Introduction
1 John J. Michalczuk, Costa-Gavras: The Political Fiction Film. Brule (WI) and Cable (WI): Alliance Art Pub, 1976.
2 Major Robert M. Cassidy, ‘Why Great Powers Fight Small Wars Badly,’ Military Review, September–October, 2000, 41–52.
3 David Maxwell, ‘Do We Really Understand Unconventional Warfare?’ Small Wars Journal, 23 October 2014. www.smallwarsjournal.com. Accessed 9 December 2017.
4 Ibid.
5 John Arquilla, Insurgents, Raiders and Bandits: How Masters of Irregular Warfare Have Shaped Our Modern World. Chicago: Iran R Dee, 2011.
6 Sam Fuller, A Third Face: My Tale of Writing, Fighting and Filmmaking. New York: Applause Theatre & Cinema Books, 2002, 166.
7 Orson Welles once remarked that some films, like those of John Ford, create myths while others, such as his own, apparently just examine how myth making influences human consciousness. Irving Singer, Cinematic Mythmaking. Cambridge (MA) and London: The MIT Press, 2010.
8 Warren L. Susman, ‘ “Personality” and Twentieth Century Culture’ in John Higham and Paul K. Conkin (eds), New Directions in American Intellectual History. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979, 224. For the importance of film in the understanding of recent German history see Anton Kaes, From Hitler to Heimat: The Return of History as Film. Cambridge (MA) and London: Harvard University Press, 1989.
9 Karen Armstrong, A Short History of Myth. Edinburgh: Canongate Books, 2005, 132–135.
10 I have borrowed the term from William H. McNeill, ‘The Care and Repair of Public Myth,’ Foreign Affairs, 61, 1 (Fall 1982), 1–13.
11 Robert A. Rosenstone, Visions of the Past: The Challenge of Film to Our Idea of History. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press, 1995, 59–60.
12 Trevor B. McCrisken and Andrew Pepper, American History and Contemporary Hollywood Film. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005, 2.
13 Bernard F. Dick, The Star Spangled Screen: The American World War II Film. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996, 260.
14 Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres. New York: Random House 1981.
15 Lawrence H. Suid, Guts and Glory: The Making of the American Military Image in Film. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2002, 64–78; Jeanine Basinger, The World War II Combat Film: Anatomy of a Genre. Middletown (CT): Wesleyan University Press, 2003.
16 Basinger, The World War II Combat Film, 7–8.
17 Kathryn McMahon, ‘History, Realism and the Limits of Exclusion,’ Journal of Popular Film and Television, 22, 1 (Spring 1994), 13.
18 How non-western film audiences view these films is of course another vast and fascinating area. The anthropologist Hortense Powdermaker wrote a study of Hollywood in the late 1940s and noted that when South Sea islanders in the Pacific watched American films they tended to classify them into just two types: ‘kiss, kiss’ and ‘bang, bang’. Hortense Powdermaker, Hollywood: The Dream Factory. Boston: Little Brown and Co, 1950, 14.
19 Tom Engelhardt, The End of Victory Culture. London: Basic Books, 1995.
20 Andrew Pulver, ‘Why Are We So Obsessed with Films about the Second World War?’ The Guardian, 17 July 2014.
21 Michael Hammond, ‘Some Smothering Dreams: The Combat Film in Contemporary Hollywood’ in Steve Neale (ed.), Genre and Contemporary Hollywood. London: BFI Pub, 2002, 65–66.
22 Christopher Coker, ‘Post-Modern War’, RUSI Journal, 143, 3 (June 1998), 7–14. See also Mary Kaldor, New Wars Old Wars: Organised Violence in a Global Era. London: Polity Press, 2012, a book that has led to extensive debate.
23 Lucy Hughes Hallett in a recent book has suggested that heroism in the modern world ‘inspires terrorists and those who combat them’ and ‘shapes the rhetoric of our election campaigns’. ‘It also’, she suggests, ‘helps determine the choices made by democratic voters and it eases dictators’ ascent to power’. Significantly she excludes military heroism like Achilles, El Cid and Francis Drake that she describes in her study. Lucy Hughes Hallett, Heroes. New York: Alfred P. Knopf, 2004, 13.
24 Pascal Vennesson, ‘War without the Peoples’ in Hew Strachan and Sybille Scheipers (eds), The Changing Character of War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, 241–253. Peoples’ wars continue at a lower level in some regions. For a recent survey see Thomas A. Marks and Paul B. Rich (eds), ‘Special Issue: Peoples Wars: Variants and Responses’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 28, 3 (June 2017).
