a Reporter’s Notebook (London: MacDonald, 1951), 94.
53. Conrad C. Crane, Airpower Strategy in Korea, 1950–1953 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 47.
54. Bruce Cumings, The Korean War: A History (New York: Modern Library, 2011), Kindle loc. 2446.
55. Crane, Airpower Strategy, 116.
56. Gibson, Perfect War, 97.
57. Mike Gravel, ed., The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam, vol. 4 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 224.
58. For an account of the raids and an analysis of the debates about their strategic impact, see Smith, Linebacker Raids. For a revisionist rebuttal of suggestions that such attacks constituted terror bombing, see Guenter Lewy, America in Vietnam (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 410–17.
7. CIVILIANS
1. John Bennett Walters, “General William T. Sherman and Total War,” Journal of Southern History 14, no. 4 (November 1948): 447–80.
2. Charles Edmund Vetter, Sherman: Merchant of Terror, Advocate of Peace (Gretna, LA: Pelican, 1992), 299.
3. David Bell, The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Warfare as We Know It (Boston: Mariner Books, 2008), 160.
4. See Detlef Bald, “Traditions in Military-Strategic Thought in Germany and the Problem of Deterrence,” SOWI-Arbeitspapier, German Armed Forces Institute for Social Research, 1989.
5. For an analysis of Ludendorff’s concept of total war, see Jan Willem Honig, “The Idea of Total War: From Clausewitz to Ludendorff,” in The Pacific War as Total War: Proceedings of the 2011 International Forum on War History (Tokyo: National Institute for Defence Studies, 2012), www.nids.go.jp/english/event/forum/pdf/2011/08.pdf, 29–41.
6. George Ward Nichols, The Story of the Great March (New York: Harper & Bros., 1865), 277.
7. John Lawrence Tone, War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 210.
8. Ibid., 223.
9. Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, Mi Mando en Cuba: Historia Militar y Política de la Última Guerra Separatista, por el General Weyler (Madrid: F. Gonzalez Rojas, 1910), 13–15.
10. Halik Kochanski, Sir Garnet Wolseley: Victorian Hero (London: Hambledon Press, 1999), 71.
11. G.F.R. Henderson, The Civil War: A Soldier’s View, ed. Jay Luvaas (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), 211.
12. Tabitha Jackson, The Boer War (London: Channel 4 Books, 1999), 132.
13. Ibid., 133.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., 130.
16. Ibid., 145. Sheridan does not mention this episode in his own account of the war. See Philip H. Sheridan, “An American Account of the Franco-Prussian War: ‘From Gravelotte to Sedan.’” Scribner’s Magazine 4, no. 5 (November 1888): 514–35.
17. There is no evidence that the American Civil War had any particular impact on the Prussian army’s decision to resort to harsh methods in the Franco-Prussian War, nor that Prussian harshness had any reciprocal effect on the U.S. Army. Sheridan’s visit reflected American interest in Prussian mobilization methods and organization, particularly its staff college system, rather than any admiration or concern with irregular warfare. See Jay Luvaas, “The Influence of the German Wars of Unification on the United States,” in Stig Forster and Jorg Nagler, eds., On the Road to Total War: The American Civil War and the German Wars of Unification, 1861–1871 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 597–619.
18. See J.M. Spaight, War Rights on Land (London: Macmillan, 1911).
19. On both campaigns, see Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa 1876–1912 (London: Abacus, 1991).
20. J.H. Morgan, The German War Book: Being “The Usages of War on Land” Issued by the Great General Staff of the German Army (London: John Murray, 1915), 55.
21. For a full account of the occupation, see Larry Zuckerman, The Rape of Belgium: The Untold Story of World War I (New York: New York University Press, 2004).
22. The complex and often fraught debates that accompanied the elaboration of these rules can be found in J.M. Scott, The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, Translation of the Official Texts: The Conference of 1899 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1920).
23. Henry Fawcett, Manual of Political Economy, 7th ed., 1888, quoted in Alan S. Milward, War, Economy and Society 1939–1945 (London: Allen Lane, 1976), 294.
