Notes

1The Limits of Police Reform

1Parts of this chapter appeared previously in Nation, Gotham Gazette and Al Jazeera America.

2Killed by Police.net, 2015; “Police Shootings Database 2015,” Washington Post, 2015; “The Counted,” Guardian, continually updated.

3Nicole Flatow, “Report: Black Male Teens Are 21 Times More Likely to Be Killed by Cops than White Ones,” ThinkProgress, October 10, 2014; Jeff Kelly Lowenstein, “Killed by the Cops,” ColorLines.com, November 4, 2007.

4Jaeah Lee, “Exactly How Often Do Police Shoot Unarmed Black Men?” Mother Jones, August 15, 2014.

5Jennifer H. Peck, “Minority Perceptions of the Police: A State-of-the-art Review,” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management 38, no. 1 (2015): 173–203.

6Victoria Bekiempis, “Why Do NYC’s Minorities Still Face So Many Misdemeanor Arrests?” Newsweek, February 28, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/nypd-race-arrest-numbers-309686.

7Shane Dixon Kavanaugh, “NYPD officers stop-and-frisk Harlem teen, threaten to break his arm: audio recording,” nydailynews.com, October 9, 2012.

8Helene Cooper, “Obama Criticizes Arrest of Harvard Professor,” New York Times, July 22, 2009.

9Sue Rahr and Stephen Rice, “From Warriors to Guardians: Recommitting American Penal Culture to Democratic Ideals,” New Perspectives in Policing (April 2015).

10Simone Weichselbaum and Beth Schwartzapfel, “When veterans become cops, some bring war home.” USA Today, March 30, 2017.

11Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces (New York: PublicAffairs, 2013).

12James Q. Wilson and George Kelling, “Broken Windows: The police and neighborhood safety,” Atlantic, March 1982.

13Edward Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and the Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little Brown and Co, 1970).

14Frederick Siegel, The Future Once Happened Here: New York, D.C., L.A., and the Fate of America’s Big Cities (New York: Free Press, 1997).

15James Q. Wilson and Richard Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature: The Definitive Study of the Causes of Crime (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1985).

16Ibid.

17Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010).

18“Fair and Impartial Policing,” www.fairimpartialpolicing.com.

19Joaquin Sapien, “Racist Posts on NY Cop Blog Raise Ire at Time of Tension,” ProPublica, April 16, 2015, http://www.propublica.org/article/racist-posts-on-ny-cop-blog-raise-ire-at-time-of-tension.

20Melissa Crowe and Bianca Montes, “Victoria police officer investigated for tasing driver, 76,” Victoria Advocate, December 13, 2014.

21Peter Moskos, Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008). David Couper, Arrested Development: A Veteran Police Chief Sounds Off about Protest, Racism, Corruption, and the Seven Necessary Steps to Improve our Nation’s Police (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012).

22Seth Stoughton, “Law Enforcement’s ‘Warrior’ Problem,” Harvard Law Review 128, April 2015.

23Jon Swaine, “Ohio Walmart video reveals moments before officer killed John Crawford,” Guardian, September 25, 2014.

24Jon Swaine, “Video shows John Crawford’s girlfriend aggressively questioned after Ohio police shot him dead in Walmart,” Guardian, December 14, 2014.

25Jason Hanna, Martin Savidge and John Murgatroyd, “Video shows trooper shooting unarmed man, South Carolina police say,” CNN, September 26, 2014.

26“Close Quarters Battle: SRT Training, CQB Training, SWAT Training, High Risk Entry Training, Combat Training, Hand-to-Hand Combat,” www.cqb.cc.

27“Trojan Securities International,” trojansecurities.com/military.html.

28Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop.

29Brian A. Reaves, “Local Police Departments, 2007,” US Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2010).

30Robert Friedrich, The Impact of Organizational, Individual, and Situational Factors on Police Behavior (University of Michigan: Ph.D. Dissertation, 1977); Joel Garner, Thomas Schade, John Hepburn, and John Buchanan, “Measuring the Continuum of Force Used by and Against the Police,” Criminal Justice Review 20 (1994): 146–68; James McElvain and Augustine Kposowa, “Police Officer Characteristics and Internal Affairs Investigations for Use of Force Allegations,” Journal of Criminal Justice 32, no. 3 (2004): 265–279; William Terrill and Stephen Mastrofski, “Situational and Officer-Based Determinants of Police Coercion,” Justice Quarterly 19, no. 2 (2002): 215–248. John McCluskey, William Terrill, and Eugene Paoline, “Peer Group Aggressiveness and the Use of Coercion in Police-Suspect Encounters,” Police Practice and Research 6, no. 1 (2005): 19–37; Brian Lawton, “Levels of Nonlethal Force: An Examination of Individual, Situational, and Contextual Factors,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 44, no. 2 (2007): 163–184.

31Bernard Cohen and Jan Chaiken, Police Background Characteristics and Performance: Summary (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corportation, 1972). Ivan Sun and Brian Payne, “Racial Differences in Resolving Conflicts: A Comparison between Black and White Police Officers,” Crime and Delinquency 50, no. 4 (2004): 516–541. Robert Brown and James Frank, “Race and Officer Decision Making: Examining Differences in Arrest Outcomes between Black and White Officers,” Justice Quarterly 23, no. 1 (2006): 96–126.

32Ryan Martin, “Having more black officers not a ‘direct solution’ for reducing black killings by police, IU research show,” Indy Star, February 27, 2017.

33Steven Brand and Meghan Stroshine, “The Role of Officer Attributes, Job Characteristics, and Arrest Activity in Explaining Police Use of Force,” Criminal Justice Policy Review 24, no. 5 (2014): 551–572.

34President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing, Final Report of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing (Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2015).

35President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: A Report by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1967).

36National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam Books, 1968).

37Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, Pub. L. 90–351, 90th Cong. (June 19, 2007).

38Monica Bell, “Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement,” Yale Law Journal 126:7 (2017).

39Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of Justice, Report on the Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department (Washington, DC, March 4, 2015).

40James Comey, “Speech at Georgetown University,” (Washington, DC, February 12, 2015), FBI.gov; Christopher Mathias, “Bratton Says Police to Blame for ‘Worst Parts’ of Black History, but Reform Advocates are Unimpressed,” Huffington Post, February 24, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/24/william-bratton-nypd-slavery-history-broken-windows_n_6746906.html.

41Steve Herbert, Citizens, Cops, and Power: Recognizing the Limits of Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006).

42Kimberly Kindy and Kimbriell Kelly, “Thousands Dead, Few Prosecuted,” Washington Post, April 11, 2015.

43Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386 (1989).

44Judith Browne Dianis, “Why Police Shootings are a Federal Problem,” Politico, April 13, 2015.

45Cause of Action, U.S. Code 42 (1994), § 14141.

46Simone Weichselbaum, “Policing the Police,” Marshall Project, May 26, 2015.

47David Harris, Driving While Black: Racial Profiling on our Nation’s Highways (New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 1999).

48Mark Berman, “Six Cleveland Police Officers Fired for Fatal ‘137 Shots’ Car Chase in 2012,” Washington Post, January 26, 2016.

49Robin Meyer, “Body Cameras are Betraying their Promise,” Atlantic, September 30, 2016.

50Min-Seok Pang and Paul A. Pavlou, “Armed with Technology: The Impact on Fatal Shootings by the Police,” Fox School of Business Research Paper No 60-020. September 8, 2016.

51Alex S. Vitale, “A New Approach to Body Cameras,” Gotham Gazette, May 2, 2017.

52Barry Friedman, Unwarranted: Policing Without Permission (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017).

53“The Counted,” Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/series/counted-us-police-killings.

54American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing (New York: ACLU Foundation, 2014).

