FIGS, DRIED

Think of white fish—dorade, Dover sole, pompano, skate, snapper—as white meat, and red fish—salmon, tuna—as red meat. Salmon is like pork, and tuna like beef, and both combine better with stronger flavors. Tuna even pairs with some of the same flavors as beef, including black pepper, red wine, and wasabi.
—MICHEL RICHARD, CITRONELLE (WASHINGTON, DC)

I like my fish simply grilled or steamed. I choose fish that have a lot of flavor so very little has to be done to them. I don’t believe you need 10,000 things for a great piece of fish. Dover sole doesn’t need anything. Turbot has a wonderful flavor with no help. We get our baby octopus from Sicily and they have plenty of flavor.
—ODETTE FADA, SAN DOMENICO (NEW YORK CITY)

FISH—IN GENERAL

(See individual fish; Seafood)

Taste: sweet

Function: heating

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–moderate

anise

basil

broths

butter

cream

dill

fennel

fines herbes (i.e., chervil, chives, parsley, tarragon)

garlic

ginger

grapefruit

leeks

lemon: juice, zest

lemongrass

lemon verbena

lime: juice, zest

parsley

peas (accompaniment)

Onion-Crusted White Fish with Tomato-Water Sauce
—Michel Richard, Citronelle (Washington, DC)

Flavor Affinities

fish + ginger + lemongrass

fish + herbs + white wine

fish + onions + tomatoes

FISH SAUCE

Taste: salty

Weight: light

Volume: loud

lime, juice

sauces, dipping

shrimp

Southeast Asian cuisines

spring rolls

sugar

Thai cuisine

Vietnamese cuisine

vegetables

FIVE-SPICE POWDER

Taste: sweet

Weight: light

Volume: quiet–moderate

beef

chicken

Chinese cuisine

duck

pork

stews

stir-fries

Flavor Affinities

cinnamon + cloves + fennel seeds + star anise + Szechuan peppercorns

Flounder Wrapped in Spring Roll Paper Served with House-Made Egg Noodles, Thai Green Curry–Coconut Milk Broth with Snow Peas, Yuzu Lime, and Honey Mushrooms
—Bob Kinkead, Colvin Run (Vienna, Virginia)

Sesame-Flavored Flounder and Wakame Seaweed Soup
—Kaz Okochi, Kaz Sushi Bistro (Washington, DC)

FLOUNDER

Season: summer

Weight: light

Volume: quiet

Techniques: bake, broil, deepfry, fry, poach, sauté, steam, stir-fry

almonds

basil

bread crumbs or cracker crumbs

butter

capers

chili sauce

chives

coconut milk

corn

cornmeal (e.g., as a crust)

crab

curry, green

dill

lemon

lime

Mediterranean cuisine

miso

noodles

olive oil

onions, Vidalia

pasta

peas

pepper, black

ramps

salt

seaweed, esp. konbu

shiso

ume (Japanese plum)

wine, white

yuzu

zucchini

Flavor Affinities

flounder + capers + lemon

flounder + shiso + ume

flounder + konbu seaweed + shiso

FOIE GRAS

Season: autumn

Weight: heavy

Volume: moderate

Techniques: braise, sauté, terrine

allspice

APPLES

apricots

Armagnac

bacon

brandy

cabbage

cherries

chives

chocolate

cognac

endive

figs: dried, fresh

French cuisine

ginger

grapes

leeks

lemon

mangoes

miso

truffles and truffle oil, esp. white

vinegar: balsamic, cider

Flavor Affinities

foie gras + cherries + balsamic vinegar

foie gras + cherries + pistachios

foie gras + strawberries + black pepper

Foie Gras with Roasted Plums
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

Foie Gras Sushi with Plum-Wine Jelly
—Kaz Okochi, Kaz Sushi Bistro (Washington, DC)

Seared Hudson Valley Foie Gras with Caramelized Three-Pear Salad
—Jimmy Schmidt, at the 2003 James Beard Awards gala reception

I found a recipe for olive oil cake at the same time that I was perfecting making a foie gras mousse that was pliable to the point that it could be made into an icing. So, I created a savory cake topped with the icing. Then one day while I was online I heard someone mention Twinkies, and the next thing I knew I was ordering real Twinkie pans online. Three days later, Twinkies stuffed with foie gras was born. I serve it with fresh strawberries and black pepper. It seems like everything has been done already, but I like to think I am the only person working with Twinkies.
—BOB IACOVONE, CUVÉE (NEW ORLEANS)

FRENCH CUISINE—IN GENERAL

beef

cheese

CREAM

eggs

herbs

mustards

onions

parsley

pastries

pork

potatoes

poultry

roasted meats

SAUCES

sausages

sautéed dishes

seafood

shallots

spirits

STOCK

tarragon

thyme

truffles, black

veal

vinegars

wheat, esp. as flour

WINE

Flavor Affinities

butter + cheese + stock

butter + cheese + wine

butter + herbs

cream + herbs

herbs + stock

herbs + wine

Tarte flambée is a dish that is 200 years old and was originally made by farmers in Alsace in the village’s wood-burning oven used for baking bread. The tarte flambée developed from what was on hand on the farm: cheese and cream from the cow, pork from the pig, and onions from the field, which they added to some dough. Since we don’t have a wood-burning oven [in the middle of Manhattan], we have to tweak the recipe from the classic. We have to tweak the cream because if we don’t, it breaks and just becomes grease. Instead, I use a mix of fromage blanc, cream, and sour cream so I can get the same result as cream in the original. And to compensate for not having a fire, I use an applewood-smoked bacon.
—GABRIEL KREUTHER, THE MODERN (NEW YORK CITY)

FRENCH CUISINE, NORTHERN

apples: cider, fruit, juice buckwheat (key ingredient in crepes)

BUTTER

cabbage

Calvados

charcuterie

cheese: Camembert

CREAM

Flavor Affinities

bacon + cheese + cream

FRENCH CUISINE, SOUTHERN

(aka Provençal Cuisine)

anchovies

anise

basil

beef, esp. stewed

bell peppers

chicken, esp. grilled

fish, esp. grilled

garlic

grilled dishes

herbes de Provence

lamb, esp. roasted

lavender

marjoram

meats

mustard

OLIVE OIL

olives

pâtés

pork

rosemary

sage

shellfish

soups

tomatoes

vegetables

wine

Flavor Affinities

basil + garlic + olive oil + Parmesan cheese

basil + olive oil + tomatoes

bell peppers + eggplant + garlic + onions + tomatoes + zucchini

chicken + garlic + olives + onions + tomatoes

garlic + egg yolk + lemon + olive oil + saffron

marjoram + rosemary + sage + thyme (aka herbes de Provence)

olives + basil + capers + garlic + olive oil (aka tapenade)

pork + anise + marjoram + thyme

seafood + garlic + olive oil + tomatoes

FRESHNESS

Season: spring–summer

Tips: Listed herbs are always used fresh (with little or no cooking), and add a note of freshness to a dish. Other listed flavors add a bright note to a dish. For the opposite, see listing for Slow-Cooked.

basil

chives

cilantro

citrus

dill

fennel pollen

mint

tarragon

FRISÉE

(a fine-leaved variety of curly endive)

Season: year-round

Taste: sweet, bitter

Weight: light

Volume: quiet

Techniques: raw, wilt

almonds

anchovies

avocado

bacon / lardons

basil

bell peppers: red, yellow

beets

CHEESE: BLUE, GOAT, PARMESAN, ROQUEFORT

cherries, dried

chervil

chives

cilantro

croutons (accent)

cucumbers

eggs, esp. poached

endive

fat: bacon, duck

garlic

ginger

grapefruit

lemon, juice

lettuces: red oak leaf, red leaf

lime, juice

maple syrup

mushrooms, white

mustard, Dijon

oil: canola, grapeseed, hazelnut, walnut

olive oil

olives

onions, red

orange, juice

parsley, flat-leaf

pepper: black, white

salads, esp. warm

salt: kosher, sea

scallops

seafood

shallots

tangerines and tangerine juice

tarragon

tomatoes

vinaigrette

vinegar: sherry, white wine

walnuts (accent)

watercress

Salad “Lyonnaise”: Italian Frisée, Applewood Slab Bacon, and Warm Poached Egg, Sherry Wine–Dijon Mustard Vinaigrette
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

Warm Frisée and Bacon Salad with Beet Carpaccio and Toasted Walnuts
—Lydia Shire, Locke-Ober Café (Boston)

Frisée and Spinach Salad with Dried Cherries, Blue Cheese, Walnuts, and Maple-Sherry Vinaigrette
—Charlie Trotter, Trotter’s to Go (Chicago)

Flavor Affinities

frisée + anchovies + garlic + Parmesan cheese

frisée + bacon + poached egg

frisée + bacon + Roquefort cheese + garlic + shallots + sherry vinegar

FRUIT, DRIED

(See also Dates, Figs, Raisins, etc.)

Taste: sweet

Tips: If the fruit is hard, steam before using.

apple juice

chocolate

cinnamon

ginger

lemon

nuts

pistachios

vanilla

walnuts

FRUIT, FRESH

(See also specific fruits)

Taste: sweet

Tips: Sugar enhances the natural flavor of fruit.

almonds

ginger, fresh

lemon: juice, zest

sabayon sauce

SUGAR

vanilla

FRUIT, TROPICAL

(See also specific fruits, e.g., Mangoes, Papayas, Pineapples, etc.)

Taste: sweet, sour

bananas

bourbon

caramel

chile peppers

chocolate

chocolate, white

cloves

coconut

coriander

cream and ice cream

five-spice powder

ginger

guava

honey

lemon: juice, zest

lemongrass

LIME: JUICE, ZEST

mangoes

melon, honeydew

mint

orange: juice, zest

pineapple

pomegranates

RUM

spirits, white: gin, vodka

strawberries

sugar: brown, white

vanilla

yogurt

Tropical fruits are strong flavored, and stand up to chocolate better. At the same time, tropical fruits like bananas or mangoes are not overly sweet fruits, so caramel can stand up to them. With tropical fruits, I will use a little lime juice and often rum as well to help give them a little kick. With mangoes, I use a little light brown sugar—or I’ll even blend light brown and white sugar together because I’ll want the flavor but not want it to be too harsh.
—EMILY LUCHETTI, FARALLON (SAN FRANCISCO)

Exotic Fruit Salad with Guava Sauce and Phyllo Galettes
—Dominique and Cindy Duby, Wild Sweets (Vancouver)

Chocolate Custard Cake with Exotic Fruit Gelée and Caramelized Bananas
—Dominique and Cindy Duby, Wild Sweets (Vancouver)

Tropical Fruit Salad with Rosewater and Sweet Tahini Yogurt
—Brad Farmerie, Public (New York City)

Flavor Affinities

tropical fruit + coconut + honey + lime

tropical fruit + ginger + mint + orange + sugar

GAME—IN GENERAL

(See also Rabbit, Venison)

Season: autumn

Weight: heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: braise, roast

Tips: The flavor of cloves adds richness to game.

allspice

cabbage, red

cayenne

cherries

chestnuts

cloves

cranberries, dried

garlic

gin

greens

Italian cuisine

juniper berries

lentils

Madeira

maple syrup

mushrooms, wild

mustard, Dijon

onions

parsley, flat-leaf

pepper, black

salt, sea

stock, beef

sugar, brown

vinegar

wine, red

GARAM MASALA

Function: warming

Tips: Add near the end of the cooking process or before serving.

