Notes

 

Introduction

1.      “Bad Elephant Killed,” The Commercial Advertiser, January 5, 1903; “Coney Elephant Killed,” New York Times, January 5, 1903.

2.      Blackpool Carnival: Official Souvenir Programme, June 9th to 16th (inclusive) 1923, British Library 103609.47, 30–31.

3.      J. K. Walton, “Popular Entertainment and Public Order: The Blackpool Carnivals of 1923–4,” Northern History 34 (1998): 170–88.

4.      “Main Street Electric Parade,” News from Disneyland, 1972, Anaheim Public Library Disneyland Collection; “Main Street Electric Parade: Grand Return—May 28, 1999 Last Show April 1, 2001”http://allearsnet.com/tp/mk/msep.htm, © R.Y.I. Enterprises, LLC. Accessed Jan 4, 2004.

5.      F. Atkinson, The Man Who Made Beamish: An Autobiography (Gateshead: Northern Books, 1999), 133.

6.      Beamish Museum Archives, Newspaper Cuttings, Boxes 1971–5 and 1978–9.

7.      Neither had a direct challenger or counterpart within its own country: in the United States, Atlantic City would come later and would provide a less spectacular and variegated outdoor popular entertainment experience, while Blackpool overshadowed regional competitors like Morecambe and New Brighton, and surpassed popular resorts in London’s orbit, such as Southend and Margate. M. Immerso, Coney Island: The People’s Playground (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002); J. K. Walton, Blackpool (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998); Nelson Johnson, Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times and Corruption of Atlantic City (Medford, NJ: Plexus, 2002); Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).

8.      In 1989, Disney’s resorts attracted 44.5 million but only 18 visits for every 100 Americans). David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 95

9.      J. K. Walton, “The Social Development of Blackpool 1788–1914,” Ph.D. dissertation, Lancaster University, 1974, 263.

10.    Elias Canetti, Crowds and Power (translation by Carol Stewart, London: Penguin, 1973), 15–20, 32–34, 40–41.

11.    Ibid. 71–72.

12.    Canetti’s feast crowd has not attracted much attention from subsequent commentators. They have followed earlier interpretations, especially those of Gustave le Bon and José Ortega y Gasset, who have been more concerned with political crowds and the perils arising from domination by a charismatic leader, or from the collective unconsciousness of a crowd that functions as an organism with shared instincts that subordinate its members to a common purpose. J. S. McClelland, The Crowd and the Mob: From Plato to Canetti (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 293–310; Carl F. Graumann and Serge Moscovici, Changing Conceptions of Crowd Mind and Behavior (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1986); Howard N. Tuttle, The Crowd Is Untruth (New York: Peter Lang, 1996); and from a literary/cultural studies perspective Mary Esteve, The Aesthetics and Politics of the Crowd in American Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

13.    Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (London: Penguin, 1977; first published in French in 1895 and in English in 1960); W. M. Conway, The Crowd in Peace and War (London, 1915); John Lionel Taylor, Social Life and the Crowd (London: Leonard Parsons, 1923).

14.    See, for example, D. L. LeMahieu, A Culture for Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).

15.    Walt Disney Productions, Project Florida: A Whole New Disney World (Burbank, Ca, 1967), 4; “Booming Amusement Parks: The Theme is Extreme,” Newsweek, March 30, 1998, 12.

1. Making the Popular Resort: Coney Island and Blackpool about 1900

1.      Brooklyn, Flatbush and Coney Island Railroad, Coney Island, An Illustrated Guide to the Sea with Official Time Tables, Season of 1883 (Brooklyn: Truax and Co, 1883), 10; Stephen Weinstein, “The Nickel Empire: Coney Island and the Creation of Urban Seaside Resorts in the United States,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1984, 38–40.

2.      Julian Ralph, “Coney Island,” Scribner’s Magazine 20 (July 1896): 9; Robert Snow and David Wright, “Coney Island: A Case Study in Popular Culture and Technological Change,” Journal of Popular Culture 9 (Spring 1976): 960–75.

3.      Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea (Cambridge: Polity, 1994).

4.      Michael Immerso: Coney Island: The People’s Playground (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 157.

5.      J. K. Walton, “The Social Development of Blackpool 1788–1914,” Ph.D. dissertation, Lancaster University, 1974, 234–38.

6.      A. B. Granville, The Spas of England, and Principal Sea-Bathing Places (Bath: Adams and Dart, 1971, reprint of 1841 edn.), 1: 349–51.

7.      John Walton, Blackpool (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998), ch. 3.

8.      Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 94; Henry Stiles, ed., Civil, Political, Professional and Ecclesiastical History, and Commercial and Industrial Record of the County of Kings and the City of Brooklyn New York from 1683 to 1984 (New York: Munsell, 1884), 195; Coney Island and the Jews: A History of the Development and Success of this Famous Seaside Resort (New York: C. W. Carleton, 1879), 13–15; Jon Sterngass, First Resorts: Pursuing Pleasure at Saratoga Springs, Newport and Coney Island (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 82.

9.      Brian Cudahy, How We Got to Coney Island: The Development of Mass Transportation in Brooklyn and Kings County (New York: Fordham University Press, 2002), chs. 5 and 6; Stiles, Record of the County of Kings and the City of Brooklyn, 199–200; Eugene Armbruster, Coney Island (New York: Self-published, 1924), 12–13; Sterngass, First Resorts, ch. 3; Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 121–22; Gary Kyriazi, The Great American Amusement Parks (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1976), 26–30.

10.    Cudahy, How We Got to Coney Island, ch. 6.

11.    Sterngass, First Resorts, 104–5; Immerso, Coney, 30–32; José Marti, The America of José Marti (New York: Noonday, 1953), 103–7; Iron Steam Boat Co., Coney Island (New York: Iron Steam Boat, 1883), 10–14, 16; and Brooklyn Railroad, Illustrated Guide, 55–56.

12.    Edo McCullough, Good Old Coney Island (New York: Scribner’s, 1957), 39. Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 95–98; Sterngass, First Resorts, 83–92, 95; Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 121–22.

13.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 263.

14.    Ibid., 240–58.

15.    Robert Poole, The Lancashire Wakes Holidays (Preston: Lancashire County Books, 1994).

16.    J. K. Walton, “The Demand for Working-Class Seaside Holidays in Victorian England,” Economic History Review 34 (1981): 249–65; Patrick Joyce, Visions of the People (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Trevor Griffiths, The Lancashire Working Classes, 1880–1930 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001).

17.    J. K. Walton, Lancashire: A Social History 1558–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), ch. 13; Walton, “Regions, Lifestyles and Consumption Patterns: Lancashire and the Basque Country of Northern Spain,” in H. Siegrist and M. Schramm, eds., Regionalisierung europaischer Konsumkulturen im 20. Jahrhundert (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitatsverlag, 2003), 35–52; A. Fowler, Lancashire Cotton Operatives and Work, 1900–1950 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), ch. 3.

18.    See, for example, Seaside Watering Places (London: L. Upcott Gill, 1885), 262.

19.    J. K. Walton, “The Blackpool Landlady Revisited,” Manchester Region History Review 8 (1994): 27.

20.    Joseph Heller, Now and Then (London: Simon and Schuster, 1998), 40–41; Charles Denson, Coney Island: Lost and Found (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2002), 145.

21.    Immerso: Coney Island, ch. 2; New York World, July 20, 1902, Sp. Section, 2.

22.    J. K. Walton, “Consuming the Beach: Seaside Resorts and Cultures of Tourism in England and Spain from the 1840s to the 1930s,” in E. Furlough and S. Baranowski, eds., Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture and Identity in Modern Europe and North America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 272–98.

23.    This was not an infallible rule for all resorts, but holds true in our examples. Harold Perkin, “The ‘Social Tone’ of Victorian Seaside Resorts in the North-West,” Northern History 12 (1976): 181–94; David Cannadine, Lords and Landlords: The Aristocracy and the Towns (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1980); J. K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort: A Social History 1750–1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1983), ch. 3.

24.    Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 124; Brooklyn Railroad, Coney Island, An Illustrated Guide, 12; Immerso, Coney Island, 113; New York World July 17, 1904, 11E.

25.    Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 117–118, Stiles, Record of the County of Kings and the City of Brooklyn, 195–97; Sterngass, First Resorts, 82–83, 193–223.

26.    Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 55–60; Immerso, Coney Island, 27–29.

27.    New York World, July 29, 1906, 23; Photo of the Fall of Pompeii, Brooklyn Historical Society, v1974.22.6.50 (1903); Story of Manhattan Beach (New York: Francis Hart, 1874), 36; Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 62–65; Coney Island and the Jews, 20–30; Sterngass, First Resorts, 88–95; Immerso, Coney Island, 34; New York World, July 20, 1902, Spec. Sect 1.

28.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 1; J. K. Walton, “Residential Amenity, Respectable Morality and the Rise of the Entertainment Industry: The Case of Blackpool, 1860–1914,” Literature and History 1 (1975): 62–78.

29.    G. Rogers, “Social and Economic Change on Lancashire Landed Estates during the Nineteenth Century, with special reference to the Clifton Estate, 1832–1916,” Ph.D. dissertation, Lancaster University, 1981.

30.    William Mangels, The Outdoor Amusement Industry from Earliest Times to the Present (New York: Vantage, 1952), 147–48; Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks, 30; McCullough, Good Old Coney Island, 55; “The Colossal Elephant of Coney Island,” Scientific American 53 (11 July 1885): 1–21; History of Coney Island: List and Photographs of Main Attractions (New York: Boroughs, 1904), 9–10.

31.    J. K. Walton, “Municipal Government and the Holiday Industry in Blackpool, 1876–1914,” in J. K. Walton and James Walvin eds., Leisure in Britain 1780–1939 (Manchester University Press, 1983).

32.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” chs 6 and 9; Walton, Blackpool, 47–49, 87–96.

33.    “How the New Yorker Meets All Creation on Surf Avenue,” New York World, July 14, 1904, P11E; Dana Gatlin, “Amusing America’s Millions,” World’s Work 26 (July 1913): 327 McCullough, Good Old Coney Island, 251–53; and New York Times (hereafter cited as NYT), August 24, 1908, 7.

34.    Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 233. Scenes from Cakewalk, a film featuring Coney Island, were reproduced in Ric Burns and Buddy Squires; Coney Island: A Documentary Film (Santa Monica, 1991); Sterngass, First Resorts, 243–44; and Richard Snow, Coney Island: A Postcard Journey (New York: Bright Waters Press, 1984), 20.

35.    Immerso, Coney Island, 39–41. See Coney Island ads in the New York Evening Journal, May 16, 1903; and New York Sun, April, May and June 1904, especially May 6, 1904 for Luna Park with claims of being “Twice as large as any amusement resort in the World. More illumination than any spot on Earth. Greater even than St. Louis World’s Fair. The Regenerator of Coney Island.”

36.    Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 356–59; NYT, September 26, 1903, 8; September 23, 1904, 9; and September 22, 1905, 8; Brooklyn Daily Eagle, September 6, 1906, 7; September 19, 1906, 7; and Frederic Thompson, “Amusing People,” Metropolitan Magazine (July 1906), 601.

37.    Martin Daunton, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), part II, chs. 9–13.

38.    For full documentation of this theme see Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 7; S. V. Ward, “Promoting Holiday Resorts: A Review of Early History to 1921,” Planning History 10, no. 2 (1991): 7.

39.    Peter Marsden, Lighting the Waves: A Pictorial Social History of Blackpool Illuminations (Blackpool: Blackpool Corporation, 2004).

40.    N. Morgan and A. Pritchard, Power and Politics at the Seaside (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1999).

41.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 318.

42.    Ibid., 356, for Charles Noden’s career.

43.    Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 217–23.

44.    NYT, May 29, 1899, 2; June 18, 1899, 12; August 21, 1899, 10; April 22, 1909, 10; and May 18, 1909, 18; Immerso, Coney Island, 112; and New York Tribune, June 30, 1896, 12.

45.    NYT, June 24, 1907; June 2 and 19, 1922, 8.

46.    Where Blackpool’s local authority drew the line, at this stage, was investment in parks and libraries: the beach was regarded as the only public park that was needed, while the library of 1880 was neglected after it proved not to be important in attracting tourists. Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 4; Walton, “Municipal Government.”

47.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 457–61.

48.    J. S. Balmer, Blackpool, Paris and Sodom (Blackpool, 1896); Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 8.

49.    Mark Judd, “Popular Culture and the London Fairs, 1800–1860,” in Walton and Walvin, eds., Leisure in Britain, 18–20; R. Storch, ed., Popular Culture and Custom in Nineteenth-Century Britain (London: Croom Helm, 1982).

50.    National Fairground Archive, University of Sheffield, essays by Vanessa Toulmin on the history of British pleasure fairs: www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/nfa (accessed December 31, 2003).

51.    Lynda Nead, Victorian Babylon (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).

52.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 314–15.

53.    Mangels, Outdoor Amusement Industry, 8.

54.    Ibid., 10, 17.

55.    Frederick Fried, A Pictorial History of the Carousel (New York: Barnes, 1964); Mangels, Outdoor Amusement, 50–54, 85–88; Judith Adams, The American Amusement Park Industry: A History of Technology and Thrills (Boston: Twayne, 1991), 7–18; Immerso, Coney Island, 88–89; Vanessa Toulmin’s history of fairground technology, National Fairground Archive website, www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/nfa

56.    In Spain it is still known as a Russian Mountain.

57.    Mangels, Outdoor Amusement, 37–50, 137, 163. Todd Throgmorton, Roller Coasters: United States and Canada (Jefferson, NC: McFarlane, 2000), 1–18, Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 236. See Scientific American pieces: “Looping the Double Loop” 90 (July 8, 1905): 493; “Leap-Frog Railway” 93 (July 8, 1905): 29–30 and especially “Mechanical Joys of Coney Island” 99 (August 15, 1908): 101; and “Mechanical Side of Coney Island” 103 (August 6, 1911): 104–5, 112–13.

58.    Vanessa Toulmin, at www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/nfa cited above.

59.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 315, 397–400.