55Peter Kraska, Militarizing the American Criminal Justice System: The Changing Roles of the Armed Forces and the Police (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2001).

56Tina Chen, “Baby in Coma after Police ‘Grenade’ Dropped in Crib During Drug Raid,” ABC News, May 30, 2014.

57Greg Smithsimon, “Disarm the Police,” MetroPolitics, September 29, 2015.

58Chris Hayes, A Colony in a Nation (New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 2017).

59Brady Dennis, Mark Berman, and Elahe Izadi, “Dallas Police Chief Says ‘We’re Asking Cops to Do Too Much in This Country,’” Washington Post, July 11, 2016.

60Saki Knafo, “A Black Police Officer’s Fight Against the NYPD,” New York Times, February 18, 2016.

2The Police Are Not Here to Protect You

1David Bayley, Police for the Future (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1996), 25–28.

2Naomi Murakawa, The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2014).

3David Bayley, “The Development of Modern Policing” in Policing Perspectives: An Anthology, ed. Larry Gaines (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998), 67.

4Allan Silver, “The Demand for Order in Civil Society,” in The Police, ed. David J. Bordua (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1976), 21.

5Kristian Williams, Our Enemies in Blue: Police and Power in America (Oakland, CA: AK Press), 119.

6Mash Neocleous, The Fabrication of Social Order: A Critical Theory of Police Power, Pluto Press, 2000.

7Galen Broeker, Rural Disorder and Police Reform in Ireland, 1812–36 (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2015).

8Donald Read, Peterloo: The ‘Massacre’ and its Background (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1958); Robert Walmsley, Peterloo: The Case Re-opened (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1969).

9F.C. Mather, Public Order in the Age of the Chartists (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1984).

10Roger Lane, Policing the City: Boston, 1822–1885, (New York: Atheneum, 1971).

11Paul Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763–1834 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).

12Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Crime in America and the Police (New York: The Century Co., 1920).

13Sam Mitrani, The Rise of the Chicago Police: Class and Conflict, 1850–1894 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2013).

14Lane, Policing the City.

15Eric Monkkonen, Policing Urban America: 1860–1920 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

16Roger G. Dunham and Geoffrey P. Alpert, Critical Issues in Policing: Contemporary Readings, Seventh Edition (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 2015).

17Daniel Czitrom, New York Exposed: The Gilded Age Police Scandal that Launched the Progressive Era (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2016).

18Spencer J. Sadler, Pennsylvania’s Coal and Iron Police (Chicago: Arcadia Publishing, 2009).

19Alfred McCoy, Policing America’s Empire: The United States, The Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009).

20Pennsylvania State Federation of Labor, The American Cossack (New York: Arno Press & The New York Times, 1971).

21“Pennsylvania State Police [Politics] Historical Marker,” ExplorePAhistory.com, http://explorepahistory.com/hmarker.php?markerId=1-A-3BB.

22Jeremy Kuzmarov, Modernizing Repression: Police Training and Nation-Building in the American Century (Amherst, MA: University of Massachussetts Press, 2012), 39.

23Ibid.

24Mike Cox, The Texas Rangers: Wearing the Cinco Peso, 1821–1900 (London, UK: Macmillan, 2008).

25William Carrigan and Clive Webb, Forgotten Dead: Mob Violence against Mexicans in the United States, 1848–1928 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013).

26Aaron Cantu, “The Chaparral Insurgents of South Texas,” New Inquiry, April 7, 2016; Rebecca Onion, “America’s Lost History of Border Violence,” Slate, May 5, 2016.

27Benjamin Johnson, Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression Turned Mexicans into Americans (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005).

28Julian Samora, Joe Bernal, and Albert Peña, Gunpowder Justice: A Reassessment of the Texas Rangers (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979).

29Walter Webb, The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1935).

30Walter Webb, The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense, 2nd ed. (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1965).

31Sally Hadden, Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

32Richard Wade, Slavery in the Cities: The South 1820–1860 (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1967), 80.

33Ibid, 82.

34Hadden, Slave Patrols, 4.

35Douglas Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Anchor Books, 2008).

36Williams, Our Enemies in Blue, Ch. 4.

37Micol Seigel, “Objects of Police History,” Journal of American History 102, no. 1 (2015): 152–161.

38Kuzmarov, Modernizing Repression, 235.

39Christian Parenti, Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis (Brooklyn, NY: Verso Books, 2000).

40Jonathon Simon, Governing Through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007).

41Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (New York: The New Press, 2013).

42Jeffrey Reiman, The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice (Boston: Pearson, 2007).

43Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 224–5.

44Simon, Governing Through Crime.

3The School-to-Prison Pipeline

1“Justice League NYC,” gatheringforjustice.org/justiceleaguenyc.

2Lucinda Gray and Laurie Lewis, Public School Safety and Discipline: 2013–2014 (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 2015). Retrieved July 15, 2016 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch.

3“COPS in Schools (CIS),” U.S. Department of Justice Community Oriented Policing Services, http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/default.asp?Item=54.

4John Dilulio, “The Coming of the Super-Predators,” Weekly Standard, November 27, 1995, 23; James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Public Policy,” in Crime, eds. James Q. Wilson and Joan Petersilia (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies Press, 1995).

5Dilulio, “The Coming of the Super-Predators.”

6Melissa Sickmund and Charles Puzzanchera, eds., Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2014 National Report (Pittsburgh, PA: National Center for Juvenile Justice, 2014).

7Advancement Project, Test, Punish and Push Out: How Zero Tolerance and High-Stakes Testing Funnel Youth into the School-To-Prison Pipeline (Washington, D.C.: Advancement Project, January 2010).

8Ibid, 32.

9Ibid, 31.

10Augustina Reyes, Discipline, Achievement, and Race: Is Zero Tolerance the Answer? (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006).

11Annette Fuentes, Lockdown High: When the Schoolhouse Becomes and Jailhouse (Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2013).

12Abigail Thernstrom and Stephen Thernstrom, No Excuses: Closing the Racial Gap in Learning (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004).

13Kate Taylor, “At a Success Academy Charter School, Singling Out Pupils Who Have ‘Got to Go,’” New York Times, October 29, 2015.

14PBS Newshour, “Is kindergarten too young to suspend a student?” October 12, 2015.

15Taylor, “At a Success Academy Charter School.”

16US Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, “Data Snapshot: School Discipline,” Civil Rights Data Collection, no. 1 (March 2014).

17Libby Nelson and Dara Lind, “The school to prison pipeline, explained,” Justice Policy Institute, February 24, 2015.

18Tamar Lewin, “Black Students Face More Discipline, Data Suggests,” New York Times, March 6, 2012.

19Ibid.

20Project Nia, “Data on School 2013–2014,” Policing Chicago Public Schools 3 (2015).

21Daniel Losen and Russell Skiba, Suspended Education: Urban Middle Schools in Crisis (Montgomery AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2010).

22Jonathan Brice, “Baltimore Leader Helps District Cut Suspensions,” Education Week, February 6, 2013; Rachel Graham Cody, “Expel Check,” Williamette Week, September 24, 2013; Jill Tucker, “Oakland schools to get suspension monitor,” SF Gate, September 27, 2012; Lewin, “Black Students Face More Discipline”; Children’s Defense Fund—Ohio, “Issue Brief: Zero Tolerance and Exclusionary School Discipline Policies Harm Students and Contribute to the Cradle to Prison Pipeline,” Kids Count, November 2012.

23US Department of Justice and US Department of Education, “Dear Colleague Letter: Nondiscriminatory Administration of School Discipline,” January 8, 2014.

24Susan Ferriss, “Update: How kicking a trash can became criminal for a 6th grader,” Center for Public Integrity, September 3, 2015.