Indian cuisine

Flavor Affinities

cardamom + black pepper + cinnamon + cloves + coriander + cumin + dried chiles + fennel + mace + nutmeg

GARLIC

Season: year-round

Botanical relatives: chives, leeks, onions, shallots

Function: heating

Weight: light–medium

Volume: moderate (esp. cooked)–loud (esp. raw)

Techniques: grill, raw, roast, sauté

almonds

anchovies

bacon

barbecue

basil

bay leaf

beans

beef

beets

bread

broccoli

cabbage

Cajun cuisine

caraway seeds

cayenne

cheese, Parmesan

chicken

chile peppers

Chinese cuisine

chives

cilantro

coriander

cream, half-and-half

Creole cuisine

cumin

curries

eggplant

eggs

fennel

fennel seeds

fish

French cuisine

ginger

Indian cuisine

Italian cuisine

Korean cuisine

lamb

leeks

LEMON: juice, zest

lemongrass

lentils

lime, juice

mayonnaise

meats

Mediterranean cuisine

Mexican cuisine

Middle Eastern cuisine

pasta and pasta sauces

pepper: black, white

pesto (key ingredient)

salads (e.g., Caesar)

stocks: chicken, vegetable

TOMATOES AND TOMATO SAUCE

vegetables

Vietnamese cuisine

VINEGAR, esp. balsamic, red wine

wine, white

zucchini

When garlic needs to be there, it needs to be there. That includes a lot of dishes, such as lamb. Garlic is also called for with all kinds of vegetables, sauces, pastas, and salads.
—DAVID WALTUCK, CHANTERELLE (NEW YORK CITY)

I use garlic primarily in two ways: infused into olive oil, or served crispy as a garnish. I’ll use the garlic oil for cooking—and even if a dish will have garlic added later, I will start with this oil. For crispy brown garlic, you start by slicing it thinly like a chip. The garlic is then put into cold olive oil and cooked until it is just brown. Then, you add parsley, red pepper flakes, and an acid like lemon juice or vinegar to make a vinaigrette. You can even add some stock like a fumet, which is wonderful, too—served hot, it is great with almost any kind of fish, from something light all the way to oily blue fish.
—ALEXANDRA RAIJ, TÍA POL (NEW YORK CITY)

GEORGIAN CUISINE (RUSSIAN)

fish

garlic

meats

pepper, red ground pickles

pomegranates

vinegar

walnuts

Flavor Affinities

coriander + dill + fenugreek (blue) + garlic + red peppers

garlic + walnuts

GERMAN CUISINE

allspice

anise

bay leaf

beer

bread, rye

caraway seeds

chives

cinnamon

dill: seeds, weed

fish

ginger

horseradish

juniper berries

mace

meats, esp. with fruits

nutmeg

paprika, sweet

parsley

pepper, white

poppy seeds

pork

potatoes

sauerbraten

sauerkraut

sausages

sour cream

sugar

veal

vinegar

Flavor Affinities

caraway + paprika + sour cream

caraway + sauerkraut

cream + horseradish + fish or meat

cream + paprika + poppy seeds

dill + cucumbers

ginger + sauerbraten

juniper berries + game

mace + chicken

nutmeg + potatoes

sugar + vinegar

GIN

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–loud

apple brandy

apricot brandy

basil

blackberries

celery

Champagne

Cucumber and mint is a fashionable combination in cocktails, [especially] those with Hendrick’s gin, which has a cucumber flavor. Cucumber is a flavor that’s distinct yet delicate, and very refreshing. It goes beautifully with a range of foods, from Asian cuisine to smoked salmon.
—JERRI BANKS, COCKTAIL CONSULTANT (NEW YORK CITY)

With gin, or even Martini & Rossi Bianco, I love the combination of blackberries and sage. Blackberries have an indescribable flavor to begin with, and the sage gives them a brooding quality.
—JERRI BANKS, COCKTAIL CONSULTANT (NEW YORK CITY)

Flavor Affinities

gin + apple brandy + lemon juice + orange juice

gin + basil + lemon

gin + blackberries + sage

gin + cilantro + lime

gin + Cointreau + lime + rosemary

gin + cucumber + mint

gin + Earl Grey tea + lemon + sugar

gin + lime + mint

gin + lime + mint + pomegranate

gin + lime + orange

Beefeater: pear

Hendrick’s: cucumber, rose petals

Old Raj: saffron

Zuidam Dry: orange peel

Ginger-Honey Gelato
—Gina DePalma, pastry chef, Babbo (New York City)

Ginger-Lemon Drink: Ginger, Lemon, Sugar, Salt, and Pepper
—Vikram Vij and Meeru Dhalwala, Vij’s (Vancouver)

GINGER

Season: year-round

Taste: sour, hot

Weight: light–medium

Volume: loud

Techniques: bake, stir-fry

allspice

almonds

anise

apples

apricots

Arabic cuisine

ASIAN CUISINES

bananas

basil

bay leaf

beef

bell peppers, red

beverages

butter

caramel

cardamom

carrots

cashews

celery

cheese, ricotta

chicken

chile peppers, esp. jalapeño

CHINESE CUISINE

chocolate, esp. dark, white

cilantro

cinnamon

citrus

cloves

coconut

coriander

crab

cranberries

CREAM AND ICE CREAM

cumin

CURRIES

custards

duck

eggplant

European cuisines

fennel

figs

FISH

fish sauce

five-spice powder (key ingredient)

garlic

grapefruit

guava

hazelnuts

HONEY

Indian cuisine, esp. curries

lemon herbs (e.g., balm, thyme, verbena)

Middle Eastern cuisine

noodles and noodle dishes

North African cuisine

nutmeg

oats

oil: canola, grapeseed

stocks: beef, chicken

strawberries

SUGAR: white, brown

VINEGAR: champagne, cider, rice wine

walnuts

wasabi (e.g., with seafood)

wine, sweet

yogurt

yuzu

Flavor Affinities

ginger + carrot + celery + garlic

ginger + chile peppers + garlic

ginger + chocolate + cream + rum

ginger + cider vinegar + sugar

ginger + cilantro + garlic + scallions

ginger + cream + honey

ginger + lemon + mint

ginger + lemon + pepper + salt + sugar

Ginger and honey is one of my favorite flavor combinations.
—GINA DEPALMA, BABBO (NEW YORK CITY)

I’ll use ginger more for its heat than its sweetness. For example, I’ll juice it to add to a carrot or squash puree, which gives it heat and backbone.
—BRADFORD THOMPSON, MARY ELAINE’S AT THE PHOENICIAN (SCOTTSDALE, ARIZONA)

GINGER, GROUND

Taste: pungent

Function: heating

Weight: light–medium

Volume: moderate–loud

Asian cuisine

baked goods (e.g., breads, cakes, cookies)

bananas

beverages

cardamom

carrots

chicken

chocolate

chutneys

cinnamon

cloves

couscous

cream and ice cream

desserts

fruits

gingerbread (key ingredient)

ham

honey

lemon

meats, esp. braised or stewed

Gingersnap-Lemon Ice Cream Sandwiches
—Emily Luchetti, pastry chef, Farallon (San Francisco)

Ginger is great on its own, but also works great with other flavors. It’s one of those “wake up” flavors that you can hide beneath all sorts of other flavors. I think it works especially well with citrus. It works with yuzu, passion fruit, coconut, banana, and other tropical flavors.
—MICHAEL LAISKONIS, LE BERNARDIN (NEW YORK CITY)

My mom always had candied ginger in the spice cupboard when I was growing up. Today at the restaurant, we take candied ginger and combine it with whatever fruit is in season—from nectarines, to cherries, to quince—and then add Vin Santo to make a sauce for our foie gras. Vin Santo brings nuttiness and candied ginger brings spice that both cut through the fat of the foie gras. I think nectarines and candied ginger are a perfect flavor combination.
—HOLLY SMITH, CAFÉ JUANITA (SEATTLE)

GOAT CHEESE

(See Cheese, Goat)

GRAPEFRUIT

Season: year-round

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: loud

Techniques: bake, broil, raw

arugula

asparagus

avocado

bananas

butter, unsalted

Campari

caramel

cashews

ceviche

Champagne

chicken

coconut

crab

crème fraîche

fish, esp. grilled

fromage blanc

gin

ginger, fresh

Grand Marnier

grenadine syrup

hazelnuts

honey

lemon

lime

macadamia nuts

melons

meringue

mint, fresh

miso

olive oil

onions, esp. spring

orange

papaya

pecans

pineapple

pomegranate

poppy seeds

port

raspberries

rum

salads, esp. fruit

salmon

seafood

seaweed

shrimp

sorbet

star anise

strawberries

SUGAR: brown, white

tarragon

tequila

tomatoes

vanilla

vinaigrette

vinegar, champagne

vodka

walnuts

watercress

wine, sparkling, white

yogurt

Yuzu Cream, Caramelized Rice, Grapefruit, Green Tea Ice Cream, Crisp Meringue, Malted Rum Milk Chocolate Ice Cream
—Michael Laiskonis, pastry chef, Le Bernardin (New York City)

We serve a dish of grapefruit, crab salad, and mint. Grapefruit is sweet and a little bitter, which makes it fun to play with. I like mint in the dish because it refreshes and wakes your palate up. When you get a little taste of mint it brings up the other flavors of the dish.
—GABRIEL KREUTHER, THE MODERN (NEW YORK CITY)

I love tarragon with grapefruit. It is a classic.
—MICHAEL LAISKONIS, LE BERNARDIN (NEW YORK CITY)

I have served a grapefruit and seaweed crab salad with miso dressing. I also like grapefruit with asparagus.
—BRAD FARMERIE, PUBLIC (NEW YORK CITY)

I never mess with the flavor of Concord grapes; I always just make them into a sorbet. I was upstate in my cabin when the first Concord grapes came into season. I wanted sorbet so badly that I cut one of my T-shirts in half to use as a strainer, and then used my broom handle with the shirt to squeeze every last bit of juice from the grapes. The sorbet was awesome!
—JOHNNY IUZZINI, JEAN GEORGES (NEW YORK CITY)

Flavor Affinities

grapefruit + avocado + crème fraîche

grapefruit + caramel + meringue

grapefruit + crab + miso + seaweed

grapefruit + fromage blanc + pomegranate

grapefruit + mint + sugar

grapefruit + star anise + yogurt

GRAPES

Season: summer–autumn

Taste: sweet

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–moderate

almonds

apples

arugula

brandy

cayenne

CHEESE, esp. blue, cow’s milk, goat’s milk

chicken

chocolate, white

cognac

cream

cumin

curry

curry leaf

duck

endive

fennel seeds

fish

game, esp. roasted

garlic

hazelnuts

honey

lemon

mint

mustard seeds

olive oil

paprika

pears

pecans

pistachios

pork, esp. roasted

poultry, esp. roasted

raspberries

rice

rosemary

rum

salads, esp. chicken, fruit, tuna, Waldorf

salt

sour cream

strawberries

sugar

vinegar, sherry

walnuts

wine: red, white

yogurt

GREEK CUISINE

(See also Mediterranean Cuisines)

allspice

anise

basil

bay leaf

beef

bell peppers

CHEESE: FETA, goat, sheep

chicken

cinnamon

cloves

custard

dill

eggplant

eggs

fennel

figs

fish, esp. grilled

GARLIC

grape leaves

honey

kebabs

LAMB

LEMON

meats, esp. grilled, roasted

salads, esp. with mint

Mediterranean “Greek Salad” of Mt. Vikos Feta, Kalamata Olives, Plum Tomatoes, Cucumbers, Torn Mint, and Oregano with Warm Feta Cheese “Turnover”
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

Flavor Affinities

cucumber + dill + garlic + yogurt

dill + lemon

dill + lemon + olive oil

dill + yogurt

eggplant + custard + garlic + meat

eggplant + garlic + olive oil

eggs + lemon

lamb + garlic + lemon + oregano

lemon + olive oil

lemon + olive oil + oregano

lemon + oregano

phyllo dough + honey + nuts

rice + grape leaves

rice + nuts

spinach + feta cheese

tomatoes + cinnamon

yogurt + cinnamon

GREEN BEANS

(See Beans, Green)

GREENS—IN GENERAL

(See also specific greens)

Season: year-round

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium–heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: blanch, raw, sauté, steam

allspice

arugula

bacon

basil

butter

caraway seeds

celery or celery seeds

CHEESE, esp. grated (e.g., Asiago, Jack, Parmesan)

chicory

chili sauce

coriander

corn

curry

dill

eggs, esp. hard-boiled

fennel

GARLIC

ginger

ham

horseradish

leeks

legumes

lemon, juice

mushrooms

mustard, Dijon

nutmeg

nuts, toasted

oil: mustard, nut, peanut, sesame

OLIVE OIL

onions, green

oregano

paprika

parsley

pasta

peaches

pears

pomegranates

potatoes, esp. new and/or red

red pepper flakes

rice

sage

salads

salt, kosher

savory

sesame seeds

shellfish: oysters, esp. fried, shrimp

sweet potatoes

Tabasco sauce

tarragon

thyme

tomatoes

VINEGAR: balsamic, red wine

A Simple Salad of Beautiful Greens, Forelli Pears, Pomegranate, and Saba Balsamic
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

GREENS, COLLARD

Season: winter–spring

Taste: bitter

Botanical relatives: broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi

Weight: medium–heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: boil, braise, steam, stir-fry

GREENS, DANDELION

Season: late spring–early autumn

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate

Techniques: raw, sauté, steam

anchovies

bacon

garlic

mustard, Dijon

oil, peanut

onions

pepper, ground

salads

salt

vinegar

GREENS, KALE

(See Kale)

GREENS, MUSTARD

Season: winter–spring

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium–heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: boil, braise, grill, stew, wilt

It’s hard to even think about bitter greens without thinking about toasted nuts. You can get the flavor from the nuts themselves, or from toasted nut oils, which are balanced by the bright fruitiness of cider vinegar.
—MICHAEL ANTHONY, GRAMERCY TAVERN (NEW YORK CITY)

Asian cuisine

bacon

black-eyed peas

Chinese cuisine

ham hocks

oil, sesame

olive oil

onions

prosciutto

salads

Southern cuisine (American)

soy sauce

Flavor Affinities

mustard greens + bacon + onions

mustard greens + garlic + olive oil + prosciutto

mustard greens + sesame oil + soy sauce

GREENS, SALAD

(See also Lettuce, Sorrel, Watercress, etc.)