25 Max Boot, ‘The Guerrilla Myth,’ Wall Street Journal, 18 January 2015; see also the same author’s Invisible Armies: An Epic History of Guerrilla Warfare from Ancient Times to the Present. New York: Norton, 2013; J. Bowyer Bell, The Myth of the Guerrilla. New York: Knopf, 1971.
26 See for example Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth Century America. New York: Athenaeum, 1992; Stanley Corkin, Cowboys and the Cold War: The Western and U.S. History. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2004.
27 Eric Hobsbawm, Bandits. London: Abacus, 2004, 158.
28 David Gates, The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsula War. London: Pimlico, 2002; Charles Esdaile, The Peninsula War: A New History. London: Penguin, 2003.
29 Terry George’s 1998 film on the American counter-insurgency specialist John Paul Vann, A Bright Shining Lie, shows Vann not being taken seriously by fellow officers in the early 1960s when he announces he wants to go to South Vietnam. See also Oscar Salemink, ‘Pois and Maquis: The Invention and Appropriation of Vietnam’s Montagnards from Sabateur to the CIA’ in George W. Stocking (ed.), Colonial Situations: Essays on the Contextualization of Ethnographic Knowledge. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
30 The term ‘concentration camp’ in fact came from Cuba where the Spanish army created ‘reconcentrados’ to contain the Cuban civilians they captured in a violent counter-insurgency war in the 1890s.
31 The South African War was forgotten by the British film industry because it risked provoking old Boer-British animosities that had been apparently overlain by the establishment of Union in 1910. No British feature films were made on guerrilla fighters such as Louis Botha, Jan Smuts and Deneys Reitz, despite the latter’s popular account of the war in Commando in 1929. It was Nazi Germany which released one of the few films made on the war in the form of the war-time propaganda film Ohm Kruger (Uncle Kruger) in 1941 starring the German movie star Emil Jannings. The film was banned by the post-war German government but can now be seen on YouTube.
32 Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
33 Christopher Thorne, The War Eastern War: States and Societies, 1942–45. London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1986, 181n.
34 Chalmers Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China, 1937–1945. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962.
35 James F. Byrnes, Secretary of State from 1945 to 1947, described Asia as a ‘great smouldering fire’ that confronted ‘civilisation’ with ‘the task of bringing a huge mass of humanity, the majority of people on this earth, from the Middle Ages into the era of atomic energy’. James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, London: Heinemann, 1948, 204.
36 Jerry Israel, ‘ “Mao’s Mr America”: Edgar Snow’s Images of China’, Pacific Historical Review, 47, 1 (February 1978), 110. Snow did not reject the idea that American values had no place in a future China, but considered that they should be employed behind a less corrupt movement than the KMT, whose leader he called a ‘megalomaniac’, a comment that ensured he was banned from returning to China in 1945.
37 According to the Maoist sympathiser Agnes Smedley, Carlson visited Chu De in 1937 before the Second World War as a Captain in the US Marine Corps. He was impressed by an army that appeared to be ‘freeing and protecting the poor and the oppressed’. Agnes Smedley, The Great Road: The Life and Times of Chuh Teh. New York and London: Monthly Review, 1956, 367–368.
38 Adam Weinstein, ‘Colonel Evans Fordyce Carlson: Our Most Patriotic Communist?’ Pacific Standard, 2 July 2015; Michael D. Hull, ‘Evans Carlson Forms Carlson’s Raiders’, Warfare History Network, 27 July 2015. www.warfafrehistorynetwork.com. Accessed 4 August 2017.
39 Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977, 262–263.
40 M.J. Heale, American Anticommunism: Combatting the Enemy from Within, 1830–1970. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990, 154.
41 See for details Scott Ladermann, ‘Hollywood’s Vietnam: 1920–1964: Scripting Intervention, Spotlighting Injustice’, Pacific Historical Review, 78, 4 (2009), 580, 578–607.
42 An analysis of his diaries and correspondence reveals a restless and deviant tourist-turned-revolutionary idealist, who never took any serious interests in the peoples and cultures of contemporary South America, let alone those of Central Africa. Paul B. Rich, ‘People’s War Antithesis: Che Guevara and the Mythology of Focismo’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 28, 3 (2017), 451–487.
43 New York Times, 30 May 1969.
44 The head of Fox Studios, Richard D. Zanuck, was puzzled by Che’s appeal to many of the younger generation who no longer seemed interested in films Fox was producing such as Doctor Dolittle (1967). Robert Cashill, ‘Che’ Cineaste, XL, 2 (2015).