25Ibid.

26American Civil Liberties Union, “Kentucky Case Spotlights Problem of Untrained Law Enforcement Disciplining Students with Disabilities,” August 3, 2015.

27Niraj Chokshi, “School police across the country receive excess military weapons and gear,” Washington Post, September 16, 2014.

28American Civil Liberties Union, “South Carolina Students Were Terrorized by Police Raid with Guns and Drug Dogs, ACLU Lawsuit Charges,” December 15, 2003.

29Rebecca, Leung, “Ambush at Goose Creek: Drug Worries Lead to Raid at S. Carolina High School,” CBS News, February 2, 2004.

30Bethany Peak, “Militarization of School Police: One Route on the School-to-Prison Pipeline,” Arkansas Law Review 68, no. 2 (2015): 195–229.

31Fuentes, Lockdown High, 155.

32Dana Goldstein, “In Your Face: Does Tear Gas Belong in Schools? Do Police?” Marshall Project, January 26, 2015.

33Emma Brown, “Judge: Police can no longer pepper-spray students for minor misbehavior at school,” Washington Post, October 1, 2015.

34Elliot McLaughlin, “Texas student tased by police exits coma, enters rehabilitation, attorney says,” CNN, February 3, 2014.

35Thad Moore, Nicole Hensley, and Corky Siemaszko, “Deputy involved in body-slam arrest of Spring Valley High student is dating a black woman so he can’t be racist, sheriff says,” New York Daily News, October 27, 2015.

36“Police Brutality—Officer Beats Special Ed Kid,” YouTube video, 3:29, posted by “StopTheBrutality,” October 27, 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU5fAGOVvEM.

37Jaeah Lee, “Chokeholds, Brain Injuries, Beatings: When School Cops Go Bad,” Mother Jones, July 14, 2015.

38Eva Ruth Moravec, “Teen shot by Northside officer identified,” My San Antonio, November 15, 2010.

39James Pinkerton, “Local school police used force on students hundreds of times in recent years,” Houston Chronicle, March 27, 2015.

40“Additional counselors at Price Middle School after shooting,” WGCL-TV Atlanta, February 28, 2013.

41Chongmin Na and Denise Gottfredson, “Police Officers in Schools: Effects on School Crime and the Processing of Offending Behaviors,” Justice Quarterly (2011): 1–32.

42Barbara Raymond, “Response Guide No. 10: Assigning Police Officers to Schools,” Center for Problem-Oriented Policing, 2010.

43US Department of Education, Guiding Principles: A Resource Guide for Improving School Climate and Discipline (Washington, D.C.: US Department of Education, 2014).

44Seth Stoughton and Josh Gupta-Kagan, “Why are Police Disciplining Students?” Atlantic, October 29, 2015.

45R.E. Hamilton, “School, Police, and Probation: A Winning Team in Fresno,” School Safety (Spring 1996): 20–23.

46Kevin Quinn, “My View: More school resource officers, more safe school,” CNN, January 17, 2013.

47I. India Thusi, “Systemic Failure: The School-to-Prison Pipeline and Discrimination Against Poor Minority Students,” Journal of Law and Society 13 (2011): 281–299; Peak, “Militarization of School Police.”

48Lisa Thurau, “Cops and Kids: We Need New Thinking,” Crime Report, April 2, 2015.

49US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, “Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports,” pbis.org.

50New York City School-Justice Partnership Task Force, Keeping Kids in School and Out of Court: Report and Recommendations (Albany, NY: New York State Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children, 2013).

51Urban Youth Collaborative, “The $746 Million a Year School-to-Prison Pipeline,” Center for Popular Democracy, 2011.

52American Federation of Teachers, “Community Schools,” http://www.aft.org/position/community-schools.

53Emma Brown, “Some Baltimore youth have fears of police reinforced in their schools,” Washington Post, May 2, 2015.

54Ibid.

55Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, “What is Social and Emotional Learning?” n.d.

56John Payton, Roger Weissberg, Joseph Durlak, Allison Dymnicki, Rebecca Taylor, Kriston Schellinger, and Molly Pachen, The Positive Impact of Social and Emotional Learning for Kindergarten to Eighth Grade Students: Findings from Three Scientific Reviews (Chicago, IL: Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning, 2008).

57J. Lawrence Aber, Sara Pederson, Joshua Brown, Stephanie Jones, Elizabeth Gershoff, Changing Children’s Trajectories of Development: Two-Year Evidence for the Effectiveness of a School-Based Approach to Violence Prevention (New York: National Center for Children in Poverty, 2003).

58National Dropout Prevention Center/Network, “Model Program: Bry’s Behavioral Monitoring and Reinforcement Program,” n.d.

59Matthew Mayer and Peter Leone, “A Structural Analysis of School Violence and Disruption: Implications for Creating Safer Schools,” Education and Treatment of Children 22, no. 3 (1999): 333–356.

60Ibid, 349.

61Ibid, 352.

4“We Called for Help, and They Killed My Son”

1The chapter title is taken from a news report. See Michael Pearson, Christina Zdanowicz and David Mattingly, “ ‘We called for help, and they killed my son,’ North Carolina man says,” CNN, January 7, 2014.

2Egon Bittner, “The Police on Skid-Row: A Study of Peace Keeping,” American Sociological Review 32, no. 5 (1967): 699–715.

3Guardian, “The Counted.”

4Doris Fuller, H. Richard Lamb, Michael Biasotti, and John Snook, Overlooked in the Undercounted: The Role of Mental Illness in Fatal Law Enforcement Encounters (Arlington, VA: Treatment Advocacy Center, 2015).

5Powell Shooting (Cell Phone Camera), YouTube video, posted by Sol Rayz, August 20, 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-P54MZVxMU&feature=youtu.be&bpctr=1470409330.

6Naomi Martin, “Video: Dallas cops fatally shoot mentally ill man wielding screwdriver,” Dallas Morning News, March 17, 2015.

7Joseph Berger, “Officer Fatally Shoots Man After Stabbing in Brooklyn Synagogue,” New York Times, December 9, 2014.

8Alexandra Sims, “Nicholas Salvador became ‘obsessed’ with beheading videos weeks before killing grandmother Palmira Silva,” Independent, June 24, 2015.

9Ben Cohen, “This is How UK Police Stop Someone with a Knife,” Daily Banter, August 21, 2014.

10Daily Mail Reporter, “The moment thirty riot police tackled machete-wielding man with a wheelie bin,” Daily Mail, May 20, 2011.

11Rebecca Allison, “UK’s first ‘suicide by cop’ ruling,” Guardian, May 9, 2003.

12Independent Commission on Mental Health and Policing, “Report,” May 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/10_05_13_report.pdf.

13Fuller et al, Overlooked in the Undercounted; Martha Williams Deane, Henry Steadman, Randy Borum, Bonita Veysey, Joseph Morrissey, Emerging Partnerships Between Mental Health and Law Enforcement (Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 1999); Melissa Reuland, Matthew Schwarzfeld, and Laura Draper, Law Enforcement Responses to People with Mental Illnesses: A Guide to Research-Informed Policy and Practice (New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2009).

14National Association on Mental Illness (NAMI), “Jailing People with Mental Illness,” n.d.

15E. Fuller Torrey, Mary Zdanowicz, Aaron Kennard, H. Richard Lamb, Donald Eslinger, Michael Biasotti, and Doris Fuller, “The Treatment of Persons with Mental Illness in Prisons and Jails: A State Survey,” (Arlington, VA: Treatment Advocacy Center, 2014).

16Martin Kaste, “The ‘Shock of Confinement’: The Grim Reality of Suicide in Jail,” NPR, July 27, 2015.

17NAMI, “Jailing People.”

18Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Mental Health Findings (Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration, 2012).

19Dennis Culhane, Stephen Metraux, and Trevor Hadley, “Public Service Reductions Associated with Placement of Homeless Persons with Severe Mental Illness in Supportive Housing,” Housing Policy Debates 13, no. 1 (2002): 107–163; Robert Rosenheck, Wesley Kasprow, Linda Risman, and Wen Liu-Mares, “Cost-effectiveness of Supported Housing for Homeless Persons With Mental Illness,” Archives of General Psychiatry 60, no. 9 (2003): 940–951; Thomas Chalmers McLaughlin, “Using Common Themes: Cost-Effectiveness of Permanent Supported Housing for People With Mental illness,” Research on Social Work Practice 21, no. 4 (2011): 404–411; David Cloud and Chelsea Davis, Treatment Alternatives to Incarceration for People with Mental Health Needs in the Criminal Justice System: The Cost-Savings Implications (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2013).

20Andy Newman, “Disturbed Man Wielding a Hammer Is Killed by Police in Brooklyn,” New York Times, August 31, 1999.

21Vivian Ho, Jenna Lyons, and Kale Williams, “Killing by S.F. police sets off public debate,” SFGate, December 4, 2015.

22CIT International, “Memphis Model,” n.d., www.citinternational.org/training-overview/163-memphis-model.html.

23Saki Knafo, “Change of Habit: How Seattle Cops Fought an Addiction to Locking Up Drug Users,” Huffington Post, August 28, 2014.

24Lauren Almquist and Elizabeth Dodd, Mental Health Courts: A Guide to Research-Informed Policy and Practice (New York: Council of State Governments Justice Center, 2012).

25Christian Henrichson, Joshua Rinaldi, and Ruth Delaney, The Price of Jails: Measuring the Taxpayer Cost of Local Incarceration (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2015).

26Linda Teplin, “Keeping the Peace: Police Discretion and Mentally Ill Persons,” National Institute of Justice Journal (July 2000): 8–15.

27Michael Biasotti, “Policing the Mentally Ill,” Law Enforcement Today, November 20, 2014, http://www.lawenforcementtoday.com/2014/11/20/policing-the-mentally-ill/.

28Michael Koval, “Chief Koval’s Blog: Madison Police Department Announces a new Mental Health Officer pilot program,” cityofmadison.com, January 26, 2015, http://www.cityofmadison.com/police/chief/blog/?Id=6324.

29David Ovale, “In Miami-Dade, hope, help for offenders with mental illness,” Miami Herald, September 29, 2014.

30Cloud and Davis, Treatment Alternatives to Incarceration.

31Ovale, “In Miami-Dade, hope, help.”

5Criminalizing Homelessness

1National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, No Safe Place: The Criminalization of Homelessness in U.S. Cities (Washington, D.C.: National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 2014).

2Katherine Beckett and Steve Herbert, Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009).

3Alex Vitale, “The Safer Cities Initiative and the Removal of the homeless: Reducing crime or promoting gentrification on Los Angeles’ Skid Row,” Criminology and Public Policy 9, no. 4 (2010): 867–873; Forrest Stuart, Down and Out and Under Arrest: Policing and Everyday Life in Skid Row (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2016).

4Rick Rojas and Joseph Kolb, “Albuquerque Officers Are Charged with Murder in Death of Homeless Man,” New York Times, January 12, 2015.

5Kate Mather, Joel Rubin, and Gale Holland, “Video of LAPD killing turns harsh light on skid row,” Los Angeles Times, March 2, 2015; Kate Mather, James Queally, and Gale Holland, “L.A. Police Commission clears officers in skid row shooting but faults officer in Burbank killing,” Los Angeles Times, February 2, 2016.

6Kate Mather, “LAPD killing of unarmed homeless man in Venice was unjustified, Police Commission says,” Los Angeles Times, April 12, 2016.

7Vitale, City of Disorder. Alex Vitale, “Enforcing Civility: Homelessness, ‘Quality of Life,’ and the Crisis of Urban Liberalism” (City University Graduate School: Ph.D. dissertation, 2001).

8David Firestone, “3 Tell Council They Beat Homeless to Clear Out Business District,” New York Times, May 11, 1995.

9Ross MacDonald, Fatos Kaba, Zachary Rosner, Allison Vise, David Weiss, Mindy Brittner, Molly Sherker, Nathaniel Dickey, and Homer Venters, “The Rikers Island Hot Spotters: Defining the Needs of the Most Frequently Incarcerated,” American Journal of Public Health 105, no. 11 (2015): 2262–2268.

10Ibid, 2262.

11Jonathan Wrathall, Jayme Day, Mary Beth-Ferguson, Aldo Hernandez, Alyson Ainscough, Kerry Steadman, Rachelle Brown, Patrick Frost, and Ashley Tolman, Comprehensive Report on Homelessness: State of Utah 2013 (Salt Lake City, UT: Utah Housing and Community Development Division, 2013).

12Paul Guerin and Alexandra Tonigan, City of Albuquerque Heading Home Initiative Cost Study Report Phase 1 (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Institute for Social Research, 2013).

13Gregory Shinn, The Cost of Long-Term Homelessness in Central Florida: The Current Crisis and the Economic Impact of Providing Sustainable Housing Solutions (Orlando, FL: Central Florida Commission on Homelessness, 2014).

14Michael Cousineau, Heather Lander, and Mollie Lowery, Homeless Cost Study (Los Angeles, CA: United Way of Greater Los Angeles, 2009).

15Andrew Liese, “We Can Do Better: Anti-Homeless Ordinances as Violations of State Substantive Due Process Law,” Vanderbilt Law Review 59, no. 4 (2006): 1413–1455; Robert C. Ellickson, “Controlling Chronic Misconduct in City Spaces: Of Panhandlers, Skid Rows, and Public Space Zoning,” Yale Law Journal 105, no. 5 (1996): 1165–1248; Maria Foscarinis, “Downward Spiral: Homelessness and Its Criminalization,” Yale Law and Policy Review 14, no. 1 (1996): 1–63.

16Kirk Johnson, “Property of a Homeless Man is Private, Hartford Court Says: Justices break new ground on the rights of the homeless,” New York Times, March 19, 1991; Bob Egelko, “Homeless have right to reclaim property,” San Francisco Chronicle, August 9, 2014; Gale Holland, “Seize a homeless person’s property? Not so fast, a federal judge tells L.A.,” Los Angeles Times, April 13, 2016.

17US Department of Justice, “Justice Department Files Brief to Address the Criminalization of Homelessness,” August 6, 2015.

18United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, Searching Out Solutions: Constructive Alternatives to the Criminalization of Homelessness (Washington, D.C.: United States Interagency Council on Homelessness, 2012).

19Bob Egelko, “U.N. panel denounces laws targeting homeless,” San Francisco Chronicle, May 2, 2014.

20Judicial Branch of Arizona Maricopa County, “Homeless Court,” n.d.

21National Low Income Housing Coalition, “Rental Inflation Drives Homelessness and Housing Instability for the Poor,” May 1, 2015.

22Virginia Housing Alliance, “Governor McAuliffe Announces 10.5 percent Decrease in Overall Homelessness in Virginia,” July 21, 2016.

23Maria La Ganga, “Utah says it won ‘war on homelessness,’ but shelters tell a different story,” Guardian, April 27, 2016.

24Kitsap Sun, “Opinion: Further questions about housing first,” July 14, 2016.

25Hasson Rashid, “Restoring Bread and Jams for the Homeless,” Alliance of Cambridge Tenants, June 21, 2014.

26San Francisco Homeless Resource, “Mission Neighborhood Research Center,” n.d http://sfhomeless.wikia.com/

27Alex Vitale, “Why are New York cops shaming homeless people?” Al Jazeera America, August 16, 2015.