Season: late spring

bacon

cheese

croutons

fruit: apples, pears

garlic

olive oil

pepper, black

salt

vinegar: red wine, sherry

GREENS, TURNIP

Season: fall–winter

Techniques: boil, braise

bacon

black-eyed peas

eggs

ham hocks

onions

Turnip Green and Onion Soup with Poached Egg
—Judy Rodgers, Zuni Café (San Francisco)

A salad is a tricky thing to season. If you put the salt on too early, it will wilt the greens. You have to be careful not to leach it of its life!
—TRACI DES JARDINS, JARDINIÈRE (SAN FRANCISCO)

Wild Dandelion Greens with Anchovy Vinaigrette
—David Pasternak, Esca (New York City)

GRILLED DISHES

artichokes

asparagus

bell peppers

chicken

corn, esp. on the cob

eggplant

endive

fennel

fish, whole

garlic

hamburgers

hot dogs

lamb: butterflied, chops

lobster

mushrooms

shrimp, esp. skewered

GRITS

Techniques: simmer

cheese: cheddar, Parmesan

corn

cream

garlic

mascarpone

nutmeg

pepper, black

salt

sausage, andouille

shrimp (to accompany)

Southern cuisine (American)

GROUPER

Season: spring

Weight: medium

Volume: quiet

Techniques: bake, braise, broil, deep-fry, grill, poach, roast, sauté, steam, stir-fry

almonds

anchovies

artichokes

bacon

bay leaf

bell peppers, red

bok choy

butter

capers

carrots

cayenne

celery

cheese, Asiago

chervil

chile peppers, Anaheim

chili sauce

cucumber

endive

garlic

ginger

lemon, juice

lime, juice

Mediterranean cuisine

mushrooms, porcini

oil: corn, sesame, vegetable

olive oil

olives, picholine

onions, white

oyster sauce

parsley, flat-leaf

pepper: black, white

port

rosemary

sage

salt, sea

sesame, seeds

shallots

soy sauce

stocks: chicken, fish, pork

tarragon

thyme

tomatoes

vermouth, dry

vinegar: balsamic, sherry

wine: red, white

zucchini

Grilled American Red Grouper on Crab Hash, Pancetta–Red Onion Vinaigrette
—Sanford D’Amato, Sanford (Milwaukee)

GUAVAS

Season: summer–autumn

Taste: sweet

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate

Techniques: bake, juice, poach

BANANAS

cashews

cheese

chocolate, white

coconut

cream

cream cheese

curry powder

ginger

ham

honey

lemon

lime, juice

macadamia nuts

mascarpone

oil, vegetable

onions, yellow

orange

passion fruit

pineapple

pork

poultry

raisins

rum

salads, fruit

sauces

strawberries

sugar: brown, white

vanilla

vinegar, white

HADDOCK

(See Cod)

HALIBUT

Season: spring–summer

Weight: medium

Volume: quiet

Techniques: bake, braise, broil, grill, pan roast, poach, roast, sauté, steam

aioli (sauce)

almonds

anchovies

apples: cider, fruit, juice

artichokes

arugula

asparagus

bacon

basil

beans: black, fava, haricots verts

bell peppers: red, yellow

bok choy

butter, unsalted

capers

cardamom

carrots and carrot juice

cayenne

celery

celery root

chamomile

chard

chervil

chicory

chile peppers: dried red, fresh green

chives

cilantro

clams

coriander

cornichons

couscous

cream

cucumber

cumin

curry powder

dill

endive

fennel

fennel seeds

fenugreek seeds

frisée

garam masala

GARLIC

ginger, ground

grapefruit

hazelnuts

horseradish

kohlrabi

leeks

LEMON: juice, preserved

lemon balm

lime, juice

lovage

mint

mushrooms, esp. oyster, porcini, portobello, shiitake

mussels

mustard: Dijon, dry, grainy

OIL: canola, grapeseed

olive oil

olives: black, niçoise

onions, esp. pearl, red, spring

paprika

PARSLEY, flat-leaf

parsnips

pepper: black, white

potatoes, esp. new (e.g., fried, mashed)

pumpkin seeds

red pepper flakes

rhubarb

rosemary

saffron

salt: kosher, sea

savory

scallions

sesame seeds: black, white

SHALLOTS

sorrel

spearmint

spinach

stocks: chicken, fish

sugar (pinch)

tamarind

tapanade

tarragon

thyme

tomatoes and tomato sauce

turmeric

vinaigrette

vinegar: balsamic, sherry

walnuts

watercress

WINE: dry red, dry white (e.g., Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc), vermouth

yogurt

zucchini

Halibut from the East Coast is the most delicate and silky fish. It is different than Alaskan halibut, which is drier, meatier, and more robust. East Coast halibut is so delicate that anything can kill it. That is why we steam and poach so much here: Even searing it too strongly in the pan will hurt a piece of halibut.
We’ll poach halibut, then serve it with a blood orange vinaigrette made with extra-virgin olive oil, which gives it a round and full flavor. The fish is then served atop a carpaccio of golden beets that have been cooked in sherry vinegar. The beets have a sweet-and-sour flavor to them. They are also very crunchy, which I like with the creamy texture of the halibut. The vinaigrette brings the right degree of acidity to the dish to make it exciting.
—ERIC RIPERT, LE BERNARDIN (NEW YORK CITY)

Halibut is a gentle-tasting fish, which leads to gentle herbs like cilantro, chives, or chervil.
—JERRY TRAUNFELD, THE HERBFARM (WOODINVILLE, WASHINGTON)

Wellfleet Line-Caught Halibut, Sweet Corn, Shiitake Mushrooms, and Lemon Thyme Sauce
—David Bouley, Upstairs (New York City)

Almond-Crusted Halibut with Parsnip Puree, Fava Beans, Haricots Verts, and Wild Mushrooms
—David Bouley, Danube (New York City)

Halibut: Braised Tomato, Olives, Escarole, and Spring Salad
—Daniel Boulud/Bertrand Chemel, Café Boulud (New York City)

Olive Oil–Poached Halibut with Star Route Farm’s Fava Beans, Fennel Salad, and Niçoise Olives
—Traci Des Jardins, Jardinière (San Francisco)

Alaskan Halibut, Potato, and Black Pepper Crust
—Hubert Keller, Fleur de Lys (San Francisco)

Alaskan Halibut on a Bed of Creamy Leeks with Asparagus Puree, Fines Herbe, Spring Ramps, Favas, and English Peas
—Bob Kinkead, Kinkead’s (Washington, DC)

Chermoula Halibut with Red Quinoa, Edamame, and Shell Bean Salad with Preserved Lemon Vinaigrette
—Monica Pope, T’afia (Houston)

Halibut with Morel Mushrooms, English Peas, and Fingerling Potatoes
—Alfred Portale, Gotham Bar and Grill (New York City)

Halibut, Kohlrabi, Celery, Verbena-Lime Emulsion
—Michel Richard, Citronelle (Washington, DC)

Halibut Poached with Sweet-and-Sour Golden and Red Beets, Citrus and Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Emulsion
—Eric Ripert, Le Bernardin (New York City)

Alaskan Halibut Braised in the Brick Oven with Marble Potatoes, Baby Carrots, English Peas, Butter, and Cilantro
—Judy Rodgers, Zuni Café (San Francisco)

Line-Caught Seal Rock Halibut, Leek Emulsion, Reduced Chardonnay, Bacon Vinaigrette
—Rick Tramonto, Tru (Chicago)

Flavor Affinities

halibut + anchovies + black olives

halibut + anchovies + garlic + lemon + sorrel

halibut + apples + celery root + parsnips

halibut + beets + blood orange + olive oil + sherry vinegar

halibut + bok choy + sesame seeds

halibut + chicory + grapefruit

halibut + coriander + fennel + lemon

halibut + garlic + lemon + sorrel

halibut + scallions + white wine

HAM

Taste: salty

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate–loud (depending on smokiness)

Techniques: bake, sauté

allspice

apples and applesauce

arugula

bacon

bay leaf

breakfast / brunch

butter, unsalted

buttermilk

cayenne

CHEESE: cheddar, Emmental, Fontina, Gruyère, Jack, manchego, mozzarella, Parmesan, Swiss

chestnuts

chives

cinnamon

cloves

corn

cornmeal

French cuisine

eggs

garlic

greens

honey

Italian cuisine, esp. with prosciutto di Parma

macaroni

maple syrup

mushrooms

mustard, Dijon

nutmeg

olive oil

onions, red

orange, juice

parsley

pears

peas

pepper, black

pine nuts

potatoes

sage

sauce, Mornay

scallions

Southern cuisine (American)

soy sauce

spinach

stock, chicken

sugar: brown, white

wine: dry sherry, Madeira red, white

Flavor Affinities

ham + cheese + mustard

ham + honey + soy sauce

ham + Jack cheese + greens + mushrooms

ham + mozzarella cheese + red onion

Raviolis of Virginia Country Ham and Fontina Cheese
—Patrick O’Connell, The Inn at Little Washington (Washington, Virginia)

Serrano Ham with Roasted Onions, Manchego Cheese, and Watercress
—Charlie Trotter, Trotter’s to Go (Chicago)

Virtually all vegetables—from asparagus to green beans—pair well with ham because of its natural saltiness.
—JOSÉ ANDRÉS, CAFÉ ATLÁNTICO (WASHINGTON, DC)

One of the happiest trios in the flavor world is Ibérico ham, manchego cheese, and manzanilla sherry.
—ADRIAN MURCIA, CHANTERELLE (NEW YORK CITY)

If you are a first timer, the only thing you should combine with Ibérico ham is the warmth of your tongue. Just let it rest on your tongue and let your 37 degrees Celsius do the rest! You can use just the fat of Ibérico ham melted in a pan and make scrambled eggs or a tortilla, and it will add amazing flavor and aroma.
—JOSÉ ANDRÉS, CAFÉ ATLÁNTICO (WASHINGTON, DC)

HAM, IBÉRICO

cheese, pressed sheep’s milk (e.g., manchego)

HAM, SERRANO

asparagus

beans, green

cheese, manchego

olive oil

peppers, piquillo

Spanish cuisine

tomatoes

HAZELNUT OIL

(See Oil, Hazelnut)