45 See for instance Simon Red-Henry, Fidel and Che: A Revolutionary Friendship. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 2009.
46 Aaron Baker, Steven Soderbergh. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2011, 87.
47 See in particular Michael Casey, Che’s Afterlife. New York: Vintage Books, 2009.
48 For Che’s discussion with Nasser see Mohammed Heikal, The Cairo Documents. New York: Doubleday, 1973.
49 Bard O’Neill, From Revolution to Apocalypse: Insurgency & Terrorism. Dulles (VA): Potomac Books, 2005, 33.
50 The historiography of modern terrorism is now huge. Though tighter regulation on access to explosives such as the British government’s 1882 Explosives Act more or less ended the IRA’s dynamite war. Carr Infernal Machine, 71.
51 Anthony Shaw, Cinematic Terror. London: Bloomsbury 2015, 15.
52 O’Neill, Insurgency and Terrorism, 34.
53 Frederick J. Hacker, Crusaders, Criminals and Crazies: Terror and Terrorism in Our Times. New York: Norton, 1976, 294.
54 Peter R. Neumann and M.L.R Smith, The Strategy of Terrorism: How It works and Why It Fails. London: Routledge, 2008, 94–95 and passim.
55 Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism. London: Allen and Unwin, 1951, 466.
56 Matthew Carr, Infernal Machine: An Alternative History of Terrorism. London: Hurst, 2011, 73–74.
57 Paul B Rich, Thriller Cinema and Irish Terrorism. London Routledge (forthcoming).
58 Carr, Infernal Machine, 89.
59 Albert Parry, Terrorism: From Robespierre to the Weather Underground. New York: Dover Publication, 1976, 35. For anarchist terrorism in Europe see Alex Butterworth, The World That Never Was. London: Vintage Books, 2011. This was the era in which some authors tried to link terrorism with totalitarianism of either the Nazi or Soviet kind links, such as Jillian Becker’s portrait of the Baader-Meinhof ‘gang’ as a group of wilful children of Nazi parentage toying with terrorism as a perverse game. Gillian Becker, Hitler’s Children: The Story of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. London: Michael Joseph, 1977.
60 Carr, Infernal Machine, 265–269.
61 Audrey Kurth Cronin, How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press, 2009.
62 Roger Griffin, Terrorists Creed: Fanatical Violence and the Human Need for Meaning. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012, 16–17.
63 Elaine Martin, ‘The Global Phenomenon of Humanising Terrorism in Literature and Culture’, CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture, Purdue University Press. Htto.11dx.doc.org/107771/1481–4379.1–23. Accessed 1 October 2016.
64 Alexander George, ‘The Discipline of Terrorology’ in Alexander George (ed.), Western State Terrorism. London: Polity Press, 1991, 76–93.
65 Stephen Prince, Firestorm: American Film in the Age of Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, 72–73.
Chapter 1
1 Prosser Gifford and W. Roger Louis, The Transfer of Power in Africa. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982; John Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Postwar World. Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press, 1988.
2 For a comparison of Algeria and Rhodesia see Martin Thomas, Fight or Flight: Britain, France and Their Roads from Empire. Oxford: University Press, 2014, 316–347.
3 Susan Carruthers, Winning Hearts and Minds: British Governments, The Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency, 1944–1960. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1995.
4 Ibid., 50–63. Sinfield suggests that the United States was viewed by some British novelists in terms of images of corruption and juvenile delinquency. Alan Sinfield, Postwar Britain, London: Basil Blackwell, 1989, 136. This would be amplified in cinema by films such as The Wild Ones (1953), The Blackboard Jungle (1955) and Rebel Without a Cause (1955).
5 I.C Jarvie, ‘Fanning the Flames: Anti-American Reaction to Operation Burma (1945)’, Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 1, 2 (1981), 131–132; Ian Jarvie, ‘The Burma Campaign on Film: “Objective Burma” ’ (1945), ‘The Stillwell Road’ (1945) and ‘Burma Victory’ (1945), Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 8, 1 (1988), 55–69.
6 Susan Hayward, ‘Framing National Cinema’ in Mette Hjort and Scott Mackenzie (eds), Cinema & Nation. London and New York: Routledge, 2012, 99–100.
7 John Ellis, Visible Fictions: Cinema, Television, Radio. London and New York: Routledge, 1982, 205.
8 Some critics saw High Treason as the closest any British film got to McCarthyism on film. Tony Shaw, British Cinema and the Cold War. London: I.B Tauris, 2001, 40–45.