60.    Laurent Mannoni, The Great Art of Light and Shadow: Archaelology of the Cinema, translated and edited by Richard Crangle (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000), 176-190; Mangels, Outdoor Amusement, 166

61.    Vanessa Toulmin, Pleasurelands (Sheffield: National Fairground Archive, 2003); Simon Popple and Vanessa Toulmin, eds., Visual Delights: Essays on the Popular and Projected Image in the Nineteenth Century (Trowbridge: Flicks Books, 2000); Vanessa Toulmin, Simon Popple and Patrick Russell (eds.), The Lost World of Mitchell and Kenyon: Edwardian Britain on Film (London: British Film Institute, 2004); Mannoni, The Great Art of Light and Shadow, 115–35, 268.

62.    Rachel Adams, Sideshow U.S.A.: Freaks and the American Cultural Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 212–17.

63.    Leslie Fiedler, Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 53–54.

64.    Martin Howard, Victorian Grotesque (London: Jupiter Books, 1977); Michael Howell and Peter Ford, The True History of the Elephant Man (London: Allison and Busby, 1983).

65.    Robert Bogdan, Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 44–45, 129, ch. 3, 5.

66.    Andrea Dennett, Weird and Wonderful: The Dime Museum in America (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 7, 40 44, 48, ch. 2. See also Benjamin Reiss, The Showman and the Slave: Race, Death, and Memory in Barnum’s America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001) and James Cook, The Arts of Deception: Playing with Fraud in the Age of Barnum (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 73–162.

67.    Michael J. Fidler, Alton Towers: A Gothic Wonderland (Stafford: M. J. Fisher, 1999), 160.

68.    World’s Fair, July 12–26, 1913.

69.    Bogdan, Freak Show, 40, 44, 48; C.J.S. Thompson, History and Lore of Freaks (London, Senate, 1976 [1930]), 32, 70; Helen Stoddart, Rings of Desire: Circus History and Representation (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000); National Fairground Archive, Vanessa Toulmin’s notes on Margaret Shufflebottom Collection, www.shef.ac.uk/uni/projects/nfa

70.    Benjamin Truman, History of the World’s Fair (New York: Arno Press, 1976 [1893]); Robert Rydell, All the World’s A Fair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 65–65; David Nasaw, Going Out: The Rise and Fall of Public Amusements (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 67–88, chs. 2, 3; Bogdan, Freak Show, 50–51; David Burg, Chicago’s White City of 1893 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1976); Reid Badger, The Great American Fair (Chicago, Nelson Hall, 1979); and Robert Rydell, World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), chs. 1, 4, and 5.

71.    “The Great Wheel at Chicago,” Scientific American 69 (July 1, 1893): 21 and Adams, Amusement Park, 31–35.

72.    James Sizer, Commercialization of Leisure (Boston: Richard Badger, 1917), 49. Mangels, Outdoor Amusement, 32–33.

73.    Michele Bogart, Public Sculpture and the Civic Ideal in New York City, 1890–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1989), 243.

74.    John Glanfield, Earls Court and Olympia: From Buffalo Bill to the Brits (Stroud: Sutton, 2003); Paul Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 41–44.

75.    Andreas Theve, Mats Wickman, and Ove Hahn, Folkets Gröna Lund (Stockholm: Lind & Co., 2003); www.tivoligardens.com (accessed January 3, 2004).

76.    Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks, 34–42.

77.    Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks, 47–57; New York World, July 20, 1902, Special Section, 2; Quotation from Reginald Kauffman, “Why is Coney,” Hampton’s Magazine 23 (August 1909): 224.

78.    NYT, July 29, 1907, 1; and July 30, 1902, 1–2.

79.    NYT, December 29, 1907, 7; and August 16 1908, X6.

80.    Adams, American Amusement Park, 20–28; and F. D. Millet, “The Designers of the Fair,” Harpers’ Monthly Magazine 85 (November 1892): 878.

81.    Oliver Pilat and Jo Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, An Affectionate History of Coney Island (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1941), 144–46; Woody Register, The Kid of Coney Island: Fred Thompson and the Rise of American Amusements (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 92, 132–33; New York World, July 25, 1909, 24.

82.    On opening day of Luna Park in 1903, gate admission was ten cents. Entrance to all the attractions would have cost $1.95, a sum almost equal to a day’s wage for manual workers. Mangels, Outdoor Amusement, 46–47; Jeffrey Stanton, “Luna Park” (1998), 7–8, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm.

83.    Adams, Amusement Park Industry, 48. Register; Kid of Coney Island, 121; New York Herald May 6, 1906, part 3, 14.

84.    NYT, May 7, 1905, 9; June 11, 1905, 9; Register, Kid of Coney Island, 121; Stanton, “Luna Park,” 6–22; and Immerso, Coney, 71.

85.    Register, Kid of Coney Island, 141; Stanton, “Luna Park,” 22–23.

86.    1904 newspaper guide Brooklyn Daily Eagle, May 8, 1904; and Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 249.

87.    Barr Ferree, “The New Popular Resort Architecture, Dreamland, Coney Island,” Architects’ and Builders’ Magazine, 36 (August 1904): 499; Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 220–23.

88.    History of Coney Island, 12, 22; Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli Press, 1994), 55.

89.    Scientific American, July 5, 1905, 29–30; NYT, May 22, 1904, 9; Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks, 67–70; Jeffrey Stanton, “Coney Island—Dreamland,” April 1998, 1–11, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm.

90.    Stanton, “Coney Island—Dreamland,” 1–22; Brooklyn Daily Eagle May 7, 1911 for Dreamland owners’ disappointment in failing to attract a middle-class crowd.

91.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 332.

92.    Ibid., 87, 326–7; Peter Bennett, A Century of Fun (Blackpool: Blackpool Pleasure Beach, 1996), 16–17.

93.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 327; Bennett, Century of Fun, 12–14.

94.    Bennett, Century of Fun, 18.

95.    Ibid., 18–25; Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 328–29; Pleasure Beach Archive, folders 6, 9, and 41.

96.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 87–89; Bennett, Century of Fun, 18–36.

97.    Pilat and Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, 98–99.

98.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 6.

99.    Elmer Blaney Harris, “Day of Rest at Coney Island,” Everybody’s Magazine, 19 (July 1908): 34; NYT, July 30, 1907, 1–2; May 5, 1925, S1.

100.  Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks. 79–81

101.  Frederic Thompson, “The Summer Show,” Independent 62 (July 6, 1907): 1463; New York World, 4 July 1897, 32.

102.  Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 8; F.M.L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society (London: Penguin, 1988).

103.  Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 62–65; Photo of Oriental Hotel, Brooklyn Historical Society, V1974.22.4. 157 (1900); Coney Island and the Jews, 20–30; Sterngass, First Resorts, 88–95; Immerso, Coney, 34.

104.  Sterngass, First Resorts, 230–34; Brighton Beach Hotel photos, Brooklyn Historical Society, v 1974. 22.5. 140 and 142; Lyman Weeks, The American Turf (New York, 1898), 471–75; Walter Vosburgh, Racing in America, 1866–1921 (New York: Jockey Club, 1922), 26–31; Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 74–80. For details of gambling restrictions, see NYT, June 12, 1908; July 3, 1908; May 27, 1910; and September 2, 1910.

105.  Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” ch. 1; J. K. Walton, The Blackpool Landlady: A Social History (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978), ch. 3–5; Walton, Blackpool, ch. 4; David Cannadine, ed., Patricians, Power and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Towns (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1982); Arthur Laycock, Warren of Manchester (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co, 1906); Stanley Houghton, Hindle Wakes (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1912).

106.  Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 129, 133, 148–50; William Allen, “The Opportunities at Coney Island,” Charities 12 (June 4, 1904): 582; Robert Smith, Brooklyn at Play (New York: Revisionist Press, 1977), 118.

107.  Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 194; Kryriazi, American Amusement Parks, 26.

108.  Sterngass, First Resorts, 105–7; David Nasaw, Going Out, ch. 5.

109.  New York World, July 21, 1912, 5N.

110.  Maurice G. Hope, Castles in the Sand: the Story of New Brighton (Ormskirk: G.W. and A. Hesketh, 1982); J. K. Walton, The British Seaside: Holidays and Resorts in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 188.

111.  E. J. Hobsbawm, Worlds of Labour (London: Weidenfeld, 1984); Richard Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy (London: Chatto and Windus, 1957), for the latter days of this way of life in industrial Yorkshire.

2. The Industrial Saturnalia and the Playful Crowd

1.      Chris Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture, 1884–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990); Harvey Taylor, A Claim on the Countryside (Keele: Keele University Press, 1997); Roy Rosenzweig, Eight Hours for What We Will (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London: Routledge, 1978).

2.      R. W. Malcolmson, Popular Recreations in English Society, 1700–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973); Douglas Reid, “The Decline of St Monday 1760–1860,” Past and Present 71 (1976): 76–101; David Underdown, Revel, Riot and Rebellion: Popular Politics in England, 1603–1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985); Eileen and Stephen Yeo, eds., Popular Culture and Class Conflict: Explorations in the History of Labour and Leisure, 1590–1914 (Brighton: Harvester, 1981).

3.      Harold Perkin, The Structured Crowd (London: Routledge, 1981).

4.      The souvenir program of the 1923 Carnival laid the optimistic claim to an international public: “There are people here from everywhere: jovial Northerners, surprised Southerners, sightseeing Americans, volatile visitors from the Continent.” John Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool” Ph.D. thesis, Lancaster University, 1974, 267, table 5.4; Blackpool Carnival: Official Souvenir Programme, June 9th to June 16th (inclusive), 1923, in British Library 103609 47; and see also Blackpool: Britain’s Playground (Blackpool: Blackpool Corporation, 1928), 24; James Laver, “Blackpool,” in Y. Cloud, ed., Beside the Seaside (London: Bodley Head, 2nd ed., 1938), 176.

5.      Michael Immerso, Coney Island: The People’s Playground (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 155–56; Charles Denson, Coney Island: Lost and Found (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 2002), ch. 2; Walton, “Social Development,” ch. 5.

6.      Immerso, Coney Island, 143, 149.

7.      Denson, Coney Island, 84; Joseph Heller, Now and Then (London: Pocket Books, 1998), 32–33, 44; H. S. Ashbee, “A Sunday at Coney Island” (London, 1882: reprinted from Temple Bar), 6; Photos of Brooklyn Historical Society, V1974.22.6.33; V1974.22.6.42; V197419.1.27.

8.      Immerso, Coney Island, 150–55; Denson, Coney Island, 65, 274; Heller, Now and Then, 51.

9.      Mark Judd, “Popular Culture and the London Fairs, 1800–1860,” in John K. Walton and James Walvin, eds., Leisure in Britain, 1780-1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983), 24–25.

10.    Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (New York: Harper, 1978), 178–204; Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1984), ch. 1.

11.    Adrian Henstock, Early Victorian Country Town (Ashbourne: Ashbourne Local History Group, 1978); Lyn Murfin, Popular Leisure in the Lake Counties (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 110–14; Stephen Nissenbaum, The Battle for Christmas (New York: Knopf, 1996), 5-11.

12.    Martin Hewitt, ed., Unrespectable Recreations (Leeds: Leeds Centre for Victorian Studies, 2001); Mike Huggins, Flat Racing and British Society, 1790–1914 (London: Frank Cass, 1999).

13.    These include the Blackpool Pleasure Beach Archives, Photographic Collection, (the authors thank Ted Lightbown for his generous help in providing access to this material); National Fairground Archive, Sheffield, Mitchell and Kenyon Collection, Reels 200, 201, 203, 205; and North West Film Archive, Manchester, Accession Nos. 1822 (1930s), 175 (1934), 726 (1929), 152 (1934), 149 (1924), 166 (1924), 1169 (1928), 1166 (1933), 754 (1930s).

14.    María Antonia Paz has taken this approach with Madrid newsreel film from before the Spanish Civil War, paying particular attention to headgear and footwear as status markers, as well as male facial hair and smoking habits. She classifies by age, gender, and social class. The status markers she uses for this latter purpose are based on clothing, with a strong emphasis on hats (whether worn and of what sort), shoes, spectacles and (for men) tie, coat, and mustache. María Antonia Paz, “Cine para la Historia Urbana,” Historia Contemporánea 22 (2001): 179–213.

15.    Patrick Joyce, Visions of the People: Industrial England and the Question of Class, 1840–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 167–69: Allen Clarke, The Effects of the Factory System (Littleborough, 1985: first published 1899).

16.    W. K. Haselden, cartoon in Daily Mirror August 3, 1909, Centre for the Study of Cartoons and Caricature, University of Kent, WH 2863.

17.    Arthur Laycock, Warren of Manchester (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1906), 103.

18.    George Beaumont, T’Trip to Blackpool: a Yorkshire Dialect Comedy in One Act (Idle: Watmough, 1933).

19.    Dave Russell, Football and the English (Preston: Carnegie, 1997).

20.    Photos of the Bowery, Brooklyn Historical Society, V1973.5.2726 (1903); V1973.4.684 (1910); V1972.1.1106 (1900); Frank Staley, Staley’s Views of Coney Island (New York: Charles Frances, 1908) np; New York World, July 20, 1902, Special Section, 2; John Kasson, Amusing the Million (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978).

21.    For more clearly “structured” crowds in which people knew their place and generally kept to it, J. K. Walton, “Policing the Alameda,” in S. Gunn and R. Morris, eds., Identities in Space (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), 228–41.

22.    Blackpool: Britain’s Playground (Blackpool: Blackpool Corporation, 1928), 24.

23.    Ad in Brooklyn Daily Eagle, May 27, 1911; Frederic Thompson, “Amusing the Million,” Everybody’s Magazine 19 (September 1908): 386; and Woody Register, Kid of Coney Island: Fred Thompson and the Rise of American Amusements (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 97.

24.    Alfred Rumble, Coney Island Frolics: How New York’s Gay Girls and Jolly Boys Enjoy Themselves by the Sea (New York: R. K. Fox, 1883), 37; and New York Sun, July 16, 1877, cited in Stephen Weinstein, “The Nickel Empire, Coney Island and the Creation of Urban Seaside Resorts in the United States,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1984, 180.