HAZELNUTS

Taste: sweet, salty

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate–loud

almonds

apples

apricots

asparagus

bananas

beets

berries

butter, unsalted

buttermilk

caramel

carrots

cheese: feta, goat, Gruyère, ricotta, Taleggio

cherries

chestnuts

CHOCOLATE, esp. dark or white

cinnamon

cocoa powder

coffee / espresso

cognac

cranberries

cream and ice cream

cream cheese

custard

dates

figs

garlic

ginger

grapefruit

grapes

hazelnut oil

honey

Kirsch

kiwi

lemon

liqueur: almond (e.g., amaretto), hazelnut (e.g., Frangelico), orange

mango

maple syrup

mascarpone

mint

nectarines

nutmeg

oats

orange: juice, zest

pastries

peaches

pears

pecans

persimmons

sugar: brown, confectioner’s, granulated

wine: red, sweet, white

HERBES DE PROVENCE

French cuisine, southern

meats

stews, esp. vegetable

vegetables

Flavor Affinities

basil + fennel seeds + lavender + marjoram + rosemary + sage + summer savory + thyme

Chocolate-Hazelnut Cake with Orange Sauce and Hazelnut Gelato
—Gina DePalma, Babbo (New York City)

Hazelnut and Chocolate Soufflé
—Odette Fada, San Domenico (New York City)

Gianduja Napoleon with Chocolate-Hazelnut Ganache, Frozen Caramel Mousse, Crispy Hazelnut Nougatine
—Gale Gand, pastry chef, Tru (Chicago)

Hazelnuts have a complicated flavor, though not as complicated as walnuts.
—MARCEL DESAULNIERS, THE TRELLIS (WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA)

Hazelnuts are from the north and are used in Piedmontese cooking. Hazelnuts are very rich and round and buttery, so I will use them to achieve a rich, fatty quality in my dessert. Hazelnuts with chocolate are a natural. Hazelnut with grapes are great; it’s like peanut butter and jelly!
—GINA DEPALMA, BABBO (NEW YORK CITY)

I am more of an herb guy than a spice guy. It comes back to a certain conservatism I have regarding food. The French are not big on spices; they use more herbs. I know the spices used in European cooking and use them in moderation. I am not going to serve a dish that is wildly nutmegged!
—DAVID WALTUCK, CHANTERELLE (NEW YORK CITY)

HERBS

(See specific herbs)

Working with herbs is very different from working with spices. With herbs, you can really only work with a few at a time. With spices, you can throw so many more together. An Indian dish may have more than a dozen spices in it. Here are some guidelines:

• Know your herb. Herbs range in intensity, so you need to know the profile of the herb you are choosing at the start. You need to be careful; for example, if you add rosemary to chervil it will overpower the chervil.

• You want to pair delicate with delicate or strong with strong. Chervil is possibly the most delicate herb. Lemon basil and lemon thyme would be in the middle. Lemon verbena or tarragon I would consider loud. Then you have bay leaf which is light, until you add twenty together and it becomes strong.

• Not all herbs are created equal, and they can vary within their categories or season. Oregano can be mild, or hot and spicy. With mint, applemint is mild while peppermint is strong. The season also has an effect on rosemary: in the winter, rosemary is mild and in the summer, it is strong.

• Herbs have regional affinities. Mediterranean herbs marry well together. Rosemary and marjoram or thyme and savory are naturals together. Among Asian herbs, lemongrass goes with mint and cilantro or mint and chives. In France, you have lots of combinations: chervil, tarragon, chives, and parsley. The one exception to France’s herbs is tarragon, which is probably best on its own.

• Herbs also have seasonal affinities. Summer vegetables work with summer herbs, as do winter vegetables with winter herbs. In summer, it is basil or marjoram with tomatoes. Basil with zucchini is one of my favorite combinations. In winter, sage and rosemary work with potatoes and root vegetables. Also in winter, one of my favorite combinations is butternut squash with bay leaf and nutmeg. Pumpkin and bay leaf together make the pumpkin taste even more pumpkin-like.

• How to use the chosen herb. Soft-leaved herbs—such as basil, chervil, chives, cilantro, dill, lovage, and sorrel—shouldn’t be cooked because they will lose their flavor. Toughleaved herbs—such as bay leaf, savory, and rosemary—can go into dishes and stand up to heat and cooking.

• Choose an herb that is the same intensity as your protein. Halibut is a gentle-tasting fish, which leads to gentle herbs like cilantro, chives, or chervil. Smelt is a local fish that is oily, so here we look to stronger herbs like oregano, savory, or rosemary.

• Herbs aren’t exclusive to savory dishes. Anise hyssop works with most stone fruits like peaches. Cinnamon basil works with blue huckleberries. Cinnamon with blueberries really intensifies the flavor of the blueberry. Lavender works with plums or peaches. Lemony herbs like basil or anise hyssop work with watermelon. Rosemary works with apples or pears. Sage works with tart cherries. Tarragon works with muskmelon.

We grow forty different tomatoes and eight different basils. Our farmer planted the tomatoes surrounded by the basil, and I thought he did it because they taste good together. It turns out that doing so attracts beneficial insects to each. Our farmer believes that tomato and basil work so well on the plate because they work so well in the field. He also explained that if you plant certain basils next to tomatoes, you can taste it in the tomato.
All our cooks take care of their own section of the herb garden. The garde-manger cooks [who prepare appetizers] look after the chives and chervil. The fish cooks care for the lemon herbs like lemon thyme and lemongrass, and the meat cooks for the rosemary, sage, and thyme. Our pastry cooks tend the edible flowers that can be candied, and mint and lemon verbena, which they use in sorbets.
—DAN BARBER, BLUE HILL AT STONE BARNS (POCANTICO HILLS, NEW YORK)

I am a big fan of roasting and resting meat on herbs. If you roast a rib eye, prime rib, or filet mignon, most people would put it on a sheet tray with a roasting rack. One day, I didn’t have a roasting rack but I had a lot of thyme and savory and rosemary, so I threw the meat on top and roasted it. The technique did the trick by keeping the meat from the juices and it also enhanced the flavor that much more. Since then, we have stopped using roasting racks for our meats and switched to herbs. During the roasting process, I like to turn the meat so that the flavor of the herbs penetrates even more. Since you are roasting in a closed oven, the air circulates the herb flavor.
For a lamb shoulder, if you can’t get hay, I would recommend using savory, thyme, sage, and rosemary. This technique is great for a whole chicken: slice some truffles to put under the chicken skin, brush it with butter, and put it on a bed of savory and thyme. It will be pretty incredible.
—VITALY PALEY, PALEY’S PLACE (PORTLAND, OREGON)

I might grab honey when I am working with nutty flavors or to macerate some fruit. You can also scorch honey to create a whole new flavor; one of my favorite dishes is a burnt honey caramelized pistachio ice cream.
—MICHAEL LAISKONIS, LE BERNARDIN (NEW YORK CITY)

I use honey as a flavor, not as a sweetener like sugar. In my honey panna cotta, I add some sugar to make it sweet enough. If I used only honey as a sweetener, the flavor of honey would be too strong and the panna cotta would taste a little flat.
—EMILY LUCHETTI, FARALLON (SAN FRANCISCO)

I like the combination of fresh pineapple topped with warm honey. I will glaze my raspberry tart with flower honey, and my apple tart with chestnut honey. Chestnut honey gives a rustic flavor that goes well with the apple.
—MICHEL RICHARD, CITRONELLE (WASHINGTON, DC)

Lavender Honey-Roasted Pig with Spiced Banana Puree
—Sandy D’Amato, Sanford (Milwaukee)

Honey Semifreddo with Tropical Consommé, Fresh Coconut, and Bloomed Basil Seeds
—Celina Tio, American Restaurant (Kansas City)

HONEY

Taste: sweet, astringent

Function: heating

Weight: medium–heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

almonds

apples

apricots

baked goods (e.g., biscuits, breads)

bananas

brandy

butter

buttermilk

carrots

cheese: goat, ricotta, soft

chestnuts

chicken

Chinese cuisine

chocolate: dark, white

cinnamon

coconut

coffee

cognac

CREAM AND ICE CREAM

currants, red

dates

desserts

duck

figs, esp. dried

fruit

ginger

grapefruit

grapes

Greek cuisine

guava

ham

hazelnuts

kiwi fruit

kumquats

lamb

lavender

LEMON: juice, zest

LIME, juice

liqueur, orange (e.g., Grand Marnier)

lychees

mascarpone

melon

Middle Eastern cuisines mint

Moroccan cuisine

mustard

nutmeg

NUTS

oats

ORANGE: juice, zest

papaya

pastries

peaches

peanuts

pears

pecans

persimmons

pineapple

pine nuts

pistachios

plums

pomegranate

pork

prunes

pumpkin

quince

raisins

raspberries

red pepper flakes

rhubarb

rum

sage

sauces

Southern cuisine

soy sauce

SUGAR: brown, white

sweet potatoes

tea

tequila

thyme

Turkish cuisine

VANILLA

walnuts

whiskey

wine: red, white

Flavor Affinities

honey + almonds + chicken + pomegranate

honey + bananas + lavender + pork

honey + cream + pistachios

honey + fruit + yogurt

HONEY, BLUEBERRY

cheese, esp. cheddar

HONEY, CHESTNUT

Taste: sweet-bitter

cheese, esp. goat, ricotta, triple crème

HONEY, RASPBERRY

cheese, esp. cheddar

HONEYDEW

Season: midsummer

Taste: sweet

Weight: light–medium

Volume: moderate

basil

blackberries

cardamom

Champagne

chiles

coconut milk

coriander

cream

cumin

figs

ginger

grapefruit

honey

lemon, juice

lemon basil

lime

melon, cantaloupe

milk

mint

nectarines

peaches

red pepper flakes

pepper: black, white

prosciutto

ricotta cheese

salt (pinch)

scallions

strawberries

sugar

tarragon

wine, sweet

yogurt

Flavor Affinities

honeydew melon + figs + mint + prosciutto

Honeydew-Mint Sorbet with Fresh Blackberries
—Gina DePalma, pastry chef, Babbo (New York City)

Honeydew Melon Salad with Oven-Roasted Tomatoes, Goat Cheese, and Pistachios
—Gabriel Kreuther, The Modern (New York City)

HORSERADISH

Season: spring–autumn

Taste: pungent, hot

Weight: light–medium Volume: very loud

Tips: Use horseradish raw or add at end of cooking process. Heat diminishes the pungency of horseradish.

apples, esp. Golden Delicious

apricots

Austrian cuisine

avocados

BEEF, ESP. CORNED OR ROAST

beets

celery

chicken

chives

cinnamon

cloves

corn

CREAM

cream cheese

crème fraîche

dill

Eastern European cuisine

eggs

fennel

fish, esp. oily, smoked

garlic

German cuisine

ham

ketchup

lemon, juice

lime, juice

lobster

mascarpone

mayonnaise

meats, esp. cold

mustard

olive oil

oxtails

oysters

parsley

pears

pepper, black

pork

potatoes

Russian cuisine

salads

salmon

salmon, smoked

salt: kosher, sea

sauces

sausage

shellfish

sour cream

steak

sugar

Tabasco sauce

tomatoes and tomato paste

Heating grated horseradish changes the horseradish completely. It makes it more mellow and takes away the bite while keeping its yummy flavor. Horseradish prepared this way works well with Nantucket Bay scallops that are naturally sweet and work with the sweetness of the horseradish. We will also use it in a lemony vinaigrette and dress a smoked trout with it.
First, grate horseradish on a microplane [a fine grater]. Coat a teninch skillet with some Ligurian olive oil, and heat the horseradish over medium heat. Watch it very closely, because the minute it starts to turn from its blond color, it is done. From there, transfer it into cold pans to cool it quickly. When it is totally cool and has its crunch, add some lemon zest and kosher salt.
—HOLLY SMITH, CAFÉ JUANITA (SEATTLE)

Flavor Affinities

horseradish + apples + pork + sour cream

horseradish + beef + beets

horseradish + beets + cream cheese

horseradish + garlic + olive oil

horseradish + salt + vinegar

horseradish + seafood + tomatoes

HOTNESS

(of indoor or outdoor temperature; see also Summer)

chilled dishes and beverages

fish

grilled dishes

herbs, esp. cooling

olive oil–based dishes

raw dishes

salads, esp. fruit, vegetable

salsas, fresh

seafood

soups, cold

vegetables, esp. green leafy

If it is hot outside, I make sure there are lots of salads on the menu.
—ANDREW CARMELLINI, A VOCE (NEW YORK CITY)