6The Failures of Policing Sex Work

1Susan Dewey, “On the Boundaries of the Global Margins: Violence, labor, and Surveillance in a Rust Belt Topless Bar,” in Susan Dewey and Patty Kelley, eds., Policing Pleasure: Sex Work, Policy, and the State in Global Perspective (New York: NYU Press, 2011).

2Katherine Beckett and Steve Herbert, Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America (New York: Oxford, 2009).

3Lisa Duggan, “What the Pathetic Case Against Rentboy.com Says About Sex Work,” Nation, January 7, 2016.

4Melissa Gira Grant, “The NYPD Arrests Women for Who They Are and Where They Go—Now They’re Fighting Back,” Village Voice, November 22, 2016.

5Kamala Kempadoo, ed., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2012).

6Damien Cave and Frances Robles, “A Smuggled Girl’s Odyssey of False Promises and Fear,” New York Times, October 5, 2014.

7Donna M. Hughes and Tatyana A. Denisova, “The Transnational Political Criminal Nexus of Trafficking in Women from Ukraine,” Trends in Organized Crime 6, no. 3/4 (2001): 43–68; Tim Rhodes, Milena Simić, Sladjana Baroš, Lucy Platt, and Bojan Žikić, “Police violence and sexual risk among female and transvestite sex workers in Serbia: qualitative study,” British Medical Journal (2008): 307; Monica Rao Biradavolu, Scott Burris, Annie George, Asima Jena, and Kim M. Blankenship, “Can sex workers regulate police? Learning from an HIV prevention project for sex workers in southern India,” Social Science and Medicine 68, no. 8 (2009): 1541–1547.

8“St. James Infirmary,” stjamesinfirmary.org.

9Noah Berlatsky, “Child Sex Workers’ Biggest Threat: The Police,” New Republic, January 20, 2016.

10Joana Busza, “Sex Work and Migration: The Dangers of Oversimplification: A Case Study of Vietnamese Women in Cambodia,” Health and Human Rights 7, no. 2 (2004): 231–249; Rhodes et al., “Police violence and sexual risk”; Biradavolua et al., “Can sex workers regulate police?”

11Rick Rojas and Al Baker, “New York Officer Ran Prostitution Ring at Motels, Authorities Say,” New York Times, February 2, 2016; Henry Lee, “Sheriff’s sergeant arrested for promoting prostitution at coffee stands,” Q13 Fox, June 26, 2013.

12Johnny Archer, “Veteran Officer Accused of Sexual Assault and Coercion,” nbcdfw.com, December 21, 2014; Elissa Repko, “Updated: Veteran Dallas police officer arrested on charge of sexual assault,” Dallas Morning News Crime Blog, December 21, 2014; “Lubbock Police Arrest Fellow Officer Tuesday Evening,” Everything Lubbock, February 18, 2015.

13Joshua Fechter, “Report: Central Texas officer arrested on child prostitution charge,” My San Antonio, March 2, 2015; Associated Press, “Ocala officer fired after arrest for sex with underage girl,” January 18, 2015.

14“Seattle SWAT officer arrested for drugs, theft, prostitution,” Live Leak, June 20, 2014.

15“Ex-cop charged with stealing $450,000 from woman he’d arrested,” SF Gate, April 22, 2015.

16Lowell Sun, “Ex-Lowell police officer gets two years in jail for extorting prostitutes,” April 25, 2013.

17Juhu Thurkral, Melissa Ditmore, and Alexandra Murphy, Behind Closed Doors: An Analysis of Indoor Sex Work in New York City (New York: Sex Workers Project at the Urban Justice Center, 2005).

18Jazeera Iman, Catlin Fullwood, Naima Paz, Daphne W, and Shira Hassan, Girls Do What They Have To Do To Survive: Illuminating Methods Used by Girls in the Sex Trade and Street Economy to Fight Back and Heal (Chicago: Young Women’s Empowerment Project, 2009).

19Ronald Weitzer, Legalizing Prostitution: From Illicit Vice to Lawful Business (New York: NYU Press, 2012), 67.

20Molly Crabapple, “Special Prostitution Courts and the Myth of ‘Rescuing’ Sex Workers,” Vice, January 2015.

21Elizabeth Bernstein, “Militarized Humanitarianism Meets Carceral Feminism: The Politics of Sex, Rights, and Freedom in Contemporary Antitrafficking Campaigns,” Signs 36, no. 1 (2010): 45–71; Elizabeth Bernstein, “Carceral politics as gender justice? The ‘traffic in women’ and neoliberal circuits of crime, sex, and rights,” Theory and Society 41, no. 3 (2012): 233–259.

22Empower Chiang Mai, A Report by Empower Chiang Mai on the Human Rights Violations Women Are Subjected to When “Rescued” by Anti-Trafficking Groups Who Employ Methods Using Deception, Force, and Coercion, June 2003.

23Dewey, “On the Boundaries of the Global Margins.”

24Niels Lesniewski, “Brothel Responds to Reid’s Prostitutes/2016 GOP Convention Remarks,” Roll Call, February 21, 2014.

25For a detailed description of these cities, see Weitzer, Legalizing Prostitution.

26New Zealand Government, Report of the Prostitution Law Review Committee on the Operation of the Prostitution Reform Act of 2003, May 2008.

7The War on Drugs

1Sarra L. Hedden, Joel Kennet, Rachel Lipari, Grace Medley, Peter Tice, Elizabeth Copello, and Larry Kroutil, Behavioral Health Trends in the United States: Results from the 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2015).

2William Campbell Garriott, Policing Methamphetamine: Narco-politics in Rural America (New York: NYU Press, 2011).

3Mike Mariani, “How the American opiate epidemic was started by one pharmaceutical company,” Pacific Standard, March 4, 2015.

4Kevin Hill, “Medical Marijuana for Treatment of Chronic Pain and Other Medical and Psychiatric Problems: A Clinical Review,” Journal of the American Medical Association 313, No. 24 (2015): 215–225.

5Craig Reinarman and Harry Levine, Crack in America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1997); Steven Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000); David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1999).

6Johann Hari, Chasing the Scream: The First and Last Days of the War on Drugs (New York: Bloomsbury, 2015).

7Howard S. Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: The Free Press, 1963).

8Alexander, New Jim Crow.

9Dan Baum, Smoke and Mirrors: The War on Drugs and the Politics of Failure (Boston: Little Brown, 1996).

10Dan Baum, “Legalize It All: How to Win the War on Drugs,” Harper’s Magazine, August 18, 2016.

11Thomas Rowe, Federal Narcotics Law and the War on Drugs: Money Down a Rat Hole (Portland, OR: Book News, Inc., 2006).

12Tina Dorsey and Priscilla Middleton, Drugs and Crime Facts (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Justice, 2010).

13Daniel Mejia and Joanne Csete, The Economics of the Drug War: Unaccounted Costs, Lost Lives, and Missed Opportunities (New York: Open Society Foundations, 2016).

14Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop.

15John Worrall, “Addicted to the drug war: The role of civil asset forfeiture as a budgetary necessity in contemporary law enforcement,” Journal of Criminal Justice 29, no. 3 (2001): 171–187.

16Wendy Ruderman and Barbara Laker, Busted: A Tale of Corruption and Betrayal in the City of Brotherly Love (New York: HarperCollins, 2014).

17Robert Daley, Prince of the City: The True Story of a Cop Who Knew Too Much (Kingston, RI: Moyer Bell, 2004).

18Milton Mollen, Report of the Commission to Investigate Allegations of Police Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Procedures of the Police Department (New York: City of New York, 1994).