9 Susan Carruthers, ‘Two Faces of 1950s Terrorism: The Film Presentation of Mau and the Malayan Emergency’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 6, 1 (Spring 1995); Winning Hearts and Minds: The British Government, The Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency, 1944–1960. Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1995.
10 Alastair Mackenzie, ‘Rebirth of the SAS: The Malayan “Emergency” ’, History Reader, 9 February 2012.
11 Parick Brantlinger, Rule of Darkness: British Literature and Imperialism, 1830–1914. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1988, 40–43.
12 Freddie Spencer Chapman, The Jungle Is Neutral. London: Chatto and Windus, 1949, 125–126.
13 See for example John Chynoweth, Hunting Terrorists in the Jungle. Stroud: Tempus, 2004, 34. The title of Chynoweth’s book though suggests that for some at least in the army counter-insurgency in Malaya was rather like being on a hunt.
14 Shaw, British Cinema and the Cold War, 54.
15 Richard Stubbs, ‘The Malayan Emergency and the Development and the Development of the Malayan State’ in Paul B Rich and Richard Stubbs (eds), The Counter-Insurgent State: Guerrilla Warfare and State Building in the Twentieth Century. Houndmills: The Macmillan Press, 1997, 50–69.
16 Larry E. Cable., Conflict of Myths: The Development of American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and the Vietnam War. New York and London: New York University Press, 1986, 92.
17 Harper and Porter, see Chapter Five, 44.
18 Jonathan Block and Patrick Fitzgerald, British Intelligence and Covert Action. London: Brandon, 1983, 144–145.
19 Charles Townshend, Britain’s Civil Wars: Counterinsurgency in the Twentieth Century. London: Faber and Faber, 1986, 200–201.
20 Caroline Elkins, ‘Terrorising Mau Mau: Britain’s Gulag in Kenya’, History Today, February 2005, 45. The colonial administration in Kenya struggled to present the torture of Mau Mau suspects as actions that fell inside the law. David M. Anderson, ‘British Abuse and Torture in Kenya’s Counter-Insurgency, 1952–1960’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 23, 4–5 (October–December 2012), 700–719.
21 Carruthers, ‘Two Faces of 1950s Terrorism’, 30–31.
22 New York Times, 22 October 1956.
23 Barbara W. Tuchman, Sand against Wind: Stilwell and the American Experience in China, 1911–45. London: Macmillan, 1981, 349.
24 Ibid., 417.
25 James Russell Ullman, Windom’s Way. London: The Companion Book Club, 1954, 35.
26 Ibid., 72. Damien Lewis, Churchill’s Secret Warriors: The Explosive True Story of the Special Forces Desperadoes on WWII. London: Quercus, 2014.
27 Ian Hall, ‘The Revolt against the West: Decolonisation and Its Repercussions in British International Thought, 1945–75’, The International History Review, 33, 1 (March 2011), 43–64.
28 Shaw, British Cinema and the Cold War, 55.
29 New York Times, 3 September 1964.
30 Peter Moss, Distant Archipelagos: Memories of Malaya. London: Universe, 2004, 233.
31 Simon Robbins, ‘The British Counter-Insurgency in Cyprus’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 23, 4–5 (October–December 2012), 720–743.
32 Ian Bennett, Modern Insurgencies and Counter-Insurgencies: Modern Guerrillas and Their Operations since 1750. London: Routledge, 2001, 195–196.
33 The issue became publicized by John Paul Vann after he served as adviser to Colonel Huyn Van Cao of the ARVN IV Corps, a narrative that reached the screen in the film A Bright Shining Lie (1998).
34 For details on the CIA’s involvement with the Nungs going back to the 1950s see Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence. New York: Dell, 1980, 106–107; Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979, 179.
35 The French concentrated on the Tai peoples who lived along the rail from Laos into Vietnam, though their efforts to mobilize the tribe in opposition to the Viet Minh occurred too late to alter the tide of the war. Bernard Fall, Street without Joy. Mechanicsburg (PA): Stackpole Press, 1989 (1st edn 1961), 267–268.
36 Oscar Salemink, ‘Pois and Maquis: The Invention and Appropriation of Vietnam’s Montagnards from Sabateur to the CIA’ in George W. Stocking (ed.), Colonial Situations: Essays on the Contextualization of Ethnographic Knowledge. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 270.
37 Ibid., 273.
38 Rebecca Onion, ‘The Snake-Eaters and the Yards’, Slate, 27 November 2013.
39 In the case of neighbouring Laos, the CIA harnessed the Meo people who were similar in many ways to the Montagnards. It was intended to use the Meos to harass the NVA coming down the Ho Chi Minh Trail as well as defending the air force beacons placed on mountain tops to help incoming US planes. Of an estimated 250,000 Meos in 1962 only a few thousand escaped to Thailand in 1975. Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979, 178. Patrick M. Hughes, Memoirs of Religion, Traditions and Legends: Indigenous People under Siege in Cambodia. CreateSpace Ind. Pub., 2012.