HUNGARIAN CUISINE

bacon

beef

bell peppers, green

caraway seeds

chile peppers

garlic

ham

lard

mushrooms

ONIONS

PAPRIKA

pork

pork fat

potatoes

sausage

SOUR CREAM

tomatoes

wheat

wine, esp. Tokaji Aszu

Flavor Affinities

onions + paprika

onions + paprika + pork fat

onions + paprika + sour cream

In Eastern European or Hungarian cooking, you will see a stewed or braised dish flavored with paprika that is cut with sour cream either in it or served on top so that it mixes together as you eat it. I serve rare roasted venison in venison stock with hot and sweet paprika that is essentially a goulash. Alongside, I serve creamed sauerkraut that bleeds into the sauce and gives the same effect as a goulash. Even though the sauerkraut has an intense flavor, it is still mild because it has been cooked in cream. It is not a Hungarian dish but rather a play on a Hungarian dish, and it works in the context of the subtler intensity of flavors I like.
—DAVID WALTUCK, CHANTERELLE (NEW YORK CITY)

HYSSOP

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium

Volume: strong

beans, green

beef

beets

cabbage

carrots

chicken

cranberries

eggs

fruits

lamb

meats

parsley

pork

rice

rosemary

salads: fruit, green

soups, esp. chicken

stews

thyme

tomatoes

turkey, esp. stuffed and roasted

vegetables

venison

INDIAN CUISINE

allspice

almonds, esp. in desserts

anise

breads, in the north

cardamom

cauliflower

chicken

chile peppers

cilantro, esp. in the south

cinnamon

cloves

coconut, esp. in the south and/or in desserts

coriander

cumin, esp. in the north

CURRIES

curry leaf

eggplant

fenugreek

garlic, esp. in the north

ghee (clarified butter)

ginger, esp. in the north

herbs

lamb

lentils

mint

mustard seeds, esp. in the south

nutmeg

oil: canola, grapeseed

paprika

peas

pepper: black, white

pistachios, esp. in desserts

poppy seeds

potatoes

rice, basmati, esp. in the south

saffron

sage

SPICES

spinach

tamarind, esp. in the south

TOMATOES

turmeric

vegetables, esp. in the south

wheat, esp. in the north

yogurt

Tomatoes are as important to making Indian cuisine as they are to making Italian cuisine. In fact, making an Indian curry is a lot like making an Italian tomato sauce.
—MEERU DHALWALA, VIJ’S (VANCOUVER)

If my mind is in India, tamarind will be sneaking its way into the dish. When thinking of India, my inspirations are the flavors of clove, cardamom, and coriander seed. They are aromatic spices that really cut the fat of the dish, so it is not big, fat, and flabby on the palate.
—BRAD FARMERIE, PUBLIC (NEW YORK CITY)

I worked in an Indian restaurant as a waiter for four years. I love cooking with Indian ingredients. Everything I learned at the CIA was thrown out the window when I learned Indian cooking, which is where I picked up many techniques and philosophies. I now roast my own spices and create spice blends. I love creating my own flavor combinations. I came to love a garam masala made with fennel, cinnamon, clove, cumin, and coriander. Each of these five spices has a distinctive flavor, but combined they create one single flavor that is amazing. I will use my garam masala mixture in soups and sauces. When people ask about the dish, they always ask, “What was that flavor?”
—BOB IACOVONE, CUVÉE (NEW ORLEANS)

AVOID

beef, for religious reasons, say some

pork, for religious reasons, say some

Flavor Affinities

cinnamon + cloves + mace + nutmeg

coriander + cumin + turmeric

coriander + cumin + yogurt

cumin + garlic + ginger

cumin + garlic + yogurt

garlic + ginger

garlic + ginger + onion

potatoes + chili powder + turmeric

yogurt + fruit

INDONESIAN CUISINE

chicken

chile peppers

coconut

coriander

fish

garlic

grilled dishes

lemongrass

molasses

noodles

peanuts

pepper

rice

shellfish

shrimp paste

soy sauce

spices, esp. clove, nutmeg, pepper

stir-fried dishes

sugar, brown

vegetables

Flavor Affinities

chile peppers + peanuts + soy sauce

garlic + peanuts + soy sauce

garlic + soy sauce + brown sugar

IRANIAN CUISINE

(aka Persian Cuisine)

apricots

basil

beans

chicken

cinnamon

dates

dill

duck

fish

garlic

herbs

kebabs

lamb

lime

meats

mint

nuts

onions

parsley

plums

pomegranates

prunes

raisins

rice

saffron

stews

Flavor Affinities

cardamom + cinnamon + cloves + cumin + ginger + rose

duck + pomegranates + walnuts

ITALIAN CUISINE—IN GENERAL

anchovies

artichokes

basil

beef

bell peppers

capers

cheese: mozzarella, Parmesan, pecorino, ricotta

chicken

eggplant

fennel

fish

garlic

grappa

greens

honey, esp. in desserts

lemon, esp. in desserts

Marsala

mascarpone, esp. in desserts

mushrooms

nuts

olive oil

olives

orange and orange zest, esp. in desserts

oregano

pancetta

parsley

pasta

pork

prosciutto

red pepper flakes

rosemary

rum, esp. in desserts

saffron

sage

sausage

shellfish

spinach

thyme

tomatoes and tomato sauces

veal

vinegar: balsamic, red wine

wine

zucchini

Flavor Affinities

anchovies + capers + lemon juice

anchovies + garlic + wine vinegar

basil + garlic + olive oil

basil + garlic + tomatoes

bell peppers + olive oil + tomatoes

capers + garlic + wine vinegar

garlic + olive oil + parsley

garlic + oregano + tomatoes

garlic + saffron + shellfish

red pepper flakes + fennel + sausage

ITALIAN CUISINE, NORTHERN

asparagus

basil

beans

butter

cheeses, creamy and rich

cream and cream-based sauces

cured meats

fish

goat

hazelnuts

lemon, juice

Marsala

nuts

pasta, esp. richer egg-based and/or ribbon-shaped, often combined with other starches such as beans

pine nuts

polenta

potatoes

rice and risotto

truffles, white

vinegar, esp. wine

wine

ITALIAN CUISINE, SOUTHERN

bell peppers

chile peppers

cinnamon

eggplant

fennel

garlic

marjoram

nutmeg

olive oil, heavy

oregano

pasta, esp. tube-shaped and with tomato sauce

pizza

pork

raisins

red pepper flakes

sardines

sausage

tomatoes and tomato sauces

I only half joke that if you add rum or orange zest to a dessert, it will taste Italian. They are very common flavors in Italy.
—GINA DEPALMA, BABBO (NEW YORK CITY)

There are five ingredients that any Italian cook must use: 1) real Italian pasta; 2) extra-virgin olive oil; 3) real balsamic vinegar; 4) Italian prosciutto; and 5) Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese.
—MARIO BATALI, BABBO (NEW YORK CITY)

White Truffles. The perfect vehicle for white truffles is hand-cut pasta that is egg rich. Eggs that taste like real eggs make a great pasta. Our pasta is egg rich and has 35 egg yolks to a kilo (2.2 pounds) of flour. You can get them in there, it is crazy! The pasta looks like a sunset. On the pasta, I would first put butter barely scented with sage, before shaving the truffles on top.

Nebbiolo. Beef cheeks braised in Nebbiolo [wine]. To keep it simple, we serve roasted turnips and the reduced sauce with pomegranate seeds and that’s it. We braise our cheeks for seven and a half hours. Most braised dishes go four hours, but not beef cheeks—anything less, and they are [still tough].

Anchovies. I love a really acidic anchovy vinaigrette for a bread salad. Anchovies with roasted garlic are like butter at this restaurant; they go in lots of dishes. We put them in lamb, we put them in between potatoes with chicken stock for a gratin. We love them. I like anchovies with sage on each side deep fried for an appetizer. We cook anchovies in olive oil with a little butter until they get toasty, throw in onions to caramelize, and serve this with fish.

Hazelnuts. Chocolate and hazelnut is the perfect combination so we make gianduja and put it inside crepes and warm them and put chestnut honey on top. Most of the time hazelnuts end up in salad or ground for a final dusting for a pasta. Beet pasta that looks like candy wrappers is served on top of a warm plate that has just been smeared with Gorgonzola Piccante, then topped with ground hazelnuts just before it is served. Blue cheese and hazelnuts is it for me.

Goat Meat. I just had spit-roasted goat at Da Cesare. If I knew I was going to die, I would get myself there [to the Piedmont region of Italy]. Roasted goat basted with garlic, olive oil, marjoram, mint, or rosemary is it.

JAMAICAN CUISINE

(See also Caribbean Cuisines)

jerked dishes (e.g., chicken)

JAPANESE CUISINE

bonito: dried, flakes

broiled dishes

chile peppers

daikon

dashi (kelp-based stock)

fish, cooked and raw

ginger

kelp

mirin (sweet rice wine)

noodles

pickles

poached dishes

ponzu sauce

rice

sake

scallions

sesame: oil, seeds

shellfish

*SOY SAUCE

steamed dishes

tea

vinegar, rice wine

wasabi

wine, rice

yuzu

Flavor Affinities

bonito flakes + kelp

garlic + ginger + soy sauce

ginger + scallions + soy sauce

sake + soy sauce + sugar

soy sauce + wasabi

Japanese cuisine is very simple. We don’t mix too many ingredients together. One of the main ingredients we use in Japanese cooking is soy sauce, for both its saltiness and umami. Soy sauce is very complex: It takes months and months to make it. Same for the dried bonito used to make dashi, our Japanese broth. So Japanese chefs find that much of the hardest work has already been done for us!
—KAZ OKOCHI, KAZ SUSHI BISTRO (WASHINGTON, DC)

JICAMA

Season: winter–spring

Taste: sweet

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet

Techniques: cooked (e.g., stir-fry), raw

avocado

cabbage, green

carrots

chicken

*CHILE PEPPERS

chili powder

Flavor Affinities

jicama + avocado + grapefruit + pumpkin seeds

jicama + chili powder + lime juice

Jicama Callejera: Crunchy Jicama with Oranges, Grapefruit, and Pineapple; Orange-Lime Vinaigrette and Fresh Limes to Squeeze On
—Rick Bayless, Frontera Grill (Chicago)

Ensalada de Jicama y Aguacate: Jicama, Grapefruit, and Avocado Salad with Pumpkin Seeds
—Traci Des Jardins, Mijita (San Francisco)

Seaweed and Jicama Salad with Ginger Dressing
—Kaz Okochi, Kaz Sushi Bistro (Washington, DC)

I love the gentle, mellow tanginess kaffir lime leaf adds to curries.
—MEERU DHALWALA, VIJ’S (VANCOUVER)

JUNIPER BERRIES

Season: summer–autumn

Character: refreshing

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate–loud

allspice

Alsatian cuisine

apples

bay leaf

beef

cabbage

caraway

celery

chicken

choucroute

duck

fennel

fish

GAME

game birds

garlic

German cuisine

gin

goose

ham

kidneys

lamb

liver

marinades

marjoram

Mediterranean cuisine

onions

oregano

parsley

pâtés

pepper

pork

rosemary

sage

salmon

sauces

sauerkraut

savory

Scandinavian cuisine

stuffings, esp. bread

thyme

veal

VENISON

wine, red

Flavor Affinities

juniper berries + game + garlic + rosemary

KAFFIR LIMES AND KAFFIR LIME LEAF

(See also Lemons, Limes, etc.)