25.    Tom Treddlehoyle, “A Leeds Loiner’s Leap inta Luv at Blackpool,” T’Pogmoor Olmenack an Bairnsla Foaks Yearly Jottings (Barnsley, 1904), 28; “On Blackpool Shore,” John Hartley’s Clock Almanack (Wakefield, 1905), 42–3; Teddy Ashton’s Gradely Guide to Blackpool (4th ed., Blackpool, 1908), 21; Gary Cross, ed., Worktowners at Blackpool: Mass-Observation and Popular Leisure in the 1930s (London: Routledge, 1990), 180–91.

26.    Laver, “Blackpool,” 155.

27.    John Kasson, Amusing the Million (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978), 45–49; Register, Kid of Coney Island, 95; and Kathy Peiss, Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Turn-of-the-Century New York (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 115–38.

28.    Elmer Harris, “Day of Rest at Coney Island,” Everybody’s Magazine 19 (July 1908): 28–34.

29.    Rollin Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” Atlantic Monthly 99 (May 1907): 676–77.

30.    Laycock, Warren of Manchester; Walton, Blackpool, 72; Cross, Worktowners at Blackpool, 180–91.

31.    Rob Shields, Places on the Margin (London: Routledge, 1991).

32.    Ab-o’-th-’Yate, Adventures at Blackpool (Manchester: John Heywood, 1872). This stereotype was still strong nine years later: Ab-o’-th’-Yate, Drop’t on at Blackpool (Manchester: Abel Heywood, 1881).

33.    North West Film Archive, Accession 149; John Walton, Blackpool (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998), 123–24; Steve Humphries, A Secret World of Sex (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1988), 165–92.

34.    King Vidor, The Crowd (1928, MGM, UA VCR, 1989).

35.    Frank Tilsley, Pleasure Beach (London: Collins, 1944); J. L. Hodson, Carnival at Blackport (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937).

36.    Photo collection of the Brooklyn Historical Society, V19174, 22. 6. 40; V1974.19.1.4; V1974.22.6.27; V1986.25.1.28; V1973.4.774; V1986.24.1.9; V1974.22.6.39; V1975.5.12.41.

37.    E. V. Lucas, Roving East and Roving West (London: Methuen, 1921), 111.

38.    This segregation of children from the full-size adult pleasures of the amusement park proper is confirmed by a home movie, which shows young children riding a miniature Captive Flying Machine and carousel, with some pre-teens joining in on the miniature roller coaster. Blackpool: Britain’s Playground, 31; North West Film Archive, Accession 726; Immerso, Coney Island, 142; Lightbown, “Buildings and Rides,” Pleasure Beach Archive.

39.    “Toy Maker for Grown-Ups,” New York Journal, May 5, 1916, 22; Elmer Harris, “The Day of Rest at Coney Island,” Everybody’s Magazine 19 (July 1908): 24. Register, Kid of Coney Island, 11 argues that Luna Park was invented, “for middle-class adults, not for the poor, or children, or families.” We would qualify his class claim, for it reached blue-collar wage earners as well, but it is still a well-taken point. See also Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 95–99; and William Gleason, The Leisure Ethic: Work and Play in American Literature, 1984–1940 (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1999), 100–14.

40.    Thompson, “Amusing the Million,” 385–87; Frederic Thompson, “Amusing People,” Metropolitan Magazine (July 106) 602, 603; Thompson, “The Summer Show,” Independent 62 (July 6, 1907): 1461.

41.    Edward Tilyou, “Human Nature with the Brakes Off—Or: Why the Schoolma’am Walked into the Sea,” American Magazine 94 (July 1922): 19, 92; Lindsey Denison, “The Biggest Playground in the World,” Munsey’s Magazine, August 1905, 557–559 makes the same point. See also Colin Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 77–95.

42.    Register, Kid of Coney Island, 12, 16; Thompson, “Summer Show,” 1462; Jon Sterngass, First Resorts: Pursuing Pleasure at Saratoga Springs, Newport, and Coney Island (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 272–73

43.    Frederic Thompson, “Amusing the Million,” 378–379; Thompson, “Amusement Architecture,” Architectural Review 16, 7 (July 1909): 87–89; Michele Bogart, Public Sculpture and the Civic Ideal in New York City, 1890–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 248, 250–57.

44.    Harper’s Weekly 35 (September 12, 1891): 694. The bizarre Elephant Hotel (standing between 1884 and 1896) is described in Clay Lancaster, Architectural Follies in America (Rutland, VT: Charles Tuttle, 1960), 194–96.

45.    Thompson, “Amusement Architecture,” 88; Thompson, “The Summer Show,” 1461; Kasson, Amusing the Million, 63; Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York.: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli Press, 1994).

46.    Bogart, Public Sculpture and the Civic Ideal, 243. On the sublimity of electric lighting see David Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880–1940 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990).

47.    Tony Bennett, ‘“Hegemony, Ideology, Pleasure—Blackpool,” in Bennett et al., eds., Popular Culture and Social Change (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1986), ch. 7.

48.    John K. Walton, Blackpool Landlady: A Social History (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978), ch. 3; Bennett, Century of Fun; Lynne F. K. Pearson, The People’s Palaces: The Story of the Seaside Pleasure Buildings of 1870–1914 (Buckingham: Barracuda, 1991).

49.    Thompson, “Amusing the Million,” 385; Thompson, “The Summer Show,” 146.

50.    Thompson anticipated an argument—that desires no longer needed to be controlled or sublimated if they were diffused—that Martha Wolfenstein would articulate in “Fun Morality: An Analysis of Recent American Child-training Literature,” in Margaret Mead and Martha Wolfenstein, eds., Childhood in Contemporary Cultures (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 169–74.

51.    Laver, “Blackpool,” 170–71.

52.    Kasson, Amusing the Million, 59, 60; Edwin Slosson, “Amusement Business,” Independent, 57 (July 21, 1904): 136; History of Coney Island: Lists of Photographs by Main Attractions (New York: Burroughs, 1904), 36–37; New York World, July 20, 1902, Sp. Sect., 2; and Judith Adams, The American Amusement Park Industry: A History of Technology and Thrills (Boston: Twayne, 1991), 45.

53.    “Mechanical Joys of Coney Island,” Scientific American, August 15, 1908, 109.

54.    Adams, American Amusement Park Industry, 50; Kasson, Amusing the Million, 76.

55.    Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” 675; History of Coney Island, 16.

56.    Fun on the Pleasure Beach wi’ Sally an’ Sam, Jimmy an’ Jane Ann, Towd by Sally Hersel (Blackpool: Laycock & Co., 1909). Unpaginated. See also, for example, Frank Tilsley, Pleasure Beach (London: Collins, 1944), 33.

57.    John Urry, The Tourist Gaze (London: Sage, 1990).

58.    See images of the Human Roulette and other such rides in “To Heaven by Subway,” Fortune 18 (Aug. 1938); 61–68, 102–106; Gary Kyriazi, The Great American Amusement Parks (Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1976), 89; Jeffrey Stanton, “Coney Island—Second Steeplechase, 1908–1964,” May 1999, 6, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm.

59.    Urry, The Tourist Gaze and especially Consuming Places (London: Sage, 1995), in which he elaborates additional versions of this concept.

60.    Kasson, Amusing the Million, 42–43; Robert Dabney, “Gay Coney Island is a Jolly Nice Place,” New York World, September 21, 1912, N 5; Slosson, “Amusement Business,” 136, 139.

61.    Immerso, Coney Island, 137–47; Oliver Pilat and Jo Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, An Affectionate History of Coney Island (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1941), 220–25; Todd Throgmorton, Roller Coasters: United States and Canada (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2000), 13–16.

62.    Kasson, Amusing the Million, 70; William Mangels, The Outdoor Amusement Industry from Earliest Times to the Present (New York: Vantage, 1952), 165; Daniel Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo Events in America (New York: Harper & Row, 1961); Dana Gatlin, “Amusing America’s Millions,” World’s Work 26 (July 1913), 228.

63.    History of Coney Island, 22, 14 and New York World, 20 July 1902, Sp. Sect., 2.

64.    History of Coney Island, 12; Koolhas, Delirious New York, 49; Thompson, “Amusing People,” 605; Slosson, “Amusement Business,” 136, 139; Jeffrey Stanton, “Coney Island—Dreamland,” April 1998, 1–22, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm; Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” 673.

65.    Quotations from Julian Hawthorne, “Some Novelties at Buffalo Fair,” Cosmopolitan 31 (Sept 1901): 490–91; and a promotional brochure Pan-American Exposition (Buffalo, 1901), 29; Register, Kid of Coney Island, 71, 74–76; Albert Paine, “The New Coney Island,” Century 68 (Aug. 1904): 544; History of Coney Island, 12–13; Jeffery Stanton, “Coney Island—Luna Park,” May 1998, 1–2, 16, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm.

66.    Lucy Gillman, “Coney Island,” New York History 3, 36 (July 1955): 280–81; Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” 675–76.

67.    Peter Bennett, A Century of Fun (Blackpool: Blackpool Pleasure Beach, 1996), 21–25, 30–35.

68.    Helen Duckham and Baron F. Duckham, Great Pit Disasters: Great Britain, 1700 to the Present (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1973).

69.    Callum Brown, The Death of Christian Britain (London: Routledge, 2000); Michael Wheeler, Heaven, Hell and the Victorians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); John Wigley, The Rise and Fall of the Victorian Sunday (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980); Cross, Worktowners, 200; Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” chs. 8 and 9.

70.    Slosson, “Amusement Business,” 138.

71.    Robert Bogdan, Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and profit (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 134–42, 158–60; History of Coney Island, 12, 24; Jeffrey Stanton, “Coney Island-Freaks,” 1997, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/coneyisland/histart.htm; Pilat and Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, 176–87; Edo McCullough, Good Old Coney Island (New York: Scribner’s, 1957), 258–267; New York Times (hereafter cited as NYT), July 8, 1928, 110; Andrea Dennett, Weird and Wonderful: The Dime Museum in America (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 131–32; NYT, May 23, 1904, 5; and NYT, April 29, 1926, 48.

72.    Kyriazi, American Amusement Parks, 72–74; Pilat and Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, 200–207; NYT, July 24, 1929, 14.

73.    Public Record Office, Kew, HO45/16275/655652, September 1933; Ben Brierley, The Nettlecrabs at Blackpool (Manchester: Abel Heywood, 1886), 13–14; Rose Collis, Colonel Barker’s Monstrous Regiment (London: Virago, 2001), 206–16; Cross, Worktowners at Blackpool, 200; Owen Davies, Witchcraft, Magic and Culture 1736–1951 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999), 253–57; Walton, Blackpool, 125–26.

74.    Cross, Worktowners at Blackpool, 110–113, 117–124.

75.    Leslie Fiedler, Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 24–36; James Cook, The Arts of Deception: Playing with Fraud in the Age of Barnum (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 73; Rachael Adams, Sideshow U.S.A.: Freaks and the American Cultural Imagination (University of Chicago Press, 2001), 7, 9.

76.    Adams, Sideshow, 112–118; Bogdan, Freak Show, 112, 233.

77.    Fielder, Freaks, ch. 6; C.J.S. Thompson, History and Lore of Freaks (London, Senate, 1976 [1930]), 88, 191, 207–8; Bogdan, Freak Show, 200–204, 226–228;.

78.    www.neonatology.org(classics)lancet.earls.html accessed January 4, 2004.

79.    Immerso, Coney Island, 68; and especially Pilat and Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, 191–200.

3. The Crowd and Its Critics

1.      Maxim Gorky, “Boredom,” Independent 63 (8 July 1907): 310–311, 315; Rem Koolhaas, Delirious New York: a Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli Press, 1994), 68.

2.      William Dean Howells, “The Waters of Blackpool,” North American Review (December 1911): 875.

3.      Harvey Taylor, A Claim on the Countryside (Edinburgh: Keele University Press, 1997), ch. 6; Chris Waters, British Socialists and the Politics of Popular Culture 1884–1914 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), 37–38.

4.      Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd, A Study of the Popular Mind (New York: Ballantine Books, 1969). Note also Robert A. Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave Le Bon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1975); Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).

5.      George Cutten, The Threat of Leisure (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1926), 89, 99, 17; Frank R. Leavis and Denys Thompson, Culture and Environment: The Training of Critical Awareness (1933, reprinted: London, Chatto & Windus, 1962), 30–40, and 47; Rollin Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” Atlantic Monthly 99 (May 1907): 672.

6.      José Ortega y Gasset, The Revolt of the Masses (1930, reprinted: New York: Norton, 1957), 7–8 and ch. 3; Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West (1926–28, reprinted: New York, Oxford University Press, 1991); and Leonard Woolf, Barbarians at the Gate (London: V. Gollancz, 1939).

7.      Sigmund Freud, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1922, reprinted: New York: Norton, 1975), 5–22, 82, and 99–100.

8.      Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle (1920: reprinted: New York: Liveright, 1950), 4–5, 47, and 68.

9.      Bruce Bliven, “Coney Island for Battered Souls,” New Republic 28 (November 23, 1921): 374.

10.    Richard Edwards, Popular Amusements (New York: Association Press, 1915), 107, 133. A similar point of view is expressed by the British observer Constance Harris, The Use of Leisure in Bethnal Green (London: Lindsey Press, 1927), 43.

11.    Robert and Helen Lynd, Middletown (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929), 251–57; George Lundberg et. al., Leisure, A Suburban Study (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934), 15–24, 59–72 and 142–160.

12.    Bliven, “Coney Island for Battered Souls,” 374.

13.    Ibid.; Lindsay Denison, “The Biggest Playground in the World,” Munsey’s Magazine (August 1905): 557–59; Maurice Davie, Problems of City Life (New York: Wiley, 1932), 579.

14.    Edward Ross, Social Psychology (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 54–56 cited in John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978), 97; James Huneker, New Cosmopolis: A Book of Images (New York: Scribner’s, 1915), 154, 156.