24. Daniel Rothbart et al., eds., Civilians and Modern War: Armed Conflict and the Ideology of Violence (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2012), 34.
25. Andrew Cockburn, “A Very Perfect Instrument,” Harper’s, February 9, 2014, harpers.org/archive/2013/09/a-very-perfect-instrument.
26. J.F.C. Fuller, The Conduct of War, 1789–1961: A Study of the Impact of the French, Industrial, and Russian Revolutions on War and Its Conduct (New York: Da Capo Press, 1992), 279.
27. Ibid., 281.
28. Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler’s Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 153.
29. On these operations and the overlapping of counterinsurgency with purges of “political and racial enemies,” see Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front 1941–45 (New York: Macmillan, 1985).
30. Ibid., 141.
31. Chalmers A. Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1937–1945 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1963), 56.
32. Lincoln Li, The Japanese Army in North China 1937–1941: Problems of Political and Economic Control (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1975), 209. See also Chong Sik Lee, Counterinsurgency in Manchuria: The Japanese Experience, 1931–1940 (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1967), www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM5012.html.
33. Major Sean Condron, ed., Operational Law Handbook (Charlottesville, VA: U.S. Army Judge Advocate General’s Legal Center and School, 2011), 16, www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/operational-law-handbook_2011.pdf.
34. Basil Henry Liddell Hart, The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart, vol. 1 (London: Cassell, 1965), 165.
35. Ibid., 170.
36. James S. Corum, The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans Von Seeckt and German Military Reform (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 141–42. Other critiques of Liddell Hart have made similar accusations. See John J. Meirsheimer, Liddell Hart and the Weight of History (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988). For a critique of Meirsheimer’s critique, see Jay Luvaas, “Liddell Hart and the Meirsheimer Critique: A ‘Pupil’s’ Retrospective,” Parameters 20 (March 1990): 9–19, http://strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pubs/parameters/articles/1990/1990%20lvaas.pdf.
37. Corum, Roots of Blitzkrieg, 30–31.
38. Guderian mentions Liddell Hart only in passing in his Achtung-Panzer! The Development of Tank Warfare (London: Cassell, 1999) and thus seems to bear out Corum’s thesis that, whatever he said later, the Nazi general was more interested in the practical and technical details of tank warfare proposed by Fuller than in Liddell Hart’s “indirect” proposals.
39. On Nazi counterinsurgency operations in the Soviet Union and the treatment of “political and racial enemies,” see Bartov, Eastern Front, and Robert Kershaw, War Without Garlands: Operation Barbarossa 1941/42 (London: Ian Allan, 2000).
40. Daniel Marston, ed., The Pacific War Companion: From Pearl Harbour to Hiroshima (London: Osprey, 2005), 130–32.
41. Dr. Sam Sarkesian, “Low-Intensity Conflict, Concepts, Principles, and Policy Guidelines,” Air University Review 36, no. 2 (January–February 1985): 4–24.
42. The Dellums Committee Hearings on War Crimes in Vietnam: An Inquiry into Command Responsibility in Southeast Asia, cited in Louise Barnett, Atrocity and American Justice in Southeast Asia (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2010), 174.
43. Edgar L. Jones, “One War Is Enough,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1946, www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/unbound/bookauth/battle/jones.htm.
44. William I. Hitchcock., The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe (New York: The Free Press, 2008), 194. Such events never reached the scale of the vengeful mass rapes carried out by the Red Army, but they were frequent enough for the JAG to lament, “We were members of a conquering army, and we came as conquerors. The rate of reported rapes sprang skyward.”
45. Earl F. Zeimke, The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany, 1944–1946 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1975).
46. Reginald Thompson, Cry Korea: The Korean War—a Reporter’s Notebook (London: MacDonald, 1951), 113–14.
47. Jonathan Schell, The Real War (New York: Random House, 1988), 240.
48. United States Air Force Pamphlet 110–31, International Law–The Conduct of Armed Conflict and Air Operations (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Air Force, 1976), 1–3.
49. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (New York: W.W. Norton, 1994), xxiii.
50. Smedley D. Butler, War Is a Racket (1935; repr., Port Townsend, WA: Feral House, 2003).
51. On the Veracruz occupation, see Jack Sweetman, The Landing at Veracruz: 1914 (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute, 1961).
52. U.S. Marine Corps, Small Wars Manual, 1940, 264, www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/swm/index.htm.
53. War Department, Basic Field Manual (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1940), usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/docrepository/FM27_5_1940.pdf.
54. On the Haitian occupation, see Mary A. Renda, Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
8. THE NEW AMERICAN WAY OF WAR
1. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Joint Vision 2010 (Washington, DC: Defense Department, 1996), www.dtic.mil/jv2010/jv2010.pdf.
2. On Sherman’s abrasive relationship with the press, see John F. Marszalek, Sherman’s Other War: The General and the Civil War Press (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1981).
3. Maruja Torres, “La última foto de Juantxu Rodríguez,” El País, August 6, 2006, elpais.com/diario/2006/08/06/domingo/1154836356_850215.html.
4. Many of these claims are contained in a 1992 documentary, The Panama Deception, topdocumentaryfilms.com/the-panama-deception. See also Independent Commission of Inquiry on the U.S. Invasion of Panama, The U.S. Invasion of Panama: The Truth Behind Operation Just Cause (Boston: South End Press, 1991).
5. Kenneth Roth and Juan E. Méndez, The Laws of War and the Conduct of the Panama Invasion (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1990). See also Americas Watch, Human Rights in Post-Invasion Panama: Justice Delayed Is Justice Denied (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991), www.hrw.org/reports/1991/panama/#P94_36246. Both reports contain casualty statistics that more or less correspond with the military’s low estimates.
6. Ronald H. Cole, Operation Just Cause: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Panama, February 1988-January 1990, Joint History Office, Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1995, www.dtic.mil/doctrine/doctrine/history/justcaus.pdf. See also David B. Haight, Operation JUST CAUSE: Foreshadowing Example of Joint Vision 2010 Concepts in Practice (Newport, RI: Naval War College, 1998).
7. See Tan Suan Jow, “Gulf War: A Case Study of Indirect Strategy,” Journal of the Singapore Armed Forces 21, no. 1 (January–March 1998), www.mindef.gov.sg/safti/pointer/back/journals/1998/Vol24_1/6.htm. See also Alistair Finlan, The Gulf War 1991 (London: Osprey Publishing, 2003).
8. Thomas A. Kearney and Eliot A. Cohen, Gulf War Air Power Survey Summary Report (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1993), 249, www.afhso.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-100927–061.pdf.
9. Public Broadcasting Service, “The Gulf War: Oral History—Norman Schwarzkopf,” Frontline, transcript, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/gulf/oral/schwarzkopf/1.html.
10. Barton Gelman, “Allied Air War Struck Broadly in Iraq: Officials Acknowledge Strategy Went Beyond Purely Military Targets,” Washington Post, June 23, 1991.
11. Ramsey Clark et al., War Crimes: A Report on United States War Crimes Against Iraq to the Commission of Inquiry for the International War Crimes Tribunal (University Park, MD: Maisonneuve Press, 1992), deoxy.org/wc/wctoc.htm.
12. Human Rights Watch, Needless Deaths in the Gulf War (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991), www.hrw.org/reports/1991/06/01/needless-deaths-gulf-war.
13. For a revisionist analysis of casualty statistics tending toward the lower estimates, see John Mueller, “The Perfect Enemy: Assessing the Gulf War,” Security Studies 5, no. 1 (Autumn 1995): 77–117, poIiticalscience.osu.edu/faculty/jmueller/PERFECT.PDF.
14. Martti Ahtisaari, “Report to the Secretary General on Humanitarian Needs in Kuwait and Iraq in the Immediate Post-Crisis Environment,” March 20, 1991, www.un.org/depts/oip/background/reports/s22366.pdf.