Season: year-round

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: stir-fry

basil, Thai

beef

cardamom

chicken

chile peppers

cilantro

coconut and coconut milk

coriander

cumin

curry pastes and curries

fish

ginger

vegetables, esp. green

Flavor Affinities

kaffir lime + saffron + seafood

kaffir lime leaf + duck + ginger

kaffir lime leaf + rice + turmeric

KALE

Season: autumn–spring

Taste: bitter, sweet

Botanical relatives: broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens, kohlrabi

Weight: heavy

Volume: moderate

Techniques: blanch, boil, braise, sauté, steam, stir-fry

bay leaf

bell peppers, red

butter

cheese: cheddar, Parmesan

chicken, roasted

cream

GARLIC

ginger

lemon

meats, roasted

nutmeg

OIL: grapeseed, vegetable

olive oil

onions, esp. yellow

oregano

pancetta

pasta

pepper: black, white

pork

potatoes

red pepper flakes

salt, kosher

sausage, chorizo

shallots

sour cream

soy sauce

stock, chicken

sugar

sweet potatoes

thyme

tomatoes

vinegar, red wine

Flavor Affinities

kale + garlic + olive oil + red wine vinegar

kale + onions + salt + smoked sausage

I like kale blanched then sautéed with some onions, a pinch of salt, and some smoked sausage.
—GABRIEL KREUTHER, THE MODERN (NEW YORK CITY)

KIWI FRUIT

Season: late autumn–spring

Taste: sour

Weight: medium

Volume: quiet–moderate

Techniques: raw

bananas

berries

cherries

chocolate: dark, white

coconut

cream and ice cream

crust: pastry or pie

custard

grapefruit

hazelnuts

honey

Kirsch

lemon: juice, zest

lime

lychee

macadamia nuts

mangoes

oranges

papaya

passion fruit

pineapple

rum

salad, esp. chicken or fruit

strawberries

sugar

wine: Champagne, ice wine

KOHLRABI

(See also Rutabagas, Turnips)

Season: summer–autumn

Botanical relatives: broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens, kale

Weight: medium (esp. when younger)–heavy (esp. when older)

Volume: moderate (esp. when younger)–loud (esp. when older)

Techniques: boil, steam, stir-fry

allspice

basil

butter, unsalted

cabbage

carrots

celery

celery leaves or seeds

celery root

cheese, esp. Parmesan, Swiss

chervil

cilantro

coriander

cream

dill

fennel leaves or seeds

mustard (e.g., Dijon)

sesame oil, seeds

Kohlrabi is an underrated vegetable. I admit it has not always been one of my favorites, but it has grown on me over the years. Now, I love it. I can’t precisely place its flavor, which is somewhere between a turnip, radish, and cauliflower. But it tastes great and is really versatile. You can grill it, roast it, glaze it like a carrot, or make a gratin out of it with potatoes. We have even grated it and made a rémoulade out of it like you would with a celery root. But the best way to enjoy kohlrabi is grilled, roasted, and drizzled with olive oil and sea salt. That is my favorite!
—VITALY PALEY, PALEY’S PLACE (PORTLAND, OREGON)

KOREAN CUISINE

chile peppers

fish

garlic

noodles, esp. buckwheat

rice

sesame seeds

shellfish

soy sauce

sugar

vegetables, pickled (e.g., kimchi)

Flavor Affinities

chile peppers + garlic + soy sauce

chile peppers + sesame seeds + soy sauce

chile peppers + soy sauce

garlic + sesame seeds + soy sauce

garlic + soy sauce

KUMQUATS

Season: autumn–winter

Taste: sour, bitter

Weight: light–medium

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: raw, stew

Asian cuisines

beef

berries: cranberries, strawberries

brandy

caramel

cayenne

chicken

chocolate: dark, white

chutney

cinnamon

citrus

coconut

cranberries

cream

custard

dates

duck

East Asian cuisine

endive (Belgian)

fish, esp. cod, halibut, red snapper, salmon, tuna, esp. grilled

ginger

hazelnuts

honey

lemon, juice

lime

mace

mango

marinades

meats

mint

nutmeg

olive oil

onions, spring

orange

papaya

pecans

persimmons

pineapple

pistachios

pomegranates

poppy seeds

pork

pumpkin

quince

rum

SALADS: FRUIT, GREEN

salt

strawberries

sugar

vanilla

walnuts

wine, white

LAMB—IN GENERAL

Season: spring

Taste: sweet, astringent

Function: heating

Weight: heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: braise (esp. shanks), grill (esp. leg), roast (esp. leg), stew (esp. shoulder)

Tips: Cloves add richness to the flavor of lamb.

Our signature wine-marinated lamb popsicles in fenugreek cream curry on spinach potatoes dish is bare rugged simplicity. You have rack of lamb that has been cooked just a few minutes. Then you have a simple sauce that is essentially just cream and garlic—and you can taste all three. We add some green fenugreek that gives an earthiness to the dish and takes it to a whole new level. It is incredibly simple. It is a dish about technique because if the garlic is cooked too long, it gets bitter. Or if you add too much fenugreek, it gets bitter and overpowers the cream. But in the right proportions, it is perfect.
—MEERU DHALWALA, VIJ’S (VANCOUVER)

Lamb, Fig, Pernod, and a Pillow of Sassafras Air
—Grant Achatz, Alinea (Chicago)

Lamb with Stew of Chickpeas, Root Vegetables, and Braised Lettuces
—Dan Barber, Blue Hill at Stone Barns (Pocantico Hills, New York)

Mint Love Letters with Spicy Lamb Sausage
—Mario Batali, Babbo (New York City)

Grilled Lamb Sirloin in a Roasted Garlic Sauce with Potato–Celery Root Gratin and Sautéed Escarole
—Ann Cashion, Cashion’s Eat Place (Washington, DC)

Colorado Rack of Lamb with Roasted Fennel, Glazed Baby Carrots, Fresh Garbanzo Beans, and Cardoon Puree, Niçoise Olive–Kumquat Tapenade
—Traci Des Jardins, Jardinière (San Francisco)

Colorado Lamb Loin with Creamy Polenta, Morel Mushrooms, and Star Route Fava Beans, Perigord Truffle Jus
—Traci Des Jardins, Jardinière (San Francisco)

Roast Lamb Sirloin on Crispy Goat Cheese Polenta with Saffron-Braised Baby Vegetables and Minted Yogurt
—Brad Farmerie, Public (New York City)

“Armenian Style” Lamb Skewers, Mediterranean Chickpea Salad, “Panisses,” and Minted Sheep’s Milk Yogurt
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

Poached Spring Lamb with Artichoke Tart and Pine Nut–Morel Gremolata
—Bradley Ogden, at the 2003 James Beard Awards gala reception

Moroccan Spiced Rack of Lamb with Couscous Salad, Roasted Eggplant, Lemon–Black Pepper Jus
—Alfred Portale, Gotham Bar and Grill (New York City)

Pan-Roasted Lamb Rack and Eighteen-Hours-Braised Leg of Lamb; Goat Cheese Mashed Potatoes; Wild Mushroom–Red Wine Sauce
—Eric Ripert, Le Bernardin (New York City)

Lamb Black Truffle Tagliatelle with Preserved Lemon and Aged Parmesan
—Eric Ripert, Le Bernardin (New York City)

Truffle and Almond-Crusted Rack of Lamb
—Brad Thompson, Mary Elaine’s at the Phoenician (Scottsdale, Arizona)

Wine-Marinated Lamb Popsicles in Fenugreek Cream Curry on Spinach Potatoes
—Vikram Vij and Meeru Dhalwala, Vij’s (Vancouver)

aioli

almonds

anchovies

apples

apricots, dried

artichokes

asparagus

bacon

basil

bay leaf

beans: cranberry, fava, FLAGEOLETS, green, WHITE

beer

bell peppers

brandy

bread crumbs

bulgur wheat

butter: clarified, unsalted

capers

cardamom

carrots

cayenne

celery

celery root

chard

cheese: blue, feta, Parmesan, ricotta

chickpeas

chiles: jalapeño, red

chili powder

chives

chocolate, dark

cilantro

cinnamon

cloves

coconut

cognac

coriander

couscous

cream

cumin

curry powder

dates

dill

Eastern Mediterranean (e.g., Greek, Turkish) cuisine

eggplant

endive

escarole

fennel

fennel seeds

fenugreek, esp. green

*GARLIC and garlic paste

Irish cuisine (e.g., stews)

Italian cuisine, esp. southern

lavender

leeks

LEMON: juice, zest

Middle Eastern cuisine

*MINT, esp. spearmint, mint jelly

OIL: canola, peanut, vegetable

olive oil

olives, esp. black, kalamata, niçoise

ONIONS: pearl, red, white, yellow

orange: juice, zest

oregano

paprika

PARSLEY, flat-leaf

pasta, esp. pappardelle

peas, esp. sweet

PEPPER: black, white

pomegranates and pomegranate molasses

porcini mushrooms

potatoes, esp. new or red prunes

raisins

red pepper flakes

rice: basmati, white, wild

SALT: fleur de sel, kosher, sea

stocks: beef, chicken, lamb, veal

sugar: brown, white

TOMATOES and tomato sauces

truffles, black, and truffle oil

vinegar: balsamic, red wine, rice wine, sherry, white

watercress

WINE: dry white, red (e.g., Petite Syrah)

Worcestershire sauce

yogurt

zucchini

I work with a local lamb farmer in the Willamette Valley who has true spring lamb in the spring. We have a spit and every Friday night we roast a whole lamb. I am a big fan of lamb shoulder. It can take a beating and in the end come out glorious tasting! There is an old French technique where they cook ham in hay. The hay is submerged in water; then they put the ham on it to cook. It is amazing. We adapted this technique to the lamb. We had our farmer collect the hay and grass in the field where the lamb grazed with the thinking that this is what the lamb actually ate. We then dry the hay by letting it sit out overnight on a tray, so it becomes really butterscotchy and barnyardy. You can use any hay for this technique but I’m just a purist.
We brine a boneless shoulder of lamb for 24 hours in a brining solution of 1 cup of salt and ¼ cup of sugar in a gallon of water, [adding] some peppercorns, bay leaf, a couple of cardamom pods, a cinnamon stick, and cumin. The brine is brought to a boil, cooled down, and the lamb goes in. After the brining we rub the lamb with garlic and summer savory and tie it up into a log and put it on the bed of hay, drizzle it with white wine, cover it, and put it in the oven. It is nature going back on itself. The lamb ate the hay, the hay makes the lamb taste better. When it’s cooked, the flavors are intense but pleasant and it becomes something else. When lavender is in season, I’ll throw some in the hay as well and it is delicious.
With the lamb I like to serve a stuffed tomato Provençal [typically a combination of basil, bread crumbs, garlic, olive oil]. You want to serve something simple. You could also serve a crushed potato with savory and olive oil or a medley of vegetables.
—VITALY PALEY, PALEY’S PLACE (PORTLAND, OREGON)

Flavor Affinities

lamb + broccoli rabe + Parmesan cheese

lamb + cardamom + yogurt

lamb + carrots + ginger + pistachios

lamb + carrots + lentils + parsley

lamb + chickpeas + garlic

lamb + chocolate + cinnamon + cloves

lamb + cilantro + dill + garlic + mint

lamb + cinnamon + dried apricots + preserved lemons + walnuts

lamb + cinnamon + garlic + lemon + mint + onion + oregano

lamb + cinnamon + prunes

lamb + clove + red wine

lamb + cream + fenugreek + garlic

lamb + cucumber + mint + tomatoes

lamb + escarole + lemon

lamb + fava beans + thyme

lamb + fennel + onions + turnips

lamb + flageolet beans + thyme

lamb + garlic + flageolet beans

lamb + garlic + olives

lamb + garlic + rosemary

lamb + mint + mustard

lamb + mint + olives

lamb + mint + parsley

lamb + mint + peas + risotto

lamb + mint + ricotta cheese

lamb + mint + tomatoes

LAMB, CHOPS

Techniques: broil, grill, sauté

anchovies

beans (e.g., fava)

bell peppers, red

broccoli, rabe

butter, unsalted

capers

carrots

cayenne

chard

cheese, feta

cilantro

cumin

curry

fennel

garam masala

garlic

ginger

honey

leeks

lemon

lime

mace

mint

miso

mushrooms

mustard, Dijon

nutmeg

oil: canola, peanut

olive oil

olives, black

onions, esp. pearl oregano

paprika

parsley, flat-leaf

pepper: black, white

pomegranates

potatoes

rosemary

salad

salt: kosher, sea

savory

shallots

stock, chicken

sugar

tarragon

thyme

tomatoes

truffles

vinegar: balsamic, malt

wine, dry red

yogurt

Flavor Affinities

lamb chop + lemon + mint

Latin American cuisine is very Mediterranean. It’s based on what was brought over from Spain and Italy. You’ll see the combination of garlic, onions, and peppers like you’ll see in Spain and Italy, not to mention the same pantry of herbs and spices: cilantro, cinnamon, cloves, cumin, oregano, rosemary, thyme.
—MARICEL PRESILLA, ZAFRA (HOBOKEN, NEW JERSEY)