15.    Good examples are: Frank. R. Leavis, Mass Civilization and Minority Culture (Cambridge: Minority Press, 1930); Clive Bell, Civilization, An Essay (London: Chatto & Windus, 1928); and Lewis Mumford, Sticks and Stones (New York: Norton, 1924). An interesting analysis of the problem is Andrew Ross, No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (London: Routledge, 1989).

16.    Louise More, Wage-Earners’ Budgets: A Study of Standards and Cost of Living in New York City (New York: Henry Holt, 1907), 170–180; A. Clark and Edith Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet: The Income and Outlay of New York City Working Girls (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 10; Peter Roberts, “Immigrant Wage-Earners,” in Paul Kellogg, ed., Wage-Earning Pittsburgh (New York, Survey Associates, 1914), 50.

17.    Brooklyn Daily Eagle, June 12, 1899 cited in Stephen Weinstein, “The Nickel Empire: Coney Island and the Creation of Urban Seaside Resorts in the United States,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1984, 221–222.

18.    Julian Ralph, “Coney Island,” Scribner’s Magazine 20 (July 1896): 17; William Sydney Porter, The Complete Works of O. Henry (New York: Doubleday, 1970), 71; “Coney Island,” New York World, July 20, 1902, Special Section, 2; William R. Taylor, In Pursuit of Gotham: Culture and Commerce in New York (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 86–87, 109–111; James Huneker, New Cosmopolis: A Book of Images (New York: Scribner’s, 1915), 168; John Sloan’s New York Scene, ed. Bruce St. John (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 141; Richard Le Gallienne, “Human Need for Coney Island,” Cosmopolitan 39 (July 1905): 243, 245.

19.    Lucas was apparently unaware that such performances were permitted in England, and the comparison does not convince; but the positive view of Coney Island is nevertheless arresting. H. S. Ashbee, “A Sunday at Coney Island” (London, 1882, reprinted from Temple Bar, copy in British Library), 6; E. V. Lucas, Roving East and Roving West (London: Methuen, 1921), 110–11.

20.    Albert Paine, “The New Coney Island,” Century 68 (August 1904): 542, 547, 537–47; Kasson, Amusing the Million, 91–94; Reginald Marsh, Reginald Marsh: Coney Island (Fort Wayne, IN: Fort Wayne Museum of Art, 1991).

21.    Robert Neal, “New York’s City of Play,” World of To-day 11 (August 1906), 822.

22.    Simon Patten, New Basis of Civilization (New York, Macmillan, 1907), 123.

23.    Patten, New Basis, 125; and Daniel Fox, The Discovery of Abundance: Simon N. Patten and the Transformation of Social Theory (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1967), 73–74.

24.    James Sizer, Commercialization of Leisure (Boston: Richard Badger, 1917), 54, 66, 80–81; Patten, New Basis for Civilization, 128–29, 131–32.

25.    J. K. Walton, “The Social Development of Blackpool 1788–1914,” Ph.D. dissertation, Lancaster University, 1974, 312, 382, 423, 432–33; J. M. Golby and A. W. Purdue, The Civilisation of the Crowd: Popular Culture in England 1750–1900, second edition (Stroud, England: Sutton, 1999), 186–88.

26.    Walton, “Social Development of Blackpool,” 433–5.

27.    Blackpool 1897 (Blackpool: Corporation, 1897), 17, 29.

28.    Fitton’s verse is as follows: “When yo’re full up wi’ yo’r holiday potion,/An’ wobble abeawt wi’ a W motion,/Yo’ then winno’ think o’ yo’r Nancy, or Nellies,/But bluster, an’ swagger, an’ fancy yo’re fellies/Eh, Torry, an’ Dicky, an’ Harry, an’ Billy,/Dunno’ do that—it’s so awfully silly!/That winno’ do, so con this bi yo’re motto, folks:/Struttin’ abeawt on a prom wi’ a lot o’ folks/Skittin’ an’ chaffin’, /An’ yellin’ an’ laughin’,/Cooin’ and croonin’,/An’ smilin’ an’ spoonin’./Bo’dyedded mashers, an’ others wi’ toppin’ on,/ Flirtin’, and’ doin’ yo’re best to be “coppin’ on,”/Still if yo’r happy I’ll let yo’ a-be,/ Happen yo’r reet, but it winno’ suit me.” Cotton Factory Times, 5 August 1910, with thanks to Jim Pressley for this reference.

29.    Arthur Laycock, Warren of Manchester (London: Simpkin Marshall, 1906), 92–103.

30.    Allen Clarke, The Effects of the Factory System (first published 1899, reprinted Littleborough: George Kelsall, 1985).

31.    Blackpool Times, May 27, 1904.

32.    Blackpool Official Guide 1924: The Home of Health, Pleasure, Fun and Fancy (Blackpool: Corporation, 1924), 22, 34; Blackpool: Britain’s Playground (Blackpool: Corporation, 1928), 21, 23.

33.    T. H. Mawson, The Life and Work of an English Landscape Architect (London, n.d.), 344; and see also Helen Meller, European Cities 1890s-1930s (Chichester: John Wiley, 2001), ch. 5.

34.    Daily Dispatch, August 3–7, 1934.

35.    For William Holt himself, see his autobiography I Haven’t Unpacked (London: G. G. Harrap, 1939).

36.    Frank Tilsley, Pleasure Beach (London: Collins, 1944), 7, 19, 31–35; D. L. Murray, Leading Lady (London, 1947), 242.

37.    Ivor Brown, The Heart of England (London: Batsford, 1935), 69, 20.

38.    C. Delise Burns, Leisure in the Modern World (New York: Century, 1932), 3, 17–21, 63, 72, 77, 83, 91, 255, and 234. See also John Hammond, The Growth of Common Enjoyment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1933).

39.    Gary Cross ed., Worktowners at Blackpool (London: Routledge, 1990), 8. See also P. J. Gurney, “‘Intersex’ and ‘Dirty Girls’: Mass-Observation and Working-Class Sexuality in England in the 1930s,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 8 (1997): 256–90; Anthony Burgess, Little Wilson and Big God (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987), 127.

40.    Harvey Taylor, A Claim on the Countryside, 194–95; Labour Leader, September 2, 1904; Waters, British Socialists, 37–38.

41.    Taylor, Claim on the Countryside, 203–6; Waters, British Socialists, 75–76.

42.    J. B. Priestley, English Journey (London: William Heinemann, 1934), 267.

43.    Walter Greenwood, Lancashire (London: Robert Hale, 1951).

44.    Huneker, New Cosmopolis, 154, 156; and Rollin Hartt, The People at Play: Excursions in the Humor and Philosophy of Popular Amusements (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1909), 53–54.

45.    R. S. Neale, Bath, 1680–1850 (London: Routledge, 1981); Peter Borsay, The Image of Georgian Bath (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); Phyllis Hembry, The English Spa, 1560–1815 (London: Athlone, 1991); John K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort: A Social History 1750–1914 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1983); Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea (Cambridge: Polity, 1994); Hartmut Berghoff et al., eds., The Making of Modern Tourism (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002).

46.    Perceval Reniers, The Springs of Virginia: Life, Love and Death at the Waters, 1775–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 70–88; George Waller, Saratoga: Saga of an Impious Era (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1966), 56–108; William Dean Howells, Literature and Life (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1902), 172; Jon Sterngass, First Resorts: Pursuing Pleasure at Saratoga Springs, Newport, and Coney Island (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 241; Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 208–209; Cindy S. Aron, Working at Play: A History of Vacations in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

47.    The New York Times (hereafter cited as NYT), July 16, 1866 cited in Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 127; Eleanor Ells, History of Organized Camping: The First 100 Years (Martinsville IN, 1986), 1–85; Leslie Paris, “The Adventures of Peanut and Bo: Summer Camps and Early-Twentieth-Century American Girlhood,” 12, no. 4, Journal of Women’s History (Winter 2001): 47–88.

48.    Henry Curtis, The Play Movement and Its Significance (New York, 1917), 60–65; Clarence Rainwater, The Play Movement in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1922), 100–105. For an assessment, see Dom Cavallo, Muscles and Morals: Organized Playgrounds and Urban Reform, 1880–1920 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1981), 46–48.

49.    Herbert May and Dorothy Petgen, Leisure and its Uses: Some International Observations (New York: A.S. Barnes, 1928), 174.

50.    Ann Holt, “Hikers and Ramblers: Surviving a Thirties’ Fashion,” International Journal of the History of Sport, 4 (May 1987): 157–67; Taylor, Claim on the Countryside, 251–55.

51.    Taylor, Claim on the Countryside; Helen Walker, “The Popularisation of the Outdoor Movement,” British Journal of Sports History 2 (September 1985): 140–53; Holiday Fellowship pamphlets (British Library WP15115) and T. A. Leonard, Adventures in Holiday Making (London: Holiday Fellowship, 1934).

52.    Taylor, Claim on the Countryside, 259–60.

53.    For an example of the British group holiday see Mass-Observation Archive, Worktown Project, Box 2/G, reports on the Butlin camps, 1947.

54.    Sylvester Baxter, “Seaside Pleasure,” Scribner’s 23 (June 1898): 677, 686; Rollin Hartt, “The Amusement Park,” Atlantic Monthly 99 (May 1907): 667; O. Henry (William Sydney Porter), “The Greater Coney Island,” in Sixes and Sevens (Garden City, Doubleday, 1919), 221–23.

55.    George Lansbury, My England (London: Blount’s Topical Books, 1934), 15; George Bourne (George Sturt), Change in the Village (London: Duckworth, 1911). Note also “The Holiday Dream,” in Cross, Worktowners at Blackpool, ch. 3.

56.    David Matless, Landscape and Englishness (London: Reaktion, 1998); Georgina Boyes, The Imagined Village (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993); Frank R. Leavis, Mass Civilisation and Minority Culture (Cambridge: Minority Press, 1930); John K. Walton, Tourism, Fishing and Redevelopment: Post-War Whitby, 1945–1970 (Cambridge: Wolfson Lectures, 2005).

57.    Cyril Joad, Diogenes or the Future of Leisure (New York: Dutton, 1928), 65.

58.    George Soule, A Planned Society (New York: Macmillan, 1932), 283.

59.    R. and H. Lynd, Middletown, 251–57.

60.    Jay Anderson, Time Machines: The World of Living History (Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1984), 17–30; Quotation from Mike Wallace, “Visiting the Past: History Museums in the United States,” Radical History Review 25 (1981): 68; Tony Bennett, “Museums and the People,” in Robert Lumley, ed., The Museum Time-Machine (London: Comedia, 1988), 63–86; C. B. Hosmer, Presence of the Past: A History of the Preservation Movement in the United States before Williamsburg (New York: Putnam, 1965); Thomas Taylor, “The Williamsburg Restoration and its Reception by the American Public: 1926–1942,” Dissertation, George Washington University, 1989, ch. 2; Warren Leon and Margaret Piatt, “Living-History Museums,” in Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig, eds., History Museums in the United States: A Critical Assessment (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 64–97.

61.    J. D. Rockefeller, Jr., “The Genesis of the Williamsburg Restoration,” National Geographic 71, no. 4 (April 1937): 401 cited in Anderson, Time Machines, 30; David Lowenthal, “The American Way of History,” Columbia University Forum 9 (Summer 1966): 31 cited in Leon and Piatt, “Living History Museums,” 73; Kevin Walsh, The Representation of the Past (London: Routledge, 1992), 96–97; Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 194–95; and especially James Weeks, Gettysburg: Memory, Market, and an American Shrine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003).

62.    For example, Jennifer Jenkins and Patrick James, From Acorn to Oak Tree: The Growth of the National Trust 1895–1994 (London: Macmillan, 1994); Graham Murphy, Founders of the National Trust (London: Christopher Helm, 1987).

63.    John Sears, Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 28, 185–88; and Sterngass, First Resorts, 7–74.

64.    Colin Ward and Dennis Hardy, Goodnight Campers! (London: Mansell, 1986); Ward and Hardy, Arcadia for All (London: Mansell, 1984).

65.    Dan L. LeMahieu, A Culture for Democracy: Mass Communications and the Cultivated Mind in Britain between the Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 66–69 and 82–99; Jeffrey Richards, ed., The Unknown 1930s: An Alternative History of the British Cinema, 1929–39 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998).

66.    Denys Harding, “The Place of Entertainment in Social Life,” Sociological Review 26 (October 1934): 393–406; Mark Pegg, Broadcasting and Society (London: Croom Helm, 1983), 92–109 and 195–215; Paddy Scannell and David Cardiff, A Social History of British Broadcasting (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991).

67.    John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York: The Free Press, 1966 [1916]), ch. 19; Benjamin Hunnicutt, Work without End: Abandoning Shorter Hours for the Right to Work (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 116–20; Joan Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), ch. 1, 3, 4 and 5.

68.    William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993), 70, 202–210; Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic, 1994), 139.

69.    Donald Meyer, The Positive Thinkers (New York: Pantheon, 1980), ch. 8; Stanley Coben, Rebellion Against Victorianism: The Impetus for Cultural Change in 1920s America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), esp. ch. 3; Rubin, Middlebrow Culture, 25, 31–32.

70.    Jeffrey Stanton, “Coney Island—Second Steeplechase, 1908–1964,” May 1999, http://naid.sppsr.ucla.edu/conisland/articles/steeplechase2.htm, 7.

71.    NYT, September 7, 1906, 5; September 18, 1922, 20; May 18, 1923, 22; September 14, 1926, 16; September 16, 1928, 37; September 15, 1929, 24.

72.    Gary Cross, The Cute and the Cool: Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children’s Culture (New York: Oxford University Press), ch. 4.

73.    NYT, March 18, 1928, 71; April 22, 1928, 125; July 5, 1928, section 1, 3; Woody Register, The Kid of Coney Island: Fred Thompson and the Rise of American Amusements (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 300–303. William Mangels, The Outdoor Amusement Industry from Earliest Times to the Present (New York: Vantage, 1952), 27–28; “New $5,000,000 Playground is Opened at Rye, “New York Tribune, May 27, 1928; “The Kiddie Park,” Showman, May 30, 1925, 24; www.ryeplayland.org/.