15. Beth Osborne Daponte, “A Case Study in Estimating Casualties from War and Its Aftermath: The 1991 Persian Gulf War,” PSR Quarterly 3, no. 2 (1993): www.ippnw.org/pdf/mgs/psr-3-2-daponte.pdf.
16. William M. Arkin, Damian Durant, and Marianne Cherni, On Impact: Modern Warfare and the Environment: A Case Study of the Gulf War, www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/1991/6/on-impact-modern-warfare-and.pdf.
17. See Hugo Slim, Killing Civilians: Method, Madness, and Morality in War (London: C. Hurst, 2008), Kindle loc. 493.
18. Andrew Cockburn, “A Very Perfect Instrument,” Harper’s, February 9, 2014, harpers.org/archive/2013/09/a-very-perfect-instrument.
19. Ibid.
20. John Mueller and Karl Mueller, “Sanctions of Mass Destruction,” Foreign Affairs, May–June 1999, www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/55009/john-mueller-and-karl-mueller/sanctions-of-mass-destruction.
21. David Rieff, “Were Sanctions Right?” New York Times Magazine, July 27, 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/07/27/magazine/were-sanctions-right.html.
22. Wayne K. Maybard, “Spears vs Rifles: The New Equation of Military Power,” Parameters, Spring 1993, 49–58.
23. The Pentagon’s futurist in chief, Andrew Marshall, was often concerned with this possibility, as was the neoconservative think tank the Project for the New American Century (PNAC), with its September 2000 call for a huge rearmament program, Rebuilding America’s Defenses: Strategy, Forces, and Resources for a New Century, www.informationclearinghouse.info/pdf/RebuildingAmericasDefenses.pdf.
24. Chris Hables Gray, Postmodern War: The New Politics of Conflict (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 1991).
25. See Christopher Bolkcom and John Pike, “Hyperwar: The Legacy of Desert Storm,” chap. 8 in Aircraft Proliferation: Issues for Concern (Washington, DC: Federation of American Scientists, 1993), www.fas.org/spp/aircraft/part08.htm.
26. John A. Warden III, “Air War for the Twenty-First Century,” in Battlefield of the Future: Twenty-First Century Warfare Issues, ed. Barry R. Schneider and Lawrence E. Grinter (Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, AL: Air War College, 1998).
27. Harlan Ullman and James Wade Jr., Shock and Awe: Achieving Rapid Dominance (Fort Leslie J. McNair, DC: National Defense University, Institute for National Strategic Studies, 1996), www.dodccrp.org/files/Ullman_Shock.pdf.
28. William S. Lind et al., “The Changing Face of War: Into the Fourth Generation,” Marine Corps Gazette 73, no. 10 (October 1989).
29. Richard Szafranski, “Parallel War and Hyperwar: Is Every Want a Weakness?” in Schneider and Grinter, Battlefield of the Future.
30. Jasmina Tešanović, The Diary of a Political Idiot (Berkeley, CA: Midnight Editions, 2000).
31. Wayne A. Larsen, Serbian Information Operations During Operation Allied Force (Montgomery, AL: Air Command and Staff College, Air University, Maxwell Air Force Base, 2000), www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a393976.pdf.
32. Human Rights Watch, Civilian Deaths in the Kosovo Air Campaign, February 2000, www.hrw.org/reports/2000/nato.
33. Statement of General (Ret.) Klaus Naumann, German Army, Former Chairman NATO, Senate Armed Services Committee Hearing on Kosovo After-Action Review, November 3, 1999, Congressional Record, November 5, 1999, 28704.
34. Wesley Clark, Waging Modern War: Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Future of Combat (New York: PublicAffairs, 2001).
35. John Barry and Evan Thomas, “The Kosovo Cover-Up,” Newsweek, May 15, 2000.
9. WARS WITHOUT WAR
1. Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Ware, UK: Wordworth Editions, 1997), 6.
2. Roger J. Spiller, Sharp Corners: Urban Operations at Century’s End (Fort Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2000), 125.