LATIN AMERICAN CUISINE

beans, black

beef

café con leche

chile peppers

cilantro

cinnamon

cloves

corn

cumin

fruits

garlic

greens

lime, juice

meats

Flavor Affinities

beef + corn + sweet potatoes

garlic + onions + peppers

meats + black beans + greens + orange + rice

seafood + chile peppers + cilantro + garlic + lime

LAVENDER

Taste: sweet, sour

Weight: light

Volume: loud

Tips: Caraway seeds can substitute for lavender.

almonds

apples

baked goods: cakes, cookies, scones, shortbread

berries

blackberries

blueberries

cheese, ricotta

cherries

CHICKEN

CREAM AND ICE CREAM

crème fraîche

currants, black

custards

desserts

duck

figs

French cuisine

fruit and fruit preserves

game birds

ginger

herbes de Provence (occasional ingredient)

HONEY

LAMB

lemon

lemonade

marjoram

mascarpone

meats (e.g., beef, lamb, steak)

milk

mint

onions

orange

oregano

parsley

peaches

pistachios

plums

pork

potatoes

Provençal cuisine

quail

rabbit

ras el hanout (key ingredient)

raspberries

rhubarb

rice

rosemary

savory

spearmint

stews

strawberries

sugar

tea, esp. black

thyme

vanilla

vinegar, balsamic

walnuts

Flavor Affinities

lavender + cream + sugar

lavender + meat + salt

Lavender works with plums or peaches.
—JERRY TRAUNFELD, THE HERBFARM (WOODINVILLE, WASHINGTON)

Lavender and rosemary work in butter cakes, cookies, and other baked goods.
—JERRY TRAUNFELD, THE HERBFARM (WOODINVILLE, WASHINGTON)

I like very little lavender with quail for its savory aroma, but the key phrase is “very little”—or else it’s like eating a piece of soap!
—SHARON HAGE, YORK STREET (DALLAS)

LEEKS

Season: autumn–spring

Taste: sweet

Botanical relatives: chives, garlic, onions, shallots

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet

Techniques: boil, braise, fry, grill, roast, steam

Tips: Add early in cooking process.

anchovies

bacon

barley

bay leaf

beef

bouillabaisse

butter, unsalted

capers

caraway

carrot

cauliflower

celery

cheese: cheddar, goat, Gruyère, Parmesan

chervil

eggs (including hard-boiled) and egg dishes

mushrooms, esp. oyster mussels

mustard

nutmeg

oil: corn, grapeseed, hazelnut, peanut, vegetable

pepper: black, white

stocks: chicken, vegetable

tamari

tarragon

thyme

tomatoes and tomato sauce

truffles, black

vinaigrette

vinegar, balsamic

wine: dry white, red

Flavor Affinities

leeks + anchovies + garlic + olive oil

leeks + bacon + cream

leeks + cream + thyme

leeks + mustard + vinaigrette

Salade de Poireaux Frais: Chilled Leeks with Fingerling Potatoes and Piquillo Peppers
—Thomas Keller, Bouchon (Yountville, California)

Leek and Asparagus Pasta with Lemon, Parmesan, and Poached Egg
—Peter Nowakoski, Rat’s (Hamilton, New Jersey)

We have lemon juice right next to the salt when we cook. Acid is the most important aspect of how a dish tastes—whether it is there as subtle punctuation or an exclamation point!
—SHARON HAGE, YORK STREET (DALLAS)

Lemon zest adds a totally different dynamic than lemon juice. If you are making an apple crisp, if you added a teaspoon of zest it would taste very different than if you added lemon juice. The juice would make it taste tart, whereas the zest would actually add a lemon flavor component to it. For ice cream, custards, and tarts, use lemon juice. But if you are going to combine lemon with other flavors, that’s when you use zest.
—EMILY LUCHETTI, FARALLON (SAN FRANCISCO)

Use lemon juice when you want the acid and lemony flavor of the juice. If you want the perfume of the lemon, use the zest because the skin is where you get the essential oils. I use more lemon and orange than vanilla in my cooking because they are more prevalent in Italy and in Italian cooking, and a flavor profile that people recognize as Italian.
—GINA DEPALMA, BABBO (NEW YORK CITY)

Lemon can be used by itself or with other ingredients because it enhances so many flavors. An orange can be a little too mellow, but lemon makes flavors much brighter. Lemon is an underlying flavor as much as the star. If there is one fruit you had to always have on hand as a basic staple, it is lemon.
—EMILY LUCHETTI, FARALLON (SAN FRANCISCO)

LEGUMES

(See Beans, Lentils, Peas, etc.)

LEMONS

Season: year-round

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: loud

almonds

anise

cheese: goat, ricotta

chocolate: dark, white

liqueurs: nut, orange (e.g., Cointreau, curaçao, Grand Marnier)

mango

maple syrup

mascarpone

Mediterranean cuisines

Middle Eastern cuisines

nuts, esp. hazelnuts

oats

olive oil

orange: juice, zest

pasta and pasta sauces peaches

salads and salad dressings

salt, kosher

sauces: brown butter, parsley

SUGAR: brown, white

wine: red, sweet (e.g., Muscat), white

yogurt

Flavor Affinities

lemon + berries + crème fraîche

lemon + blackberries + honey + ricotta cheese

Ricotta-Lemon Pancakes with Blackberries and Honeycomb Butter
—Andrew Carmellini, A Voce (New York City)

LEMONS, MEYER

Season: autumn–spring

Taste: sour–sweet

Weight: light

Volume: moderate–loud

cream

grapefruit

honey

lemon

lime

orange

sugar

vanilla

LEMONS, PRESERVED

Taste: sour

Weight: light–medium

Volume: moderate–loud

cinnamon

cloves

lamb

MOROCCAN CUISINE

nigella seeds

saffron

We churn through preserved lemons! In the middle of the summer, we buy cases so that we can age them eight months before we use them. After six months, they are great. After eight months or a year, you see God. They become incredible just by waiting those extra few months. I make preserved lemons by feel. I primarily use salt and will add some cinnamon, clove, nigella, a tiny, tiny bit of saffron, and then just tuck them away in the refrigerator. If I wasn’t so greedy, I would give them away, but we are talking a year of my life here!
—BRAD FARMERIE, PUBLIC (NEW YORK CITY)

When you are using different kinds of lemons, you need to treat them as different things. A Meyer lemon is different from a regular lemon. If you are using a Meyer lemon, you may want the perfume, aroma, and subtlety of it. Yet when you taste it, you may want to add a touch of regular lemon to give it a little more acidity and a little kick.
—EMILY LUCHETTI, FARALLON (SAN FRANCISCO)

We get a lot of Meyer lemons in during the season, and they have a lovely sweet-orangey lemon flavor. But there are times that they are simply too sweet and we have to either add regular lemon or some lime to balance the Meyer lemon.
—MONICA POPE, T’AFIA (HOUSTON)

Meyer Lemon Cream Pie with Roasted Strawberries, Candied Coconut, Vanilla Chantilly
—Emily Luchetti, pastry chef, Farallon (San Francisco)

LEMON BALM

Season: spring–autumn

Taste: sour

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–moderate

apricots

asparagus

berries

carrots

chicken

chives

dill

fennel bulb

fish

fruit

ginger

melon

mint

nectarines

parsley, flat-leaf

peaches

peas

salads, esp. fruit and green

teas

LEMON BASIL

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: moderate

apricots

berries

cinnamon

desserts

fish

peaches

seafood

shellfish

soups

vegetables

LEMONGRASS

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: moderate–loud

Tips: Add near end of cooking process; use in stir-fries.

basil

beef

chicken

chile peppers: red, green

chives

cilantro

cinnamon

cloves

coconut and coconut milk

coriander

crab

cream

curries

FISH

fruits

galangal

garlic

ginger

honey

Indonesian cuisine

lime, juice

lobster

Malaysian cuisine

meats

mint

noodles, rice

offal

onions

parsley

peanuts

pork

poultry

sage

salads and salad dressings

scallions

shallots

SHELLFISH

shrimp

soups, esp. chicken or turkey

Southeast Asian cuisines

spring rolls

stews

teas

THAI CUISINE

turmeric

vanilla

vegetables

Vietnamese cuisine

vinaigrettes

Flavor Affinities

lemongrass + chives + mint

lemongrass + cilantro + mint

lemongrass + cream + vanilla

LEMON THYME

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: moderate–loud

asparagus

basil

bay leaf

beets

beverages (e.g., herbal teas) bouillabaisse

carrots

chicken, esp. roasted chives

eggs

fennel

figs

fish

fruits

ginger

halibut

lamb

marjoram

meats

mint

orange

parsley

potatoes

poultry

rabbit

rosemary

sage

salads: fruit, green

seafood

shellfish

sole

spinach

stews

stocks and broths: fish, seafood

stuffings

veal

vegetables, esp. spring

LEMON VERBENA

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: loud

anise hyssop

apricots

baked goods (e.g., cakes, shortbread)

basil

beets

berries

beverages

blueberries

butter, unsalted

carrots

cherries

chicken

chile peppers

chives

cilantro

cinnamon

cream and ice cream

crème fraîche

currants, red

custards

desserts

fish

fruits

garlic

ginger

grapes

honey

lamb

lavender

lemon, juice

lemonade

lemongrass

lemon thyme

lime, juice

melon

milk

mint

mushrooms

nectarines

peaches

peas

plums

raspberries

rice

salads, fruit and green

salt

sour cream

strawberries

sugar

tamarind

tea, green

zucchini

Flavor Affinities

lemon verbena + apricots + sugar

Lemon verbena is amazing. I love to make a lemon verbena syrup and then poach apricots in it. It is so refreshing! We also make our own soda here, and lemon verbena is great in soda.
—JOHNNY IUZZINI, JEAN GEORGES (NEW YORK CITY)

Green Lentil Soup with Black Truffle, Smoked Quail, Crispy Shallots
—Daniel Boulud, Daniel (New York City)

Lentil Stew with Blood Sausage, Chorizo, or Ham with a Poached Egg on Top
—Alexandra Raij, Tía Pol (New York City)

A drizzle of sherry vinegar just before you serve lentils elevates them to another level.
—JOSÉ ANDRÉS, CAFÉ ATLÁNTICO (WASHINGTON, DC)

I like lentils for soup with a smoked ham hock. For seasoning the soup, I recommend thyme, bay leaf, and a pinch of cumin. You can add bacon or sausage, or serve it with potato galettes on the side.
—GABRIEL KREUTHER, THE MODERN (NEW YORK CITY)

LENTILS

Season: winter

Taste: sweet–stringent

Function: cooling

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate

Techniques: simmer

Tips: Green lentils are more flavorful than brown or red.

apples: cider, juice

bacon

BAY LEAF

bell peppers, esp. red

bouquet garni

bread and croutons

butter, unsalted

cardamom

CARROTS

cayenne

CELERY

celery root

cheese, goat

chervil

chile peppers: dried red, fresh green

chives (garnish)

cilantro

cinnamon

cloves

coconut

cornichons

cream

cumin, esp. seeds

curry: leaves, powder, sauces

dill

eggplant

French cuisine

game birds, roasted (e.g., quail)

Mediterranean cuisine

mint, esp. spearmint

mirepoix (esp. for soups)

mustard, Dijon

mustard seeds, black

OIL: hazelnut, peanut, vegetable, walnut

olive oil

ONIONS, esp. red, white, yellow

oregano

PARSLEY, flat-leaf

PEPPER: black, white

pineapple

pork

poultry, roasted (e.g., chicken)

prosciutto

SALMON

SALT: kosher

sausage, esp. smoked

scallions

shallots

sorrel, esp. with green lentils

soups

soy sauce

spinach

squash, winter (e.g., butternut)