74.    Pleasure Beach Archives, folder 9.

75.    “Circus and Museum Freaks, Curiosities of Pathology,” Scientific America Supplement, 65(April 4, 1908): 222 cited in Robert Bogdan, Freak Show (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1988), 64; Leslie Gilliams, “Side-Show Freaks as Seen By Science,” Illustrated World 38 (1922): 213–15; Hannah Lees, “Side Show Diagnosis,” Colliers 99 (1937): 224.

76.    NYT, September 21, 1924, X13; Lawrence Levine, Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).

77.    Bertram Reinitz, “Coney Enters its Steel Age,” NYT, June 16, 1929, XX2; and Jan and Cora Gordon (English artists), “Coney Island as a World Showplace,” NYT, June 3, 1928, SM 7.

78.    Cross, Worktowners at Blackpool.

79.    The decline of the legitimacy of the freak show was a long process. In 1906, prominent New York African Americans protested against the featured display of an African in the Bronx Zoo’s monkey house. In the 1910s, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children protested the display of underage “Siamese Twins.” A curious combination of new sympathy for the humanity of freaks, but also disgust at their abnormality and, even almost embarrassment at how the popular audience gaped at their condition led to a negative middle-class reaction. A Florida law of 1921 outlawed freak shows (even though in 1972 the Florida Supreme court overturned this prohibition as an infringement on the self-employment rights of the disabled.) The 1933 movie Freaks by Todd Browning, was a critical and audience failure. Both the Nazis and Soviets prohibited freak shows in the 1930s. Racial freaks (often dark-skinned people displayed in “native costume” as African savages or East Asian cannibals) became taboo by the 1950s. NYT, October 14, 1971, 31; Leslie Fiedler, Freaks: Myths and Images of the Secret Self (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978), 24–36; C.J.S. Thompson, History and Lore of Freaks (1930: reprinted, London, Senate, 1976), 207–8.

80.    Bogdan, Freak Show, 67. Rachel Adams, Sideshow U.S.A: Freaks and the American Cultural Imagination (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 212–228.

81.    J. K. Walton, “The National Trust Centenary: Official and Unofficial Histories,” Local Historian, 26 (1996): 80–88; Peter Mandler, The Fall and Rise of the Stately Home (New Haven, 1997).

4. Decline and Reinvention: Coney Island and Blackpool

1.      Built Environment 18 (1992), themed issue on seaside resorts, S. Agarwal, “Restructuring Seaside Tourism: the Resort Lifecycle,” Annals of Tourism Research 29 (2002): 25–55; John K. Walton, The British Seaside: Holidays and Resorts in the Twentieth Century (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press: 2000), 21–22.

2.      William A. Douglass and Paullina Raento, “The Tradition of Invention: Conceiving Las Vegas,” Annals of Tourism Research 31 (2004): 7–23.

3.      Stephen Weinstein, “The Nickel Empire: Coney Island, and the Creation of Urban Seaside Resorts in the United States,” Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 272–74; Charles Denson, Coney Island: Lost and Found (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press: 2002), Parts 2 and 3; Jon Pareles, “Meet the New Boss,” The Observer Review (London), July 21, 2002, 5.

4.      G. Shaw and A. Williams, eds., The Rise and Fall of British Coastal Resorts (London: Mansell, 1997); N. Morgan and A. Pritchard, Power and Politics at the Seaside (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1999), chs. 6 and 7; John K. Walton, Blackpool (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press), chs. 6 and 7; Walton, British Seaside, 126–31.

5.      Dana Gatlin, “Amusing America’s Millions,” World’s Work 26 (July 1913), 331; Rem Koolhas, Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan (New York: Monacelli Press, 1994), 70. Details of the park proposal of 1899 can be found in the New York Times (hereafter NYT): June 6, 1899, 14; June 14, 1899, 14; letters to the editor, June 14, 1899, 6; July 11, 1899, 12; and July 13, 1899, 14.

6.      Michael Immerso, Coney Island: The People’s Playground (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 125–28; Denson, Coney Island, 26–29, 40–44; Brooklyn Eagle, January 24, 1915; Oliver Pilat and Jo Ranson, Sodom by the Sea: An Affectionate History of Coney Island (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1941), 311–14.

7.      Eric Ierardi, Gravesend, Brooklyn: Coney Island and Sheepshead Bay (Dover, NH: Arcadia, 1996), 82–128; New York Times, July 8, 1925, 1; Denson, Coney Island, 49–52.

8.      Edouard Herriot, “America, The Land of Joy,” NYT, 17 August 1924, SM1.

9.      NYT, May 31, 1926, 2; March 18, 1928, 71; August 26, 1928, 1; September 1, 1929, SM 1; July 25, 1937, 14; August 16, 1925, RE 1; J. A. Hassan, The Seaside, Health and the Environment in England and Wales since 1800 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003), ch. 5.

10.    The parallels and contrasts with Central Park are interesting here. See Roy Rosenzweig and Elizabeth Blackmar, The Park and the People: A History of Central Park (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992).

11.    NYT, May 5, 1925, S1; August 13, 1925, 34; April 4, 1926, RE 1.

12.    Robert Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), 318–19.

13.    Immerso, Coney Island, 137–41.

14.    Immerso, Coney Island, 141–47, 160; Caro, Power Broker, 335; Henry B. Lieberman, “Nickel Empire,” NYT, July 16, 1939, D89; James Onorato, Another Time, Another World, Coney Island Memories (California State University, Fullerton: Oral History Program, 1988), 5–6.

15.    Joseph Heller, Now and Then: From Coney Island to Here (New York: Knopf, 1998), 30–31 and ch. 2.

16.    Caro, Power Broker, 687; Denson, Coney Island, 66–67, 72; NYT, October 1, 1932, A29; June 17, 1934, 12.

17.    NYT, June 30, 1934, 13; Edo McCullough, Good Old Coney Island (New York: Scribner’s, 1957), 250–83; Pilat and Ranson, Sodom by the Sea, 333–34.

18.    NYT, December 1, 1937, 27; August 14, 1938, 13; July 25, 1939, 36; Immerso, Coney Island, 159–60.

19.    New York City Parks Department, The Improvement of Coney Island (New York: City of New York, 1939), 1–3.

20.    Walton, Blackpool, 126–31; Walton, The British Seaside, ch. 4; Helen Meller, European Cities, 1890–1930s: History, Culture and the Built Environment (Chichester: John Wiley, 2001), 197–207.

21.    Laura Chase, “Social Tone in Clacton and Frinton in the Inter-War Years,” International Journal of Maritime History 9 (1997): 149–69; John K. Walton, “Consuming the Beach: Seaside Resorts and Cultures of Tourism in England and Spain from the 1830s to the 1930s,” in E. Furlough and S. Baranowski, eds., Being Elsewhere: Tourism, Consumer Culture and Identity in Modern Europe and North America (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 272–98.

22.    Walton, Blackpool, ch. 5; S. O’Connell, The Car in British Society: Class, Gender and Motoring, 1896–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998).

23.    Walton, British Seaside, 110; Public Record Office, Kew, HO45/16725/655652.

24.    Bennett, Century of Fun, 58–84; Ted Lightbown, “Buildings and Rides,” 5–7, Pleasure Beach Archives.

25.    Rosemary Ind Emberton, Joseph Emberton 1889–1956 (London: Scolar, 1983).

26.    Lieberman, “Nickel Empire,” D88–9.

27.    Immerso, Coney Island, 164–65; Denson, Coney Island, 67–74.

28.    Immerso, Coney Island, 163; Heller, Now and Then, 52–59.

29.    NYT, August 13, 1944, S1, 1; September 18, 1944, 21:1.

30.    NYT, August 18, 1946, S1, 2.

31.    Henry Gilroy, “Everything’s Atomic in Screamland,” NYT, August 7, 1949, S 1, 14.

32.    Immerso, Coney Island, 163, 165–66; Miles Barth et al., eds., Weegee’s World (Boston: Bulfinch, 1997); NYT, May 3, 1941, 17; October 29, 1946, 22.

33.    NYT, April 6, 1953, S1: 1; NYT, May 4, 1949; Gilroy, “Atomic in Screamland.”

34.    NYT, May 18, 1947, S1: 4; Onorato, Another Time, ix; “Coney Island,” Life, August 6, 1945, 65.

35.    NYT, April 6, 1953, S1.

36.    In the 1940s, Moses banned burlesque shows even though he had become more relaxed than Coney Island Chamber of Commerce about the wearing of beach attire in the streets. NYT, May 27, 1942, 25; June 17, 1942, 1; October 7, 1948, S7, 8.

37.    Denson, Coney Island, 67; NYT, May 3, 1941, 17.

38.    Denson, Coney Island, 67–76; NYT, May 19, 1940, 14; October 6, 1949, 33; April 2, 1953, 1; April 3, 1953, 3; April 6, 1953, 31; New York City Parks Department, Coney Island Improvement (New York: City of New York: October 24, 1954).

39.    Denson, Coney Island, 135, 152–54; Weinstein, “Nickel Empire,” 290–96; NYT, April 19, 1964, SMA 30; April 21, 1965, 37; August 14, 1979, B3.

40.    James Onorato, Steeplechase Park: Sale and Closure, 1965–66 Diary of J.J. Onorato (Bellingham, WA: 1998), xii–xvi; Onorato, Then and Now, 37, 58; M. Tilyou’s citations in Denson, Coney Island, 135.

41.    NYT, April 19, 1964, SMA 30; Onorato, Steeplechase Park, 1–2.

42.    NYT, November 30, 1963, 3; June 16, 1987, 3; Richard Snow, Coney Island: A Postcard Journey to the City of Fire (New York: Brightwaters Press, 1984), 11.

43.    NYT, April 21, 1965, 37; August 14, 1979, B3, 1. Denson, Coney Island, 162, 200–14, 231–33; Onorato, Then and Now, 11, 25, 27–28.

44.    J. Demetriadi, “The Golden Years: English Seaside Resorts 1950–1974,” in Shaw and Williams, eds., Rise and Fall, 49–75; Paul Axel Lund, cited in Rupert Croft-Cooke, Smiling Damned Villain (2nd ed., London: Four Square, 1961), 81.

45.    Ward Lock’s Guide to Blackpool (n.d., c. 1956), 7–8.

46.    Lightbown, “Buildings and Rides,” 8–9.

47.    Walton, Blackpool, 152; Gary Cross, ed., Worktowners at Blackpool (London: Routledge, 1990), 61.

48.    Ward Lock’s Guide to Blackpool, 37–38; Peter Marsden, Lighting the Waves (Blackpool: Corporation, 2004), 15–16.

49.    National Fairground Archive, Smart Family Collection, Harold Tunstall to Captain Phayre, October 7, 1961.

50.    Ibid., Mr Betts to Capt. Phayre, August 25, 1961; Mr Billy Smart, undated press statement, late 1961; Graham Turner, The North Country (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1967), 137–38.

51.    Pleasure Beach Archive, photographs from late 1950s and early 1960s; Alfred Gregory, Blackpool: a Celebration of the’60s (London: Constable, 1993), 15.

52.    Gregory, Blackpool, 62.

53.    Turner, North Country, 133–7.

54.    Lieberman, “Nickel Empire.”

55.    Denson, Coney Island, Part 3.

56.    Walton, Blackpool Landlady (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978), ch. 7; Walton, Blackpool, 138–45, 152–3; Sue Arthur, “Crested China, Pineapple Chunks and Cherry Red Velvet: A History of Shopping in Blackpool Town Centre from 1881 to 1958,” M.A. dissertation, University of Central Lancashire, 2003; Demetriadi, “The Golden Years.”

57.    Lancashire Record Office (LRO), CBBl 32/4, Traffic and Transport Plan, 1969, 4–6, 8–9.

58.    West Lancashire Evening Gazette (hereafter WLEG) June 25, 1973.

59.    LRO CBBl 118/2 and 118/3, Minutes of Evidence on Blackpool Corporation Bill, 1969.

60.    WLEG, July 20, 1977. Thanks to Karen Guerin for research assistance with this material.

61.    Ibid.

62.    WLEG, July 21, 1977.

63.    WLEG, January 6, 1972, December 2, 1974.

64.    Walton, Blackpool, 145.

65.    North West Civic Trust, Renaissance North West: A Plan for Regional Renewal (Manchester: North West Civic Trust, 1987), 50–51.

66.    Ibid., 145–48, 168–69.

67.    Ibid., chs. 6 and 7.

68.    G. Sternlieb and J. Hughes, The Atlantic City Gamble (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983); Roger Munting, An Economic and Social History of Gambling in Britain and the U.S.A. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 147–49; Bryant Simon, Boardwalk of Dreams: Atlantic City and the Fate of Urban America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 132-217.

69.    “Journey into the Future: The Blackpool Masterplan,” WLEG Special Publication, March 13, 2004.

70.    C. Beatty and S. Fothergill, The Seaside Economy: The Final Report of the Seaside Towns Research Project (Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University, 2003); idem., A Case Study of Blackpool (Sheffield: Hallam University, February 2003); Nicholas L. Ribis, “Cashing in on Casino-Led Regeneration,” paper presented at the British Urban Regeneration Association (BURA) conference on resort regeneration, Imperial Hotel, Blackpool, March 2004.

71.    Shaw and Williams, British Coastal Resorts.

72.    Paul Flynn, “Why I Love: Blackpool Pleasure Beach,” The Guardian, G2, February 26, 2004, 23.

5. The Disney Challenge

1.      Lawrence Mintz, “Simulated Tourism at Busch Gardens: The Old Country and Disney’s World Showcase, Epcot Center,” Journal of Popular Culture, 32, no. 5 (Winter 1998): 47–58; Jean Baudrillard, The Ecstasy of Communication (New York: Semiotext(e), 1988), 56, 104; Aviad Raz, Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, Distributed by Harvard University Press, 1999), 30–40, 188–91; Margaret King, “Disneyland and Walt Disney World: Traditional Values in Futuristic Form,” Journal of Popular Culture, 15, no. 1 (Summer 1981); Alexander Moore, “Walt Disney’s World: Bounded Ritual Space and the Playful Pilgrimage Center,” Anthropological Quarterly 53 (October 1980): 207–18; Daniel Boorstin, The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America (New York: Harper, 1964); Umberto Eco, Travels in Hyperreality (San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, 1986); Stephan Fjellman, Vinyl Leaves: Walt Disney World and America (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992).