19Carmen George, “Fresno deputy police chief arrested in federal drug investigation,” Fresno Bee, March 26, 2015.

20“Former Scott County sheriff’s deputy indicted,” Knoxville News Sentinel, March 31, 2015.

21Paula McMahon, “NYC cop served as insurance in drug deal, friend says,” Sun Sentinel, March 8, 2015.

22David Ovalle, “Miami-Dade police lieutenant pleads guilty to aiding cocaine smugglers,” Miami Herald, March 31, 2015.

23Kent Faulk, “Former Winston County deputy sentenced to federal prison in meth extortion,” Birmingham News, March 27, 2015.

24Peter Hermann, “Ex-FBI agent charged with 64 criminal counts in theft of heroin evidence,” Washington Post, March 20, 2015.

25Kevin Connolly, “Former Titusville police officer gets 10 years in prison in DEA coke sting,” Orlando Sentinel, March 31, 2015.

26Sari Horwitz and Carol Leonning, “Report: DEA agents had ‘sex parties’ with prostitutes hired by drug cartels,” Washington Post, March 26, 2015.

27Stopthedrugwar.org, “Police Corruption,” n.d.

28Alexander, New Jim Crow; Lisa Moore and Amy Elkavich, “Who’s Using and Who’s Doing Time: Incarceration, the War on Drugs, and Public Health,” American Journal of Public Health 98, no. 5 (2008): 782–786; Lawrence Bobo and Victor Thompson, “Unfair by Design: The War on Drugs, Race, and the Legitimacy of the Criminal Justice System,” Social Research 73, no. 2 (2006): 445–472.

29Jeffrey Fagan and Amanda Geller, “Profiling and Consent: Stops, Searches and Seizures after Soto,” SSRN Working Paper Series (2010).

30Peter Moskos, Cop in the Hood: My Year Policing Baltimore’s Eastern District (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009).

31Natassia Walsh, Baltimore Behind Bars: How to Reduce the Jail Population, Save Money and Improve Public Safety (Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute, 2010).

32Maggie Taylor, “Former Baltimore Mayor Kurt Schmoke: Ahead of his Time,” Drug Policy Institute, February 20, 2014, http://www.drugpolicy.org/blog/former-baltimore-mayor-kurt-schmoke-ahead-his-time.

33“Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP),” leap.cc.

34Hans Sherrer, “Travesty in Tulia, Texas: Frame-up of 38 Innocent People Orchestrated by a County Sheriff, Prosecutor and Judge,” Justice: Denied, no. 23 (2004): 3–5.

35John Sullivan, Derek Hawkins, and Pietro Lombardi, “Probable Cause: Pursuing drugs and guns on scant evidence, D.C. police sometimes raid wrong homes—terrifying the innocent,” Washington Post, March 5, 2016.

36Marc Santora and Benjamin Weiser, “Officer in Ramarley Graham Shooting Won’t Face U.S. Charges,” New York Times, March 8, 2016.

37Alexander, New Jim Crow.

38Rowe, Federal Narcotics Law and the War on Drugs.

39National Center for Health Statistics, “National Overdose Deaths: Number of Deaths from Heroin,” National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), December 2015.

40Amar Toor, “Russia has a serious HIV crisis, and the government is to blame,” Verge, July 2, 2015; Karsten Lunze, Anita Raj, Debbie Cheng, Emily Quinn, Carly Bridden, Elena Blokhnia, Alexander Walley, Evgeny Krupitsky, and Jeffrey Samet, “Punitive policing and associated substance use risks among HIV-positive people in Russia who inject drugs,” Journal of the International AIDS Society 17 (2014).

41Harry Levine, “Global drug prohibition: its uses and crises,” International Journal of Drug Policy 14 (2003): 145–153.

42Human Rights Watch, Neither Rights nor Security: Killings, Torture, and Disappearances in Mexico’s “War on Drugs” (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2011).

43McCoy, Politics of Heroin; Peter Watt and Roberto Zepeda, Drug War Mexico: Politics, Neoliberalism and Violence in the New Narcoeconomy (New York: Zed Books, 2012).

44Oscar Martinez, A History of Violence: Living and Dying in Central America (Brooklyn, NY: Verso Books, 2016).

45Pew Charitable Trusts Public Safety Performance Project, “Federal Drug Sentencing Laws Bring High Cost, Low Return,” August 27, 2015.

46Shelli Rossman, John Roman, Janine Zweig, Michael Rempel, and Christine Lindquist, The Multi-Site Adult Drug Court Evaluation: Executive Summary (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Justice Policy Center, 2011).

47Drug Policy Alliance, Drug Courts Are Not the Answer: Toward a Health-Centered Approach to Drug Use (New York: Drug Policy Alliance, 2011).

48Center for Court Innovation, A Statewide Evaluation of New York’s Adult Drug Courts (New York: Center for Court Innovation, 2012).

49Marsha Weissman, “Aspiring to the Impracticable: Alternatives to Incarceration in the Era of Mass Incarceration,” New York University Review of Law and Social Change 33: 235–269.

50Rebecca Tiger, Judging Addicts: Drug Courts and Coercion in the Justice System (New York: NYU Press, 2012).

51Maia Szalavitz, “How America Overdosed on Drug Courts,” Pacific Standard, May 18, 2015.

52Jeremy Galloway, “The Worst Place to Die: How Jail Practices Are Killing People Going Through Opioid Withdrawals,” The Influence, March 23, 2016.

53Teresa Gowan and Sarah Whitestone, “Making the criminal addict: Subjectivity and social control in a strong-arm rehab,” Punishment and Society 14, no. 1 (2012): 69–93.

54Ashley Peskoe and Stephen Stirling, “Want heroin treatment in N.J.? Get arrested,” NJ.com, January 18, 2015.

55Drug Policy Alliance, Drug Courts Are Not the Answer.

56Justice Policy Institute, Addicted to Courts: How a Growing Dependence on Drug Courts Impacts People and Communities (Washington, D.C.: Justice Policy Institute, 2011).

57Drug Policy Alliance, Approaches to Decriminalizing Drug Use and Possession (New York: Drug Policy Alliance, 2016).

58Harry Levine and Deborah Peterson Small, Marijuana Arrest Crusade: Racial Bias and Police Policy in New York City 1997–2007 (New York: New York Civil Liberties Union, 2008); Andrew Golub, Bruce Johnson, and Eloise Dunlap, “The race/ethnicity disparity in misdemeanor marijuana arrests in New York City,” Criminology and Public Policy 6, no. 1 (2007): 131–164; Bruce Johnson, Andrew Golub, Eloise Dunlap, Stephen Sifaneck, and James McCabe, “Policing and Social Control of Public Marijuana Use and Selling in New York City,” Law Enforcement Executive Forum 6, no. 5 (2006): 59–89.

59Glenn Greenwald, Drug Decriminalization in Portugal: Lessons for Creating Fair and Successful Drug Policies (Washington, D.C.: Cato Institute, 2009).

60Drug Policy Alliance, Supervised Injection Facilities (New York: Drug Policy Alliance, 2016).

61Michael Reznicek, Blowing Smoke: Rethinking the War on Drugs without Prohibition and Rehab (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012).

62Garriott, Policing Methamphetamine.

63Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The Case for Reparations,” Atlantic, June 2014.

8Gang Suppression

1Charles Katz and Vincent Webb, “Police Response to Gangs: A Multi-Site Study,” (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, 2004).

2Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Violent Gang Task Forces,” n.d.

3Malcolm Klein, Gang Cop: The Words and Ways of Officer Paco Domingo (Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press, 2003).

4Megan Garvey and Patrick McGreevy, “LA mayor seeks federal aid to combat gangs,” LA Times, January 4, 2007.