STOCKS: chicken, vegetable

VINEGAR: balsamic, red wine, sherry

walnuts

wine, red

zucchini

Flavor Affinities

lentils + bacon + bell pepper + cumin + garlic

lentils + bacon + garlic + sherry vinegar

lentils + bay leaf + onions + thyme

lentils + cumin + turmeric

lentils + olive oil + parsley + sorrel

LETTUCES—IN GENERAL

Season: spring–autumn

Function: cooling

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–loud

apples

bacon

basil

bread, breadsticks, croutons, etc.

capers

cheese (e.g., feta)

chicories, aka bitter greens

dill

eggs, esp. hard-boiled

fennel leaves

garlic

lemon, juice

mint

mushrooms

mustard, Dijon

nuts

oil: hazelnut, peanut, walnut

olive oil

olives

orange

parsley

peaches

pears

pepper, black

raisins

salt

shallots

sprouts

tarragon

vegetables, esp. raw

vinaigrette

vinegar: balsamic, cider, red wine

watercress

Bibb lettuce is a light, delicate, and almost creamy lettuce, so I serve it with a creamy dressing to mimic that creaminess. Because of its delicacy, to make the mayonnaise I’ll use a neutral oil that’s a blend of 80 percent canola and 20 percent olive. It finds a counterpoint in lemon and fines herbes, and gets a note of freshness, crunch, and spicy heat from radishes.
—TONY LIU, AUGUST (NEW YORK CITY)

LETTUCE, BIBB

(aka Boston or butter lettuce)

Season: spring

Taste: sweet

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet

arugula

avocados

basil

chervil

chives

cucumbers

fines herbes

lemon

orange

parsley

pepper, black

radishes

salt

sesame seeds

shallots

tarragon

vinaigrette

watercress

yogurt

LETTUCES—BITTER GREENS AND CHICORIES

(See Arugula, Escarole, Frisée, Radicchio)

Season: spring

Taste: bitter

Weight: light–medium

Volume: medium–loud

bacon

basil

beans, esp. “fresh shell”

butter

cheese: Asiago, Gruyère, Parmesan

cilantro

cream

eggs, hard-boiled

garlic

lemon, juice

lemon balm

nuts

olives

olive oil

onions, yellow

pancetta

parsley

pasta

red pepper flakes

rices

salt, kosher

scallions

shallots

sugar

thyme

vinegar: balsamic, red wine, white

walnuts

LETTUCES—MESCLUN GREENS

(i.e., mixed baby lettuces) (See also Lettuces—Bitter Greens and Chicories)

Season: spring

Taste: bitter

Weight: light

Volume: moderate

Hearts of Romaine and Treviso Radicchio with Spanish Serrano Ham, Manchego Cheese, White Anchovies, Fire-Roasted Peppers, and Crisp Capers
—Carrie Nahabedian, Naha (Chicago)

Caesar Salad Soup
—Nobiyuki Sugie, Asiate (New York City)

Leaves of Romaine, Creamy Garlic Dressing, Red Onions, Capers, and Parmesan
—Cory Schreiber, Wildwood (Portland, Oregon)

mushrooms, wild (e.g., morels)

Flavor Affinities

mesclun greens + goat cheese + hazelnuts

LETTUCE, ROMAINE

Season: spring–autumn

Taste: sweet, bitter

Weight: light

Volume: quiet

anchovies

avocados

bell peppers: green, red

butter

Caesar salad

capers

cayenne

CHEESE: feta, dry Jack, Monterey Jack, Parmesan, Stilton

chervil

chile peppers: jalapeño, serrano

chives

cilantro

cream

crème fraîche

croutons

cucumbers

eggs, yolk

GARLIC

grapefruit

ham

leeks

lemon, juice

lime: juice, zest

lovage

mayonnaise

mustard, Dijon

OIL: canola, vegetable

OLIVE OIL

olives, kalamata

onions, esp. red

parsley, flat-leaf

pepper: black, white

salt: kosher, sea

shallots

sour cream

stocks: chicken, vegetable

tarragon

tomatoes

vinaigrette

VINEGAR: balsamic, cider, raspberry, red wine, sherry, white wine

walnuts

Worcestershire sauce

Flavor Affinities

romaine + anchovies + Parmesan cheese

romaine + capers + garlic + Parmesan cheese + red onions

Acidity awakens flavors. I love lime, and just a squeeze of lime on seafood soup or Thai soup awakens it.
—KATSUYA FUKUSHIMA, MINIBAR (WASHINGTON, DC)

Key Lime Cheesecake with Macadamia Nut Crust, Lime Caramel, Key Lime Curd
—Emily Luchetti, pastry chef, Farallon (San Francisco)

Grilled Lime Pound Cake with Crème Fraîche–Tapioca Pudding, Blueberry Gelée, and Burnt Honey Ice Cream
—Celina Tio, American Restaurant (Kansas City)

LIMES

Season: year-round

Taste: sour

Weight: light

Volume: moderate

apricots

avocados

berries: blueberries, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries

butter

buttermilk

capers

caramel

ceviche

chicken

chile peppers, esp. jalapeño or serrano

chocolate, white

cilantro

coconut and coconut milk

cream

cream cheese

crème fraîche

dates

duck

figs, dried

fish, esp. grilled

fruits, esp. tropical

gin

ginger

gooseberries

grapefruit

green tea

guacamole

guava

hazelnuts

honey: raw, burnt

jicama

kiwi fruit

Latin American cuisine lemon

pie, esp. with Key limes

sugar: brown, white

Flavor Affinities

lime + blueberries + burnt honey + crème fraîche

lime + caramel + cream cheese + macadamia nuts

lime + strawberries + tequila

LIMES AND LIME LEAF, KAFFIR

(See Kaffir Limes and Kaffir Lime Leaf)

LIVER, CALF’S

Taste: bitter

Weight: medium–heavy

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: braise, broil, grill, sauté

Tips: Cook briefly, one minute per side.

apples

arugula

avocado

bacon

bay leaf

bouquet garni

butter, unsalted

carrots

celery

cheese, Parmesan

chervil

chives

cream

figs

French cuisine

garlic

jasmine

lemon, juice

milk

mushrooms

mustard, Dijon

oil, canola

olive oil

olives, green

ONIONS: fried, red, Vidalia, white

orange, zest

pancetta

parsley, flat-leaf

pears

pepper: black, white

polenta

potatoes, mashed

prunes

rhubarb

sage

salt, kosher

sauce, brown butter

sausages

shallots

spinach

stock, chicken

sugar, brown

thyme

tomatoes

turnips

VINEGAR: balsamic, cider, red wine, sherry

wine: dry red or white

Flavor Affinities

calf’s liver + arugula + onions + pancetta

calf’s liver + figs + onions + red wine vinegar

LIVER, CHICKEN

Weight: medium

Volume: moderate–loud

Techniques: grill, sauté

anchovies

apples

bacon

bay leaf

butter, unsalted

capers

chicken fat

chives

cilantro

eggs, hard-boiled

garlic

kale

lemon, juice

lime, juice

oil, peanut

olive oil

ONIONS: fried, red, sweet (e.g., Vidalia)

parsley, flat-leaf

peanuts

pepper: black, white

radishes

red pepper flakes rosemary

sage

salt, kosher

shallots

sherry, dry (e.g., fino) soy sauce

sugar

thyme

vinegar: balsamic, sherry wine, dry red

Flavor Affinities

chicken livers + apples + sage

chicken livers + bacon + balsamic vinegar + onions + rosemary

chicken livers + kale + lemon

I love lobster: poached, roasted, or grilled. I like mayonnaise or a vinaigrette with my lobster much more than butter with lobster. In the summertime, I like it with small potatoes and corn. I really like it with cilantro.
For my dish Roasted Maine Lobster in “Folly of Herbs” with Baby Fennel and Salsify, I wanted to do something different with lobster besides a lobster sauce. I make a “tea” of dried herbs: thyme, rosemary, fennel seeds, oregano, sage, mint, and tarragon. This is boiled and strained, then gets a dash of Ricard [also known as Pernod, an aniseflavored liquor]. The lobster gets finished with fresh parsley, mint, and fresh oregano. I chose these two vegetables because salsify is underused and underappreciated. I don’t blanch my salsify in water because when you do, the flavor stays in the water. I roast them and caramelize them a little bit, then deglaze with just a little water with a sprig of thyme and a bay leaf. Baby fennel is good because it plays off the Ricard and fennel. I quickly blanch the fennel and then caramelize it.
—GABRIEL KREUTHER, THE MODERN (NEW YORK CITY)

Cooked lobster meat blends well with mayonnaise, but I don’t think I’d use it with raw lobster—I’d use soy sauce instead.
—KAZ OKOCHI, KAZ SUSHI BISTRO (WASHINGTON, DC)

LIVER, DUCK OR GOOSE

(See Foie Gras)

LOBSTER

Season: summer–autumn

Taste: sweet

Weight: light–medium

Volume: quiet–medium

Techniques: bake, boil, broil, grill, pan roast, poach, roast, sauté, steam

anchovies

apples

artichokes

asparagus

avocado

bacon

basil

bay leaf

beans: green, flageolets, white

beets

bell peppers, esp. red, yellow, and/or roasted

brandy

BUTTER, unsalted

cabbage, esp. savoy

capers

carrots

caviar

cayenne

celery

celery root

Champagne

cheese: Gruyère, Parmesan

chervil

chile peppers, jalapeño

chili paste

Chinese cuisine

chives

cilantro

cinnamon

clams

clove

coconut and coconut milk

cognac

coriander

corn

crab

cream

crème fraîche

cucumbers

cumin

curry: paste (red), powder

curry leaf

daikon

dill

eggs and egg yolks

endive

fennel

fennel seeds

fenugreek seeds

figs

fish sauce, Thai

foie gras

frisée

GARLIC

ginger, fresh

grapefruit

grapes

guacamole

haricots verts

honey

horseradish

kiwi fruit

kumquats

leeks

LEMON: juice, zest

lemon, Meyer

FIGS, FRESH

Dishes

FILET MIGNON

FINES HERBES

FISH—IN GENERAL

Dishes

FISH SAUCE

FIVE-SPICE POWDER

Dishes

FLOUNDER

FOIE GRAS

Dishes

FRENCH CUISINE—IN GENERAL

FRENCH CUISINE, NORTHERN

FRENCH CUISINE, SOUTHERN

FRESHNESS

FRISÉE

Dishes

FRUIT, DRIED

FRUIT, FRESH

FRUIT, TROPICAL

Dishes

GARAM MASALA

GARLIC

GEORGIAN CUISINE (RUSSIAN)

GERMAN CUISINE

GIN

Gin Flavors

Dishes

GINGER

GINGER, GROUND

Dishes

GOAT CHEESE

GRAPEFRUIT

GRAPES

GREEK CUISINE

Dishes

GREEN BEANS

GREENS—IN GENERAL

Dishes

GREENS, COLLARD

GREENS, DANDELION

GREENS, KALE

GREENS, MUSTARD

GREENS, SALAD

GREENS, TURNIP

Dishes

Dishes

GRILLED DISHES

GRITS

GROUPER

Dishes

GUAVAS

HALIBUT

HAM

Dishes

HAM, IBÉRICO

HAM, SERRANO

HAZELNUT OIL

HAZELNUTS

HERBES DE PROVENCE

Dishes

Herbs 101with Jerry Traunfeld of The Herbfarm, Woodinville, Washington

Dishes

HONEY, BLUEBERRY

HONEY, CHESTNUT

HONEY, RASPBERRY

HONEYDEW

Dishes

HORSERADISH

HOTNESS

HUNGARIAN CUISINE

HYSSOP

INDONESIAN CUISINE

ITALIAN CUISINE—IN GENERAL

ITALIAN CUISINE, NORTHERN

ITALIAN CUISINE, SOUTHERN

Holly Smith of Café Juanita in Seattle on Five Flavors that Will Take You to Northern Italy

JAPANESE CUISINE

JICAMA

Herbs 101
with Jerry Traunfeld of The Herbfarm, Woodinville, Washington