2.      George Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 1993); Ritzer, The McDonaldization Thesis: Explorations and Extensions (London: Sage, 1998); Ritzer, The Globalization of Nothing (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2003); Barry Smart, ed., Resisting McDonaldization (London: Sage, 1999); Edward Relph, Place and Placelessness (London: Pion, 1976).

3.      From Derrick Jones’s interview with George Ritzer, “The Disenchanted Kingdom: George Ritzer and the Disappearance of Authentic American Culture,” The Sun Magazine, June 2002.

4.      Alan Bryman, Disney and His Worlds (New York: Routledge, 1995), 96–97; Hugo Hilderbrandt, “Cedar Point,” Journal of Popular Culture (1981): 87–88; Elizabeth and Jay Mechling “The Sale of Two Cities: A Semiotic Comparison of Disneyland with Marriott’s Great America,” Journal of Popular Culture 15 (Spring 1981): 166–79.

5.      Letter to editor, Nation, June 28, 1958, cited in Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney Imagineering: A Behind the Dreams Look at Making the Magic Real (New York: Hyperion, 1996), 19; Ray Bradbury, “The Machine-Tooled Happyland,” Holiday 38 (October 1965): 104.

6.      John M. Findlay, Magic Lands: Western Cityscapes and American Culture after 1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 66–67.

7.      Disneyland, the First Quarter Century (Walt Disney Productions, 1979), 15

8.      At first, Walt Disney was contented with thinking about transforming an empty lot across the street from his Burbank California studio into a park with pony rides and statues of Mickey Mouse so that small kids visiting the area could see where “Mickey lives.”

9.      Walt Disney cited in “Insights to a Dream,” News From Disneyland (hereafter cited as NFD), 1979, Anaheim Public Library, Disneyland Collection (hereafter cited as APL).

10.    Neil Harris, “Expository Expositions: Preparing for the Theme Parks,” in Karal Ann Marling, ed., Designing Disney’s Theme Parks (New York: Flammarion), 26; Beth Dunlop, Art of Disney Architecture (New York: Harry Abrams, 1996), 26, 36.

11.    Karal Ann Marling, “Imagineering the Disney Theme Parks,” in Designing Disney’s Theme Parks, 35, 39; Dunlop, Art of Disney Architecture, 27.

12.    Quotes from “Building a Dream,” NFD, 1956, “Insights to a Dream,” NFD, 1979, APL; “Walt Disney Imagination Unlimited,” Readers’ Digest, November 1964, 273; Marling, “Imagineering,” 40–41, 45–47; Martin Sklar, Walt Disney’s Disneyland (Anaheim: Walt Disney Productions, 1969), np.

13.    Philip Santora, “Disneyland Captures Hearts of Youngsters and Elders’ Respect,” New York Daily News, October 1, 1964, 12c.

14.    Peter Bailey, Leisure and Class in Victorian England (London: Routledge, 1978); Martha Wolfenstein, “Fun Morality: An Analysis of Recent American Child-training Literature,” in M. Mead and M. Wolfenstein, eds., Childhood in Contemporary Cultures (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1955), 169–70, 172–74.

15.    Disneyland: The First Quarter Century, 11; Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland (Anaheim: Walt Disney Productions, 1964), 2.

16.    Harris, “Expository Expositions,” in Marling, Designing Disney, 27.

17.    Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney Imagineering, 14.

18.    Disneyland: The First Quarter Century. 17; Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland (1964), 16–18, 22; “New Disneyland Attractions,” NFD, May 13, 1956, APL; Date Line USA, 1955 opening of Disneyland TV show; “Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland,” Disneyland file, 1956, APL; “Story of Disneyland,” Disneyland, 1955 file, APL.

19.    “Dateline Disneyland,” and “Disneyland Diary, 1957,” Disneyland, 1957 file, APL; “Visit to Disneyland,” NFD, 1956, APL; “A New Tomorrowland,” NFD, 1959, APL; “The Disneyland Story,” October 27, 1954 episode of Disneyland, in Disneyland USA (DVD recordings, 2001), and Disneyland, the First Quarter Century, 17.

20.    David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), 300.

21.    Disneyland: The First Quarter Century, 12–13.

22.    “Adults Outnumber Kids 4 to 1,” Oakland Tribune, March 21, 1965, 2B, Disney Publicity Book, p. 59, APL.

23.    Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney Imagineering, 11; Erica Doss, “Making Imagination Safe in the 1950s: Disneyland’s Fantasy Art and Architecture,” in Marling, Designing Disney, 180–81.

24.    “The Disney Theme Show: From Disneyland to Walt Disney World” (no publication information, 1975?), 8, MS. R. 77 Box 2, file 3, University of California at Irvine, Special Collections.

25.    Bryman, Disney and His Worlds, 157; Dunlop, Art of Disney, 25, 37; Alexander Moore, “Walt Disney World: Bounded Ritual Space and the Playful Pilgrimage Center,” Anthropological Quarterly 65 (1980): 207–18.

26.    Marling, “Imagineering,” 81; and Sklar, Disney’s Disneyland, np.

27.    Gary Cross, The Cute and the Cool: Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children’s Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), ch. 3.

28.    “News release,” NFD, April 1973, APL.

29.    Cross, The Cute and the Cool, ch. 3.

30.    Konrad Lorenz, Foundations of Ethnography (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1981), 164–65; Steven Jay Gould, “Mickey Mouse Meets Konrad Lorenz,” Natural History, 88, no. 5 (1979): 30–36; “It’s a Small World,” 1963 by Richard and Robert Sherman, in Disneyland brochures, MS R 77 B 1/1, University of California at Irvine Library, Special Collections.

31.    Bryman, Disney and His Worlds, 157; Disneyland: The First Quarter Century, 1. Examples of ads are in Disney “Publicity Books,” vols 1–4, APL.

32.    Cross, The Cute and the Cool, ch. 3, 4.

33.    Note, for example, Elizabeth and Jay Mechling, “The Sale of Two Cities,” 116–79; Disneyland, the First Quarter Century, 3; and Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland 4; and “A Visit to Disneyland,” NFD, 1956; “Disney Gazetteer,” 1965, APL.

34.    Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland, 4.

35.    King, “Disneyland and Walt Disney World,” 116–40; Jean Starobinki, “The Idea of Nostalgia,” Diogenes 54 (Summer 1966): 81–103; and Peter Fritzsche, “Specters of History: On Nostalgia, Exile, and Modernity,” American Historical Review 106 (December 2001): 1587–1618.

36.    Eric Smoodin, Disney Discourse (New York: Routledge, 1994), 10 and David Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994).

37.    Walt Disney Productions, Project Florida: A Whole New Disney World (Burbank, Ca: 1967), 5.

38.    William Hollingsworth Whyte, The Organization Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956); Kenneth Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

39.    In 1964, Disney managed to block the construction of a planned 18–22 story Sheraton hotel that would have intruded the real world into the sky backdrop to Disney’s artifice. A rule was enacted that imposed a 150-foot height maximum on buildings near Disneyland; it was extended in 1980. See especially, “Does the Magic Kingdom Run a Company Town?” Orange County Register, December 18, 1992; and “Building Height Limits in Disneyland Area Revisited,” Los Angeles Times (hereafter LAT), April 26, 1980.

40.    Quoted in “New Disneyland Attractions,” NFD, May 13, 1956.

41.    “Sequence of Opening Pay Attractions at Disneyland, August 29, 1974,” Disneyland 1955 file; “New Disneyland Attractions,” NFD, May 13, 1956; “Matterhorn,” NFD, 1959; all APL.

42.    “Disneyland Gazetteer,” NFD, 1965, APL.

43.    “Walt Disney’s Guide to Disneyland,” Disneyland 1960 file; “Disneyland Will Continue to Grow,” NFD, 1960; “Disneyland Gazetteer,” NFD, 1965, all APL; John Urry, The Tourist Gaze (London: Sage, 1990).

44.    Among the sources at the APL Disney collection are: “Disneyland: World’s Fastest Growing Ten-Year Old,” NFD, 1965; Anaheim Gazette, December 5, 1963, Disneyland 1963 file; “Disneyland Gazetteer,” NFD, 1965; “Tencennial,” NFD, 1965; “Biographical Sketch,” NFD, 1965; “Disneyland Diary,” Disneyland 1972 file; “Attractions for Summer 67,” NFD, 1967; Anaheim Bulletin, August 12, 1969, Disneyland 1969 file; “Disneyland Diary,” Disney News, Summer 1985.

45.    “The New Tomorrowland,” NFD, 1967, APL.

46.    Walt Disney Productions, Project Florida, 4.

47.    Prices went up a lot over the course of the last nearly fifty years. When first opened the price of admission for 15 attractions was $4 for adults, $3.50 for 12–17 year olds, and $3 for children under 12. NYT, February 2, 1958, C1.

48.    “Fathers of Invention,” Disney Magazine, Fall 1996, 65; B. Shapiro, “Adults Outnumber Kids,” Oakland Tribune, March 21, 1965, 58; John Hench cited in “In Fairy Dust, Disney Finds New Realism,” NYT, February 20, 1989, C1.

49.    Disney Employee Training Manuals, 1984–87, MS R 77B, University of California at Irvine Library, Special Collections.

50.    Robert Ferrigno, “Personal Impression from the First Trip to Disneyland,” Orange County Register, November 7, 1982, 1 Accent Section; “Crime Takes No Holiday at Disneyland,” Anaheim Bulletin, August 17, 1983, 1; “Soft Arm of the Law,” LAT, January 12, 1981, part 11 A 1.

51.    “Disney Report, 1958,” Disneyland 1958 files, APL; “Disney Isn’t Only for the Kids,” NFD, Fall 1971, APL; “The Never-Never Land Khrushchev Never Saw,” NYT, October 4, 1959, 11; and note also “How Disney Does it,” Newsweek, April 3, 1989, 5; Bryman, Disney and his Worlds, 87.

52.    Although on August 6, 1970 a group of radical hippies, the self-styled “Yippies,” demanded entrance, forcing the early closure of the park that day, Disney kept the place clear of long-haired, drug-using youthful “troublemakers” in this era. Anaheim Bulletin, July 16, 1971, 1. From the APL collection: “Disneyland Diary: Year Five,” (1973), Disneyland 1960 file; “Special Events” NFD, 1965; “Big Bands,” NFD, May 1967; “Performers at Disneyland,” NFD, May 1968; “Senior Citizen Days,” NFD, Spring 1974; “Disneyland Spring Program, 1988,” Disneyland 1988 file; “Today at Disneyland,” Show Schedule file, July 8, 1989.

53.    “Letter from a Guest,” Disneyland Line, July 18, 1969, 6; “Disneyland Guide to Happiness”; “Disneyland Names Ambassador for 1966,” NFD, 1966, all APL.

54.    Sources from APL Disney Collection include “Summer Opening,” NFD, 1972; Publicity Disneyland Vols. 1–4, 1966–67; Disneyland ad, LAT, October 23, 1988, 24, Disneyland 1988 file; “Theme Parks,” Disney News, Fall 1987, 4; “America on Parade,” NFD, August 17, 1975; “First Annual Report to Disneyland Lessees,” April 1956, Disneyland 1956 file; “Gala St. Patrick’s Day Parade,” NFD, 1969; “Viva Mexico Celebration,” NFD, April 29, 1973.

55.    From the APL collection: “Disney Diary 1961,” Disneyland 1967 file; “Disney Diary, Year 2,” Disneyland 1957 file; “Disneyland Readies All Nite Parties,” NFD, 1968; “Disneyland Diary, Year Fifteen,” Disneyland 1970 file; “Summer ’67,” NFD, 1967.

56.    “Disneyland Story, 1980” Disneyland 1980 file; “Disneyland,” Anaheim Bulletin, January 3, 1985, A1, Disneyland 1985 file, both APL.

57.    See Cross, Cute and Cool, especially chs. 3 and 5.

58.    “Southland Thrill Rides,” LAT, June 20, 1987, F, 1; “Cheap Thrills,” LAT, December 9, 1987, F 32; “Batman vs. Mickey,” LAT, April 20, 1987, Disneyland 1987 File, APL. Also “Variation on a Theme,” Westways (August 1991): 34–40, Disneyland 1991 file, APL; Susan Davis, Spectacular Nature: Corporate Culture and the Sea World Experience, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).

59.    “New Thrill Ride,” LAT, August 21, 1978, F 1.

60.    “Disneyland at 30,” LAT, July 14, 1985, 3; and “Magic Kingdom,” Orange County Register, August 14, 1985.

61.    “Captain Eo,” Disneyland Gazetteer, October 1985, MS R 77 2/4 University of California at Irvine Library, Special Collections; From the APL Disney Collection: “Captain Eo,” Disney News, Fall 1986, 7–10; “Disneyland Today,” December 20, 1986; Show Schedules, vol. 1: “Theme Parks,” Disney News, Winter 1986.

62.    “Mickey’s Toontown is Open,” Disney News, Spring 1993, 22, APL.

63.    At APL: “Let’s Get Small,” Disney News, Winter 1994, 56–57; “Uncovering the Indiana Jones Adventure,” Disney Magazine, Spring 1995, 18–21.

64.    Sources from ALP include: “Disneyland Report, 1958,” Disneyland 1958 file; “Disneyland Will Open Teen Night Club,” LAT, April 23, 1985, F 1; Disney Ad, LAT March 25, 1994, F31; “Disneyland and Orange County,” Orange County Register, December 25, 1987, 1, Disneyland 1987 file; “Disneyland and Teens,” LAT, August 23, 1992, A1; “Disney Poll,” LAT, March 2, 1994, D1, 9.