3. Dan Balz and Mark Leibovich, “Cheney Mocks Kerry’s ‘Sensitive’ War on Terror,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 13, 2004.
4. National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism, Department of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2005.
5. See Mary Harper, Getting Somalia Wrong? Faith and War in a Shattered State (London: Zed Books, 2012).
6. For example, General William Odon, former head of the National Security Agency, who in 2006 called Iraq “the greatest strategic failure in American history.” Patrick Cockburn, The Occupation: War and Resistance in Iraq (London: Verso, 2007), 4.
7. Gregory Fonenant, E.J. Degen, and David Tohn, On Point: The United States Army in Operation Iraqi Freedom Through 01 May, 2003 (self-published, 2012), 50.
8. Paul Rieckhoff, Chasing Ghosts: A Soldier’s Fight for America from Baghdad to Washington (New York: New American Library Caliber, 2006), 169.
9. For an analysis of the “Carthaginian” media and political representations that preceded the two assaults on Fallujah, see Matt Carr, “The Barbarians of Fallujah,” Race and Class 50, no. 1 (July 2008): 21–36.
10. Michael Schwartz, War Without End: The Iraq War in Context (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2008), 112.
11. Ibid., 114.
12. Ibid., 127.
13. Aaron Glantz, Winter Soldier: Iraq and Afghanistan—Eyewitness Accounts of the Occupations (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2008). See also Chris Hedges and Laila Al-Arian, “The Other War: Iraq Vets Bear Witness,” July 9, 2007, The Nation, www.thenation.com/article/other-war-iraq-vets-bear-witness-0#.
14. Sean Rayment, “US Tactics Condemned by British Officers,” The Telegraph, April 11, 2004, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/1459048/US-tactics-condemned-by-British-officers.html.
15. Michael Schwartz, “Falluja: City Without a Future?” in “Tomgram: Michael Schwartz, Desolate Falluja,” TomDispatch, January 14, 2005, www.tomdispatch.com/post/2124.
16. Dexter Filkins, “The Fall of the Warrior-King,” New York Times, October 23, 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/10/23/magazine/23sassaman.html?pagewanted=all.
17. For Sassaman’s critique of the war, see Nathan Sassaman, Warrior King: The Triumph and Betrayal of an American Commander in Iraq (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2008).
18. Michael Hirsch and John Barry, “‘The Salvador Option’: Pentagon Plans to Train Iraqi Death Squads,” Newsweek, January 8, 2005.
19. Department of the Army, Foreign Internal Defense Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Special Forces, FM 31-20-3 (Fort Bragg, NC: U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School, 1994).
20. Fred Kaplan, The Insurgents: David Petraeus and the Plot to Change the American Way of War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013), 161. For an overview of FM 3-24 within the broader historical context of U.S. war-fighting doctrine, see Walter E. Kretchik, U.S. Army Doctrine: From the American Revolution to the War on Terror (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2011).
21. See, for example, Thomas Ricks, The Gamble: General David Petraeus and the American Military Adventure in Iraq, 2006–2008. For Ricks, Petraeus and his colleagues represented something of a Phoenix-like salvation of the war effort from the catastrophic failures that he described in his earlier book Fiasco: The American Military Adventure in Iraq (2006).
22. Kaplan, Insurgents, 325.
23. Jordan C.S. Stern, “Civil Military Operations & Military Information Support Operations Coordination: A Non-Kinetic Ballast for Disciplined Counterinsurgency Operations,” Small Wars Journal, November 1, 2011, smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/civil-military-operations-military-information-support-operations-coordination.
24. Full text of Tunnell’s letter: www.michaelyon-online.com/images/pdf/secarmy_redacted-redux.pdf.
25. Mark Boal, “The Kill Team: How U.S. Soldiers in Afghanistan Murdered Innocent Civilians,” Rolling Stone, March 27, 2011, www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-kill-team-20110327.