5Joe Domanick, Blue: The LAPD and the Battle to Redeem American Policing (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2015), 65.

6Ibid.

7Jeffrey Reiman, The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice (Boston: Pearson, 2007); William Chambliss, “The Saints and the Roughnecks,” Society 11, no. 1 (1973): 24–31.

8Klein, Gang Cop.

9Ibid.

10Ibid.

11Ibid.

12Victor Rios, Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys (New York: NYU Press, 2011).

13Susan Pennell and Roni Melton, “Evaluation of a Task Force Approach to Gangs,” Responding to Gangs: Evaluation and Research (Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 2002).

14Susan Phillips, Operation Fly Trap: L.A. Gangs, Drugs, and the Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).

15Ana Muñiz and Kim McGilll. Tracked and Trapped: Youth of Color, Gang Databases and Gang Injunctions (Los Angeles: Youth Justice Coalition, 2012).

16Ana Muñiz, Police, Power and the Production of Racial Boundaries (Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2015).

17Beth Caldwell, “Criminalizing Day-to-Day Life: A Socio-Legal Critique of Gang Injunctions,” American Journal of Criminal Law 37, no. 3 (2010): 241–290.

18K. Babe Howell, “Gang Policing: The Stop-and-Frisk Justification for Profile-Based Policing,” University of Denver Criminal Law Review: 5 (2015): 1–31.

19US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Best Practices to Address Community Gang Problems: OJJDP’s Comprehensive Gang Model (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, 2010).

20David Kennedy, “Pulling levers: Chronic offenders, high-crime settings, and a theory of prevention.” Valparaiso University Law Review: 31, no. 2 (1996): 449–484.

21Jack Katz, The Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil (New York: Basic Books, 1988).

22Domanick, Blue.

23Connie Rice, A Call to Action: The Case for a Comprehensive Solution to L.A.’s Gang Violence Epidemic (Los Angeles: Advancement Project, 2007).

24Youth for Justice, “LA For Youth—1 Percent Campaign,” n.d., www.youth4justice.org.

25Elliott Currie, Crime and Punishment in America: Why the Solutions to America’s Most Stubborn Social Crisis Have Not Worked—and What Will (London: Macmillan, 1998).

26Currie, Crime and Punishment in America.

27Michael Fortner, The Black Silent Majority: The Rockefeller Drug Laws and the Politics of Punishment (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015).

28Todd Clear and David Karp, The Community Justice Ideal: Preventing Crime and Achieving Justice (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999).

29Emily Badger, “How Mass Incarceration Creates ‘Million Dollar Blocks’ in Poor Neighborhoods,” Washington Post, July 30, 2015.

30David Kennedy, Don’t Shoot: One Man, A Street Fellowship, and the End of Violence in Inner-City America. (New York: Bloomsbury, 2012).

31Elizabeth Palley and Corey S. Shdaimah, In Our Hands: The Struggle for U.S. Childcare Policy (New York: NYU Press, 2014).

32“Cure Violence,” cureviolence.org.

33City of Minneapolis Health Department, Minneapolis Blueprint for Action to Prevent Youth Violence (Minneapolis: Department of Health, 2013).

9Border Policing

1People v. Hall, 4 Cal. 399 (1852).

2Joseph Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond: The War on “Illegals” and the Remaking of the U.S.–Mexico Boundary (Abingdon, UK: Taylor & Francis, 2010).

3Kelly Lytle Hernandez, Migra!: A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010).

4Kitty Calavita, Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration and the INS (New York: Quid Pro Books, 2010).

5Hernandez, Migra, 172

6US Customs and Border Protection, “Border Patrol Staffing by Fiscal Year,” September 19, 2015.

7Amanda Peterson Beadle, “Cost of a Broken System: US Spent More on Immigration than All Other Enforcement Agencies Combined,” ThinkProgress, January 7, 2013.

8Martha Menchaca, Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002).

9United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975).

10American Civil Liberties Union, “The Constitution in the 100-Mile Border Zone,” n.d.

11David Horsey, “Border Patrol is becoming an occupying army in our borderlands,” Los Angeles Times, August 20, 2013.

12Nevins, Operation Gatekeeper and Beyond.

13Judith Greene, Bethany Carson, and Andrea Black, Indefensible: A Decade of Mass Incarceration of Migrants Prosecuted for Crossing the Border (Charlotte, NC: Grassroots Leadership, and Brooklyn, NY: Justice Strategies, 2016).

14Ibid.

15Sasha Von Oldershausen, “The Cost of Justice,” Texas Monthly, May 10, 2016.

16Ibid.

17Jon Greenberg, “Conservative host: Noncitizens are 25percent of federal inmates,” PunditFact, July 10, 2015.

18Alice Speri, “The Justice Department Is Done with Private Prisons. Will ICE Drop Them Too?” Intercept, August 18, 2016.

19Nina Bernstein, “Officials Hid Truth of Immigrant Deaths in Jail,” New York Times, January 9, 2010.

20American Civil Liberties Union, Detention Watch Network, and National Immigrant Justice Center, Fatal Neglect: How ICE Ignores Deaths in Detention (New York: ACLU, 2016).

21Monica Varsanyi, “Rescaling the ‘Alien,’ Rescaling Personhood: Neoliberalism, Immigration, and the State,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 98, no. 4 (2008): 877–896.

22Jacinta Ma, “Department of Homeland Security—The President’s Fiscal Year 2017 Budget,” National Immigration Forum, February 11, 2016.

23Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Immigration in the United States: Detention and Due Process (Washington, DC: Organization of American States, 2010), 55–57.

24Margot Mendelson, Shayna Strom, and Michael Wishnie, Collateral Damage: An Examination of ICE’s Fugitive Operations Program (Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute, 2009).

25“Fugitive Operations,” U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, n.d.

26Marie Gottschalk, Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 222.

27Andrew Becker, G.W. Schulz, and Tia Ghose, “Four of five Border Patrol drug busts involve US citizens, records show,” Center for Investigative Reporting, March 26, 2013.

28“Missing Migrants Project: Tracking deaths along migratory routes worldwide,” Missing Migrants Project, http://missingmigrants.iom.int/.

29Seth Freed Wessler, Shattered Families: The Perilous Intersection of Immigration Enforcement and the Child Welfare System (New York: Applied Research Center, 2011).

30Maria Sacchetti, “Lawmakers call for US to be a refuge for Central Americans,” Boston Globe, July 11, 2016.

31Todd Miller, Border Patrol Nation (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2014)

32Cristina Costantini and Elise Foley, “Anastasio Hernandez-Rojas Death: Border Patrol Tasing Incident Complicated by New Footage,” Huffington Post, April 24, 2012.

33“Killed by Border Patrol,” Southern Border Communities Coalition, July 2016.

34Costantini and Foley, “Anastasio Hernandez-Rojas Death.”

35Guillermo Cantor, Walter Ewing, and Daniel Martinez, No Action Taken: Lack of Accountability in Responding to Complaints of Abuse (American Immigration Council, May 2014).

36Esther Yu Hsi Lee, “The $5 Million Proposal to Hold Border Patrol Agents Accountable for Shootings, Think Progress, February 11, 2017.

37Sam Howe Verhovek, “After Marine on Patrol Kills a Teen-Ager, a Texas Border Village Wonders Why,” New York Times, June 29, 1997.

38Rich Jervis, “National Guard at border gets mixed reviews in Texas,” USA Today, July 31, 2014.

39Ibid.

40Brady McCombs and Stephen Ceasar, “Border program has vague goals, little oversight,” Arizona Daily Star, November 15, 2009.

41Jon Greenberg, “Ramos: 40 percent of undocumented immigrants come by air,” PunditFact, September 8, 2015.