65.    “A New Disney World is Rising in Central Florida,” NYT, December 29, 1970, 27; “New Florida Countdown,” NYT, October 1, 1971, 26; “Disneyland Story, 1980,” NYT, March 7, 1994, D7; “Disney Theme Show, (Disneyland 1980 File, APL; Eve Zibart, Disney: The Incredible Story of Walt Disney World and the Man behind the Mouse (Foster City, CA: IDG Books, 2000), 72–112; Richard Fogelsong, Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).

66.    “Booming Amusement Parks: The Theme is Extreme,” Newsweek, March 30, 1998, 12.

67.    Fred Guterl, and Carol Truxal, “The Wonderful World of Epcot,” IEEE Spectrum 19, no. 9 (September 1982): 46–55; Irwin Ross, “Disney Gambles on Tomorrow,” Fortune, October 4, 1982, 62–69; Walt Disney Productions, Project Florida, 10–11.

68.    Walt Disney Productions, Walt Disney Imagineering, 31, 92–93; “Epcot’s International Pavilions Operate as True Global Village,” LAT, March 25, 1990, 4; “Close Encounters with Epcot,” NYT, November 14, 1982, 10; M. Sorkin, “See You in Disneyland,” in M. Sorkin, Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Noonday, 1992), 216.

69.    “A Tour is Born,” Disney News, Summer 1989, 17, APL; “In Fairy Dust, Disney Finds New Realism,” NYT, February 20, 1989, C1; and “Nastiness Is Not a Fantasy in Movie Theme Park War,” NYT, August 13, 1989, 1, 2.

70.    At APL: “History of the World,” Disney News, Fall 1981, 3–5; “Lake Buena Vista,” Walt Disney World News, Summer 1975, 1–2.

71.    Joe Flower, Prince of the Magic Kingdom: Michael Eisner and the Re-making of Disney (New York: Wiley, 1991); “Fanfare as Disney Opens Park,” NYT, October 2, 1982, 1,2; Michael Eisner (with Tony Schwartz) Work in Progress (New York: Hyperion, 1999); Disney Company, Annual Report, 1971, 7, APL.

72.    “Who We Are, Where We Go,” St. Petersburg Times, September 29, 1996, 1E; “Broadening the Mind into the Magic Kingdom,” The Economist, March 23, 1991, 20; “Body Wars,” Disney News, Spring 1989, 36, APL.

73.    “Disney World to Open Another Thrill Ride,” Chicago Tribune September 3, 1989, 8; “General Motors Corp.: Plans for Overhaul of Ride at Epcot will be Unveiled,” Wall Street Journal February 13, 1996; quotes from “On Track,” Disney Magazine (Fall 1998): 44–47, APL.

74.    Craig Wilson, “New Attractions in Honor of Mickey,” USA Today, June 1, 1988, 4d.

75.    “Walt Disney Co. to Build a Roller Coaster in Disney-MGM Studios,” The Orlando Sentinel, 1C; “Rock ’n’ Roller Coaster,” Eyes and Ears (WDW in-house newsletter), April 23, 1998, 1, 3, APL.

76.    “River Country,” Walt Disney World News, July 1977, 2; “Theme Parks,” Disney News, Summer 1987, 4; “Water Works,” Disney Magazine, Spring 1999, 44–47, APL.

77.    “Disney World to Grow with 5 New Attractions,” Chicago Tribune, December 6, 1987, F1; “New Attractions in Honor of Mickey,” USA Today, June 1, 1988, 4d; At APL: “Grand Floridian,” Disney News (Fall 1986): 4; “Dolphins and Swans and More,” Disney News (Winter 1989): 29; “Downtown Disney,” Disney Magazine, Spring 1998, 2; “Disney’s Board Walk,” Disney News, Winter 1995, 19–23; “Sports Complex,” Eyes and Ears, February 27, 1997, 1. See also Dave Smith, Disney A to Z (New York: Hyperion, 1998).

78.    At APL: “New Wedding Pavilion,” Eyes and Ears, July 13, 1995, 1; “Magical Matrimony,” Eyes and Ears, October 16, 1997, 3.

79.    “Magic Kingdom Where Adults Can Go Goofy,” The Times of London, January 13, 1996; “At ALP: Learn and Live,” Disney Magazine, September 1996, 36–43; “Disney Institute,” Disney Magazine, March 23, 1995, 1; APL, 8.

80.    At APL: “Making Magic,” Disney Magazine, Spring 1997, 48–53; “Imagineers Put Castaway Cay on the Map,” Eyes and Ears, October 16, 1997, 113.

81.    “Disney to Expand in Florida,” The Globe and Mail, November 14, 1994, B4; “Disney World Tries to Stem Tourist Drop,” November 14, 1994, Orange County Register, A3; “Time Off: Taking the Mickey as Disney Unveils a New Animal Kingdom,” The Guardian, January 15, 1998, T20.

82.    “Beauty and the Beasts Stocked with Real Creatures and Fantastic Images,” Time Magazine, April 20, 1998, 66; “Disney Introduces New Animal Kingdom,” The Orlando Sentinel, April 22, 1998, 1A.

83.    “Family Vacations: Florida; Creature Feature; Exploring Disney’s Animal Kingdom, Where Faked Reality Reigns,” LAT, May 17, 1998, 17.

84.    Brandweek, October 24, 1994, 22–29; The Independent, January 17, 1999, 10; St. Petersburg Times, October 16, 1996, 23; “California Dreaming,” Disney Magazine, (Spring 2001): 36–61; LAT, April 9, 2001, C1; Minneapolis Star Tribune, April 8, 2001, 1G; LAT, September 20, 2001, C1.

6. “Enrichment through Enjoyment”: The Beamish Museum in a Theme Park Age

1.      Christopher Harvie, “Engineer’s Holiday: L.T.C. Rolt, Industrial Heritage, and Tourism,” in Hartmut Berghoff et al., eds., The Making of Modern Tourism (London: Palgrave, 2002), 203–21.

2.      The direct influence of Scandinavian practice weighed more heavily than that of Beamish’s one British precursor, the Welsh Folk Museum at St Fagan’s, Cardiff, founded in 1946, which in any case also looked to Scandinavia. Frank Atkinson, The Man Who Made Beamish: An Autobiography (Gateshead: Northern Books, 1999), 9, 85–86; Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (London: Routledge, 1995), 115. There was also the Ulster Folk Museum at Cultra, founded in 1958.

3.      Atkinson, The Man Who Made Beamish, 9.

4.      C. Williams, “Museums: Centres for Learning, or Disneyland?,” Labour History Review 57 (1992).

5.      Stacy Warren, “Cultural Contestation at Disneyland Paris,” in David Crouch, ed., Leisure/ Tourism Geographies (London: Routledge, 1999), 109–25.

6.      National Fairgrounds Archive (hereafter NFA), Smart Family Collection, “Themeland” file, W. Butlin to R. Smart, telegram of March 27, 1961.

7.      Ibid., C. James to Ronald Smart, April 13, 1961.

8.      For months thereafter, Ronald Smart was still trying to make contact with an elusive Walt Disney and still hoping to use the word “Disneyland” for the Blackpool venture. Even after those plans were abandoned and renamed “Themeland,” it was referred to informally as “the Disneyland proposition” in Blackpool. Ibid., R. Smart to C. Bernstein, June 28, 1961; R. Smart to C. Bernstein, October 4, 1961; site plans, Roy Thomson to Ronald Smart, May 1, 1961; memorandum, August 25, 1961.

9.      Ibid., Ronald Smart to Cecil Bernstein, October 4, 1961; draft plans for “Themeland”; ibid., draft plans for “Themeland”; Harold Tunstall to Capt. Phayre, October 7, 1961.

10.    Steve Mills, “American Theme Parks and the Landscape of Mass Culture,” American Studies Today Online, http://www.americansc.org.uk/disney.htm, 3.

11.    NFA, Smart Family Collection, Ronald Smart to H.R. Henshall, August 31, 1961; undated press statement from Mr. Billy Smart, late 1961.

12.    Ibid., press statement; Kenneth G. Higgins, Quantity Surveyor to Butlin, forwarded to Ronald Smart, April 19, 1961; Mr Betts to Capt. Phayre, August 25, 1961.

13.    Ibid., L.V. Phayre to Billy Butlin, May 23, 1961.

14.    Colin Ward and David Hardy, Goodnight Campers (London: Mansell, 1986).

15.    Martin Parr, ed., Our True Intent Is all for Your Delight: The John Hinde Butlin’s Photographs (London: Boot, n.d.).

16.    Mills, “American Theme Parks,” 3.

17.    Kevin Moore, Museums and Popular Culture (London: Continuum, 2000), ch. 7.

18.    Mills, “American Theme Parks,” 6.

19.    Michael J. Fisher, Alton Towers: A Gothic Wonderland (Stafford: M.J. Fisher, 1999), 9.

20.    Ibid., 11–12, 160–64; and www.alton-towers.co.uk accessed March 18, 2004.

21.    NFA, Smart Family Collection, “Themeland” file; “Calico Ghost Town, Southern California’s Greatest Silver Camp” (Knott’s Berry Farm, 1959); Knott’s Southern California and related websites: http://www.knotts.com/coinfo/history/index/shtml accessed February 4, 2003; www.knotts.com/park/index.shtml accessed March 19, 2004; www.narrowgauge.org/nge/html/kbfarm/kbfarm-main.html accessed March 19, 2004.

22.    Peter Mandler, The Fall and Rise of the Stately Home (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 217–21.

23.    Ibid., Part IV; David Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 645–56.

24.    Merlin Waterson, The Servants’ Hall (London: Routledge, 1977).

25.    Harvie, “Engineer’s Holiday: L.T.C. Rolt, Industrial Heritage and Tourism,” in Berghoff et al., eds., The Making of Modern Tourism, 212.

26.    Ian Carter, Railways and Culture in Britain (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001), ch. 9; Becky Conekin, “‘Here is the Modern World Itself:’ The Festival of Britain’s Representations of the Future,” in Conekin et al., eds., Moments of Modernity (London: Rivers Oram Press, 1999).

27.    Michael Freeman, Railways and the Victorian Imagination (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 244–45.

28.    Nicholas Whittaker, Platform Souls: The Trainspotter as Twentieth-Century Hero (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995).

29.    Freeman, Railways, 242–43.

30.    Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory (London: Verso, 1994).

31.    It also has American counterparts, although it was spread more thinly. Harvie, “Engineer’s Holiday,” 211–12.

32.    Kevin Walsh, The Representation of the Past (London: Routledge, 1992), 100.

33.    Julian Barnes, England, England (London: Cape, 1998); Barbara Korte, “Julian Barnes, England, England,” in Berghoff, et al. eds., The Making of Modern Tourism, 285–303.

34.    Michael Rawlinson, “Cadbury World,” Labour History Review 67 (2002): 101–19.

35.    Site visit, Hershey, April 2003.

36.    Rawlinson, “Cadbury World,” 102, 115; T. Friedman, “The World of The World of Coca-Cola,” Communication Research 19 (1992); M. Wallace, “Making Mickey Mouse History: Portraying the Past at Disney World,” in W. Leon and R. Rosenzweig, eds., History Museums in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).

37.    For an early critique of Ironbridge see B. West, “The Making of the English Working Past: A Critical View of the Ironbridge Gorge Museum,” in R. Lumley, ed., The Museum Time Machine (London: Routledge, 1988), 36–62.

38.    Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985); Bennett, Birth of the Museum, 114.

39.    Bennett, Birth of the Museum, 110–14; Walsh, Representation of the Past, 97–100; Robert Hewison, The Heritage Industry (London: Methuen, 1987), 93–95. Walsh, Representation of the Past, 95–96, points out that Artur Hazelius, the Swedish founder of the open-air museum movement, sought to “use the idea of heritage and understanding of the past as a steadying influence in the face of violent influences of modern life” (quoting E. P. Alexander, Museums in Motion [Nashville: American Association for State and Local History, 1979], 85). The racial dimension to such perceptions in the United States, as (for example) critics rightly pointed out that slaves were rendered invisible at Williamsburg, carries less immediate purchase in Britain outside old slave ports like Liverpool, Bristol, and Lancaster; but the points about class and gender, and more broadly about the legacy of empire, do need to be addressed: W. Leon and M. Piatt, “Living-History Museums,” in Leon and Rosenzweig, eds., History Museum. Walsh, Representation of the Past, 141–42, critiques the presentation of the slave trade at the Maritime Museum at Liverpool’s Albert Dock.

40.    Hewison, The Heritage Industry; Patrick Wright, “Restoration Tragedy,” Guardian Review (London), September 13, 2003, 16–17; Peter Mandler, History and National Life (London: Profile Books, 2002), 126–27.

41.    Leon and Piatt, “Living-History Museums.”

42.    Kevin Moore, Museums and Popular Culture (London: Continuum, 1997), ch. 7; Hewison, Heritage Industry, 93–95; Walsh, Representation of the Past, 98; Bennett, Birth of the Museum, 113.

43.    Hewison, Heritage Industry, 93–95.

44.    Walsh’s hostility may be colored by his erroneous belief that Beamish was a “private heritage attraction” rather than a “public museum.” Hewison at least got this right. Walsh, The Representation of the Past, 100, 182; Hewison, Heritage Industry, 93.

45.    Walsh, Representation of the Past, 97–100.

46.    Bennett, Birth of the Museum, 110–14, 117–20.

47.    Moore, Museums and Popular Culture, 137–43.

48.    Martti Puhakka and Solveig Sjoberg-Pietarinen, eds., The Luostarinmaki Handicrafts Museum: Guide Book (Turku: Turku Provincial Museum, 2000).

49.    For the Bowes Museum see Charles E. Hardy, John Bowes and the Bowes Museum (Newcastle: Frank Graham, 1970).

50.    Atkinson, Autobiography, 23–24, 73, 85–87; Beamish Museum Archive (BA), Box labeled “F. Atkinson’s Early Correspondence, to 1966” (hereafter “1966 Box”), Atkinson to Jim Boyden, September 8, 1965.