26. Gian P. Gentile, “Let’s Build an Army to Win All Wars,” Joint Forces Quarterly, no. 52, 1st quarter 2009.
27. Edward Luttwak, “Dead End: Counterinsurgency Warfare as Military Malpractice,” Harper’s, February 2007.
28. Gian Gentile, Wrong Turn: America’s Deadly Embrace of Counterinsurgency (New York: The New Press, 2013). There is no space here to do justice to Gentile’s sophisticated and wide-ranging indictment of COIN and the misreading of history that he believed was primarily responsible for Petraeus’s “wrong turn.” Essentially, his critique is a rejection of “nation-building” wars and a call for more realistic strategic objectives, but Gentile also strongly rejects the new doctrinal preference for population protection rather than physical destruction, which he regards as a deviation from the U.S. military’s core purpose.
29. Robert Gates, acceptance speech for Marshall Medal awarded by Association of the United States Army, Arlington, VA, October 2013, www.ausa.org/meetings/2013/AnnualMeeting/Pages/story49.aspx.
30. David Rohde, “The Obama Doctrine,” Foreign Policy, February 27, 2012, www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/02/27/the_obama_doctrine.
31. Jo Becker and Scott Shane, “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will,” New York Times, May 29, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/05/29/world/obamas-leadership-in-war-on-al-qaeda.html?pagewanted=all.
32. Will I Be Next? U.S. Drone Strikes in Pakistan (London: Amnesty International, 2013).
33. These testimonies aroused little political or media interest. Only five members of Congress attended the briefing.
34. Medea Benjamin, Drone Warfare: Killing By Remote Control (London: Verso, 2013), 55.
35. International Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Clinic at Stanford Law School and Global Justice Clinic at NYU School of Law, Living Under Drones: Death, Injury, and Trauma to Civilians from US Drone Practices in Pakistan, www.livingunderdrones.org/download-report.
36. U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Vision 2020, America’s Military: Preparing for Tomorrow, www.fs.fed.us/fire/doctrine/genesis_and_evolution/source_materials/joint_vision_2020.pdf.
37. Nagl made this statement on the 2011 PBS Frontline program “Kill/Capture,” by Stephen Grey and Dan Edge, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/afghanistan-pakistan/kill-capture/transcript.
38. For further discussion of futuristic American warfare, see Matt Carr, “Slouching Towards Dystopia: The New Military Futurism,” Race & Class 51, no. 3 (January 2010): 13–32.
39. Thomas P.M. Barnett, The Pentagon’s New Map: War and Peace in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Berkley Books, 2004), 323–25.
40. Ralph Peters, “Virtuous Destruction, Decisive Speed,” discussion paper for NIC 2020 project, May 17, 2004, www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cia/nic2020/destruction.pdf.
41. Noah Shachtman and Spencer Ackerman, “U.S. Military Taught Officers: Use ‘Hiroshima’ Tactics for ‘Total War’ on Islam,” Wired, May 10, 2012, www.wired.com/dangerroom/2012/05/total-war-islam.
42. Dan Plesch and Martin Butcher, Considering a War with Iran: A Discussion Paper on WMD in the Middle East, School of Oriental and African Studies, Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, University of London, 2007, www.cisd.soas.ac.uk/Files/docs/11202639-iran-study-07.07.pdf.
43. Robert Martinage, Strategy for the Long Haul: Special Operations Forces: Future Challenges and Opportunities (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessment, 2008), viii.
44. Mark Antony De Wolfe Howe, ed., Home Letters of General Sherman (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 227.
EPILOGUE
1. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World (New York: Penguin, 2006), 84.
2. John Robb, Brave New War: The Next Stage of Terrorism and the End of Globalization (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2007).
3. Graeme Goodman, Ishai Menuchin, and Assaf Oron, No Second Thoughts: The Changes in Israeli Defense Forces’ Doctrine in Light of Operation Cast Lead (Jerusalem: Public Committee Against Torture in Israel, 2009), www.stoptorture.org.il/files/no%20second%20thoughts_ENG_WEB.pdf.
4. Ibid.
5. Bruce Lawrence, ed., Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden (London: Verso, 2005), 165.
6. Andrew J. Bacevich, The New American Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013).