42Miller, Border Patrol Nation; Sylvia Longmire, Border Insecurity: Why Big Money, Fences, and Drones Aren’t Making Us Safe (New York: Palgrave Macmillian, 2014).

43Longmire, 79.

44Pradine Saint-Fort, Noëlle Yasso, and Susan Shah, Engaging Police in Immigrant Communities: Promising Practices from the Field (New York: Vera Institute of Justice, 2012).

45Reece Jones, Violent Borders: Refugees and the Right to Move (Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2016).

46David Bacon, Illegal People: How Globalization Creates Migration and Criminalizes Immigrants (Boston: Beacon Press, 2008).

47Bacon, Illegal People.

48Watt and Zepeda, Drug War Mexico.

49Greg Grandin, “The Clinton-Backed Honduran Regime Is Picking Off Indigenous Leaders,” Nation, March 3, 2016.

50Immigrant Movement International, “International Migrant Manifesto,” November 5, 2011.

10Political Policing

1William Stanley, The Protection Racket State: Elite Politics, Military Extortion, and Civil War in El Salvador (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2010).

2Jennifer Schirmer, The Guatemalan Military Project: A Violence Called Democracy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998).

3Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (London: Macmillan, 2010).

4Daniel Egiegba Agbiboa, “Protectors or Predators? The Embedded Problem of Police Corruption and Deviance in Nigeria,” Administration and Society 47, no. 3 (2015): 244–281.

5K.S. Subramanian, Political Violence and the Police in India (Uttarakhand, India: SAGE Publications India, 2007).

6Saurav Datta, “Freedom of assembly is our fundamental right, but Indian police just won’t let us exercise it,” Scroll.in, February 24, 2015.

7Philip Stead, The Police of France (London, Macmillan, 1983).

8Y. Guyot, La Police (Paris: 1884).

9Robert Booth, “Anarchists should be reported, advises Westminster anti-terror police,” Guardian, July 31, 2011.

10Ibid.

11Paul Lewis and Rob Evans, Undercover: The True Story of Britain’s Secret Police (London: Faber & Faber, 2013).

12Rob Evans, “Met police to pay more than £400,000 to victim of undercover officer,” Guardian, October 23, 2014.

13Lauren Collins, “The Spy Who Loved Me: An undercover surveillance operation that went too far,” New Yorker, August 25, 2014.

14Beverly Gage, The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in Its First Age of Terror (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

15Edwin Palmer Hoyt, The Palmer Raids, 1919–1920: An Attempt to Suppress Dissent (New York: Seabury Press, 1969), 40.

16Robert Dunn, The Palmer Raids (New York: International Publishers, 1948).

17Ibid, 61.

18Ibid.

19Ibid, 65.

20Brian Glick, War at Home: Covert Action Against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It (Boston: South End Press, 1989).

21Frank Donner, Protectors of Privilege: Red Squads and Police Repression in Urban America (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990).

22LEIU: Law Enforcement Intelligence Units, “About LEIU,” n.d., leiu.org.

23Ed Pilkington, “Burglars in 1971 FBI office break-in come forward after 43 years,” Guardian, January 7, 2014.

24Donner, Protectors of Privilege, 348.

25Juan Gonzalez and Amy Goodman, “NYPD Surveillance Unveiled: City Claims to Lose Docs on 1960s Radicals, Then Finds 1 Million Records,” Democracy Now!, June 17, 2016.

26American Civil Liberties Union, “In Response to NYCLU Demand, Police Stop Interrogating Protestors About Political Activity,” April 10, 2003.

27Colin Moynihan, “Questioning of Garner Protestors in New York Renews Concerns About Police Practices,” New York Times, April 28, 2015.

28American Civil Liberties Union, “Policing Free Speech: Police Surveillance and Obstruction of First Amendment-Protected Activity,” June 29, 2010.

29American Civil Liberties Union of Colorado, “Spy Files Documents Reveal Political Spying by FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Force,” 2012.

30Ann Davis, “Use of Data Collection Systems Is Up Sharply Following 9/11,” Wall Street Journal, May 22, 2003.

31Nick Madigan, “Spying uncovered,” Baltimore Sun, July 18, 2008.

32Amy Forliti, “Documents mistakenly left behind by FBI in Minneapolis home shed light on probe of activists,” Twin Cities Pioneer Press, May 18, 2011.

33Dia Kayyali, “Congress Must Not Authorize More Chilling of the First Amendment with Material Support Laws,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, May 29, 2015.

34US Department of Homeland Security, “Fusion Centers and Emergency Operations Centers,” n.d.

35Michael German and Jay Stanley, What’s Wrong with Fusion Centers? (New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 2007).

36R. Jeffrey Smith, “Senate Report Says National Intelligence Fusion Centers Have Been Useless,” Foreign Policy, October 3, 2012.

37Michael German and Jay Stanley, Fusion Center Update (New York: American Civil Liberties Union, 2008).

38Missouri Information Analysis Center, “The Modern Militia Movement,” MIAC, February 20, 2009; The Constitution Project, “Recommendations for Fusion Centers” (Washington, DC: The Constitution Project, 2012).

39Beau Hodai, Dissent or Terror: How the Nation’s Counter Terrorism Apparatus, in Partnership with Corporate America, Turned on Occupy Wall Street (Madison, WI: Center for Media and Democracy, 2013).

40Gavin Aronsen, “What the FBI’s Occupy Docs Do—and Don’t—Reveal,” Mother Jones, January 7, 2013.

41Glenn Greenwald, No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2014).

42Human Rights Watch, Illusions of Justice: Human Rights Abuses in US Terrorism Prosecutions (New York: Human Rights Watch and Columbia Law School Human Rights Institute, 2014).

43Matt Apuzzo and Adam Goldman, Enemies Within: Inside the NYPD’s Secret Spying Unit and bin Laden’s Final Plot Against America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013).

44New York Civil Liberties Union, “Raza v. City of New York (Challenging the NYPD’s Muslim Surveillance Program),” June 18, 2013.

45Mazin Sidahmed, “NYPD’s Muslim surveillance violated regulations as recently as 2015: report,” Guardian, August 24, 2016.

46Clark McPhail, David Schweingruber, and John McCarthy, “Policing Protest in the United States: 1960–1995,” in Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies, eds. Donatella della Porta and Herbert Reiter (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998).

47David Schweingruber, “Mob Sociology and Escalated Force: Sociology’s Contribution to Repressive Police Tactics,” Sociology Quarterly 41, no. 3 (2000): 371–89.

48Alex Vitale, “The Rise of Command and Control Protest Policing in New York,” in The New York City Police Department: The Impact of Its Policies and Practices, ed. John Eterno (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2015); Alex Vitale, “The Command and Control and Miami Models at the 2004 Republican National Convention: New Forms of Policing Protests,” Mobilization 12, no. 4 (2007): 403–15; Alex Vitale, “From Negotiated Management to Command and Control: How the New York Police Department Polices Protests,” Policing and Society 15, no. 3 (2005): 283–304.

49Vitale, “The Command and Control and Miami Models.”

50Alex Thomas, “Obama May Backtrack on Military Equipment Ban For Police,” Reason, July 26, 2016.

51Jorge Rivas, “How high school teens got a police department to get rid of its military equipment,” Fusion, June 3, 2016.

Conclusion

1Northern California Patch, “Public Q&A Meeting Set This Evening to Discuss New Santa Clara Co. Jail,” September 22, 2016.

2Judith Greene et al., Ending Mass Incarceration: Charting a New Justice Re-Investment, Justice Strategies, 2013.

3“Agenda to Build Black Futures,” Black Youth Project 100, agendatobuildblackfutures.org.

4“Platform,” The Movement for Black Lives, policy.m461.org.