51.    Atkinson, Autobiography, 90–92. It may be significant that Beamish’s emergence coincided with a general “turn against urban modernisation” in Britain in the 1970s: Peter Mandler, “New Towns for Old,” in Conekin et al., eds., Moments of Modernity, 226.

52.    Mark Clapson, Invincible Green Suburbs, Brave New Towns (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998); Jeremy Alden and Robert Morgan, Regional Planning: a Comprehensive View (Leighton Buzzard: Leonard Hill, 1974), for a view from the planners of Peterlee and nearby Newton Aycliffe.

53.    These aristocrats included Sir Humphrey Noble of Humshaugh, Viscount Gort of Hamsterley Hall, and the Earl of Rosse, a member of the Standing Commission on Museums and Galleries. BA, 1966 Box, Atkinson to J. Boyden, M.P., Sir Humphrey Noble, Viscount Gort, Councillor Dan Smith, and the Earl of Rosse, September 8, 1965; Atkinson to Lord Fleck (of Imperial Chemical Industries), September 6, 1965; Atkinson, Autobiography, 92–93.

54.    BA, 1966 Box, Report on St Fagan’s visit, October 25–27, 1965; Agenda for Museums Sub-Committee, November 24, 1965; Report to Museums Sub-Committee, November 24, 1965; Brian Shallcross to Atkinson, November 23, 1965; Atkinson to Earl of Rosse, December 13, 1965.

55.    Atkinson, Autobiography, 99–103; BA, Newspaper Cuttings, “1970” Box File (hereafter “1970 Box”), Journal, July 12, 1967.

56.    BA, 1970 Box, Stanley News, April 1967.

57.    BA, North Regional Industrial Museum Working Party, October 4, 1966, Site Report.

58.    Atkinson, Autobiography, 103–7; BA, 1966 Box, Memorandum about the availability of Beamish Hall, September 8, 1966; Atkinson to Ian Swanson, August 30, 1966; notes of conversation between John Walton, Rosemary Allan, and John Gall, Beamish, August 20, 2002.

59.    BA, 1966 Box, correspondence between Atkinson and Councillor McMillan, especially November 22, 1966.

60.    BA, 1970 Box, Northern Echo, January 23, February 18, 1969; Evening Chronicle, February 25, March 13, March 15, 1969; Guardian, March 24, 1969; Daily Mail, March 24, 1969; Sunderland Echo, June 3, 1969.

61.    Local garage proprietor Eric Hall spoke out in favor of the museum in April, and denounced the opposition as “social climbers” and comparative newcomers to the district. BA, 1970 Box, Northern Echo, April 9, 1969; Sunderland Echo, April 19, 1969; news cuttings dealing with ministerial acceptance, May 28, 1969.

62.    Finally, a bitter, if isolated, attack from the Left came from W. Walker of Ryton, objecting to plans to “help in the desecration of Beamish Park, or to spoil the beauty spots of the North-East with tawdry commercialism for the enrichment of vested travel interests.” BA, 1970 Box, Evening Chronicle, March 15, 1969; Sunderland Echo, July 9 and 10, 1969; Evening Dispatch, August 8, 1969.

63.    BA, 1970 Box, Morning Advertiser, December 12, 1970.

64.    BA, 1970 Box, Daily Telegraph, March 6, 1969.

65.    For Wharton see M. Wharton, The Missing Will, and a Dubious Codicil: A Double Autobiography (London: Hogarth Press, 1992), and Dave Russell, Looking North (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).

66.    BA, 1970 Box, Northern Echo, June 29, 1968; Evening Chronicle, July 19, 1968.

67.    Within ten days it had recruited 50 members, but much more important was the issue of a glossy public relations and recruitment pamphlet at a press conference, and the making of a national BBC2 television program on the museum and its philosophy, which generated further free publicity. By the second Annual General Meeting the Friends had 334 members, with two affiliated societies. By the end of 1971 there were 873 individual members and 18 affiliated societies. British Library (hereafter cited as BL), P423/57, Friends of the Northern Regional Open-Air Museum, Newsletter One (June 1968); P421/193, Annual Reports for 1969 and 1971.

68.    BA, 1970 Box, Northern Echo, February 16, 1971; BL J/X0410/105, Miscellaneous Beamish Pamphlets, Living History, version 2.

69.    BA, 1970 Box, Northern Echo, August 24, 1970.

70.    BL P421/193, Minutes of Fourth Annual General Meeting, April 17, 1971; Annual Report for 1971.

71.    The museum’s collections of old everyday objects became overwhelmingly large, and washing mangles became particularly numerous because Atkinson once incautiously mentioned in an interview that the Museum was looking for them. This story is almost a Beamish legend, but John Walton’s colleague Stephen Caunce, who was working at Beamish at the time, confirmed it in conversation, March 25, 2004.

72.    BA, North Regional Industrial Museum Working Party: Report of Clerk of Durham County Council (Meeting, October 4, 1966).

73.    Atkinson, Autobiography, 133; Peter Johnson and Barry Thomas, Tourism, Museums and the Local Economy: The Economic Impact of the North of England Open Air Museum at Beamish (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1992), 20.

74.    BA, Development Strategy 2001, p. 26, Appendix 1, “Visitor Numbers”; Johnson and Thomas, Tourisms, Museums and the Local Economy, 21.

75.    BA, 1966 Box, Beamish: 1973 and Beyond, June 1973, 8, 12; Johnson and Thomas, Museums and the Local Economy, 23–24.

76.    BA, 1966 Box, Typescript of Atkinson’s Presidential Address to the Museums Association, Durham, 1975, 5–6.

77.    Ibid., 6–8; BA, 1966 Box, Discussion Paper for Joint Committee, February 1976, 8.

78.    BA, 1966 Box, Joint Committee, February 1976, 8–10, 13.

79.    This decline in visitor numbers followed a doubling of admission prices to a more realistic £1.50 (which meant that visitor income year on year had actually grown) and a rainy summer. Johnson and Thomas, Museums and the Local Economy, 25–30; BA, 1966 Box, Atkinson’s Report to Joint Committee on “Marketing Beamish,” March 6, 1981. By 2001 the local authorities’ contribution had fallen to around 5 percent of the £3 million per year running cost, the remainder coming from the European Development Fund, English Tourist Board, Countryside Commission, National Heritage Memorial Fund and Heritage Lottery, together with the Beamish Development Trust which encouraged support from local industry: http://www.beamish.org.uk/digest.htm, accessed August 7, 2002.

80.    BA, 1966 Box, “Marketing Beamish,” and report by Kenneth Robinson, November 24, 1980.

81.    Informal interview: John Walton, Rosy Allan and John Gall, August 20, 2002; BA, Development Strategy 2001, 26, Appendix 1; http://www.beamish.org.uk/digest.htm, accessed August 7, 2002.

82.    Walsh, Representation of the Past, 99–100.

83.    http://www.beamish.org.uk accessed April 4, 2004.

84.    Ibid.

85.    Ibid.

86.    Informal interview, above, note 81, and site visit. See also Alan Doyle, Mining: the Beamish Collection (Newcastle: Centre for Northern Studies, 2001); John Gorman, Banner Bright: An Illustrated History of the Banners of the British Trade Union Movement (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976; 2nd ed. 1985).

87.    BA, Handbooks for Demonstrators, Pockerley Manor, 1995.

88.    BA, Staff Training Manuals, Interpretation, 2002; Rosy Allan to John Walton, e-mail communication, September 17, 2002; and see Atkinson, Autobiography, 211–12.

89.    Compare Leon and Piatt, “Living History Museums,” for American practice.

90.    E-mail, Rosy Allan to John Walton, September 17, 2002.

91.    Jill Liddington and Jill Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us (London: Virago, 1978).

92.    Val Williamson, “Regional Identity: A Gendered Heritage,” in S.A. Caunce et al., eds., Relocating Britishness (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).

93.    Beamish, interview notes, August 20, 2002.

94.    BA, 1976–77 Newspaper Cuttings Box, Durham County Advertiser, April 16, 1976, 30 September 1976; Stanley News, April 7, 1977.

7. The Crowd Transformed?

1.      Norbert Elias, translated by Edmund Jephcott, The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psychogenetic Investigations, Revised Edition (Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2000); J. M. Golby, The Civilization of the Crowd: Popular Culture in England, 1750–1900 (New York: Schocken Books, 1985).

2.      Eric Leed, The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism (New York: Basic Books, 1991).

3.      Raymond Weinstein, “Disneyland and Coney Island: Reflections on the Evolution of the Modern Amusement Park,” Journal of Popular Culture 26 (Summer 1992): 131–42.

4.      T. J. Jackson Lears, Fables of Abundance: A Cultural History of Advertising in America (New York: Basic Books, 1994); Roland Marchand, Advertising The American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920–1940 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); William Leach, Land of Desire: Merchants, Power and the Rise of a New American Culture (New York: Vintage, 1993)

5.      Gary Cross, The Cute and the Cool: Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children’s Culture (New York Oxford University Press, 2004), ch. 3.

6.      Jacqueline Rose, The Impossibility of Children’s Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1984), 1–9.

7.      Pleasure Beach Archives, folder 6.

8.      As Stacy Warren argues, Disneyland Paris soon became a cultural hybrid. The French workforce successfully resisted attempts to impose the full Disney agenda, especially as regards dress codes, while “Tomorrowland” was replaced by a “Discoveryland” that was based on the works of Jules Verne, including a re-creation of his imagined Trip to the Moon. Warren suggests that Disneyland Paris is a “site of postcolonial struggle,” as the multinational corporation seeks to impose its culture on the nation state: hence, in part, the attacks on Disney icons and identifiable Disney personnel that disturbed and threatened the early days of the theme park. The “struggle” is genuine, and has consequences: the local can still assert itself in ways that modify the global, affecting the nature of the crowd’s experience of the site. Stacy Warren, “Cultural Contestation at Disneyland Paris,” in David Crouch, ed., Leisure/Tourism Geographies (London: Routledge, 1999), 109–25; Andrew Lainsbury, Once upon an American Dream: The Story of Euro Disneyland (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000).

9.      Aviad Raz, Riding the Black Ship: Japan and Tokyo Disneyland (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, Distributed by Harvard University Press, 1999), 30–40, 61; Sharon Kinsella, “Cuties In Japan,” in L. Skov and B. Moeran, eds Women, Media and Consumption in Japan (Richmond, England: Curzon, 1995), 220–50; Financial Post, October 25, 1995, 62.

10.    Disney Collection, Anaheim Public Library: Disney Company, Annual Report, 2002, 24; “Vive la Difference!: Euro Disneyland,” Disney News, Fall 1990, 35–39.

11.    Judith Adams, The American Amusement Park Industry (Boston: Twayne, 1991), 57, 112–36; Susan Davis, Spectacular Nature: Corporate Culture and the Sea World Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 20–26

12.    Margaret King, “New American Muse,” Journal of Popular Culture, Spring 1991, 56–62; Lainsbury, Once upon an American Dream, 170, 174; Hugo Hildenbrandt, “Cedar Point,” Journal of Popular Culture, 1981, 87–107; Davis, Spectacular Nature, 9–10, 34, 37, 161–162, 169.

13.    The Disneyfication of Las Vegas may not be so profitable. According to a 1997 survey, adults spent 500 dollars per day at the luxury casinos, but only 100 dollars when the kids tagged along. MGM dropped its “Wizard of Oz” theme, replacing the Emerald City entrance with slot machines and a night club. Rocky Mountain Daily News, January 19, 1997; Tampa Tribune, October 13, 1997.

14.    John Terrell, “Disneyland and the Future of Museums,” American Anthropology 93 (1991): 149–52.

15.    “In Disney Mold Firm Takes Animation to Museums,” Los Angeles Times April 16, 1985, 5A.

16.    “Aquariums Hooking Visitors,” USA Today, December 19, 2003, D6; “Disney wishes upon B’way,” USA Today, November 13, 2002, D8; “A Plague on the Quarter,” New Orleans Times-Picayune, December 16, 1998, B1; “The Future Is Foggy On Fisherman’s Wharf,” New York Times, February 4, 2001, 5; “The Mouse that Roars on Broadway,” Boston Globe, April 27, 1997, D1; “Times Square Transformed from Porn Mecca to Mickey Mouse,” Houston Chronicle, June 30, 1996, 9.

17.    Margaret King, “McDonald’s and Disney,” in Marshall Fishwick, ed., Ronald Revisited and the World of Ronald McDonald (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1983), 117. For a full treatment, see Henry Giroux, The Mouse that Roared: Disney and the End of Innocence (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).

18.    “Lower Attendance, Budget Deficit Trouble Colonial Williamsburg,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch. September 28, 2003, T.5; “Where Jefferson and Henry Strode, There’s an Anxious Turn to Trendy,” Washington Post, November 30, 2003, F.01. The promise and perils of living history museums that try to dramatize the past with staff acting as if they actually live in the past is discussed in Warren Leon and Margaret Piatt, “Living-History Museums,” in Warren Leon and Roy Rosenzweig, eds., History Museums in the United States (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 64–97, quotation on p. 75.

19.    “Universal’s Parent is Pushing Big-Budget Plans for Expansion in the Tourism Industry,” Los Angeles Times, June 3, 1990, 7 “Duel in the Florida Sun,” Marketing News, January 6, 1992, 1.

20.    Peter Stearns, American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style (New York: New York University Press, 1994).

21.    Significantly, new rides focused on superhero comic book characters that had since the late 1930s symbolized separation from the worlds of the cute and the improving culture of the middle class. Amy Nyberg, Seal of Approval: The History of the Comics Code (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1998), 5–6, 37–38; Bradford Wright, Comic Book Nation (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 201–25; and Cross, The Cute and the Cool, ch. 6.

22.    “Virginia, Say No to the Mouse,” New York Times, February 24, 1994, A22.

23.    “America Loves to Hate the Mouse; Behind the Fantasy Walt Disney Built Looms a Dark Reality,” Washington Post December 5, 2001, C1.