40 Howard Sochurfk, ‘American Special Forces in Action in Viet Nam’, National Geographic, January 1965.
41 Frontier Vietnam Montagnard Tribes Defend South Vietnam, documentary film, nd (1963?). www.youtube.com/watch?vc59Bd9tjb27u
42 Robin Moore, The Green Berets. New York and London: St Martin’s Press, 1969 (1st edn 1965), 405.
43 Ibid., xv–xvi.
44 Ibid., 263.
45 Randy Roberts and James S. Olson, John Wayne American. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995, 539–540.
46 Daniel C. Hallin, The Uncensored War: The Media and Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, 156. The Montagnards did not return the compliments though. When John Wayne travelled to Pleiku in the Central Highlands in June 1966 while on a tour of South Vietnam he attended a screening of the John Ford film Fort Apache. The Montagnards in the audience cheered whenever the Indians attacked the whites even though they had no understanding of American frontier history. Roberts and Olson, John Wayne American, 542.
47 Cited in ibid., 156.
48 Lawrence H. Suid, ‘The Making of The Green Berets’, Journal of Popular Film, VI, 2 (1977), 112; Guts and Glory, esp. 247–256.
49 Bernard F. Dick, The Star Spangled Screen: The American World War II Film. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1985, 252.
50 Suid, Guts and Glory.
51 Ibid., 114–115.
52 Ibid., 116–117.
Chapter 2
1 William H. McRaven, Spec Ops: Case Studies in Special Operations Warfare: Theory and Practice. New York: Presidio Press, 1996. Surprise by itself though does not always mean even relative superiority, especially if the enemy is extremely well defended and able to respond quickly to sudden attack.
2 Cited in Max Hastings, The Korean War. London: Pan Books, 1987, 299–300.
3 The near-sacred nature of this myth was exposed in 2015 when a remake by Universal Pictures of the original Dad’s Army feature film asserted that Britain was ‘on the brink of defeat’: a statement that ‘outraged’ many cinema-goers. ‘Don’s Panic! We weren’t losing the war in 1944: Outrage After Dad’s Army film voiceover declares Britain was “on the brink of defeat”,’ Mail on Sunday 20 December 2015. See also Jeffrey Richards, Films and British National Identity: From Dickens to Dad’s Army. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997, 351–366.
4 Nicholas Rankin, Churchill’s Wizards: The British Genius for Deception, 1914–1945. London: Faber and Faber 2008, 386–391.
5 David French, ‘Colonel Blimp and the British Army: British Divisional Commanders in the War against Germany, 1939–1945’, English Historical Review, CXI (November 1996), 1182–1201.
6 Hugh Purcell, The Last English Revolutionary: A Biography of Tom Wintringham. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2012 (1st edn 2004).
7 Freddie Spencer Chapman, fighting the Japanese in Malaya, found the weapon clumsy and awkward given that it had various knobs and swivels that easily caught on the dense vegetation. Chapman, The Jungle Is Neutral, 55.
8 Max Hastings also tells the story of a four-man British patrol in Korea in the early 1950s fated with having all their Sten guns jamming as they met a Chinese patrol. Max Hastings, The Korean War. London: Pan Books 1988, 364.
9 The name ‘Commando’ was initially rejected and instead it was proposed that the force should be called ‘Special Service Battalions’ or ‘Special Service Brigade’ – this was later scotched when it was realized that it would be end being shortened to ‘SS’. Nicholas Rankin, Ian Fleming’s Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII. London: Faber and Faber 2011, 119–120.
10 One raid on the Channel Islands led to an attack on a base left empty when the German soldiers were out watching a film while other raiders ended up on the wrong island.
11 Rankin, Ian Fleming’s Commandos, 106–107.
12 Jamie Doward, ‘Unknown Heroes Who Faced Death behind Nazi Lines Keep Their Secrets’, The Observer, 23 August 2015.
13 Cited in Lorna Almonds-Windmill, Gentleman Jim: The Wartime Story of the Founder of the SAS and Special Forces. Barnsley: Pen & Swords Books, 2011, 101.
14 John Newsinger, ‘Who Dares…’, History Today, 48, 12 (December 1998), 40.
15 Larry E. Cable, Conflict of Myths: The Development of American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and the Vietnam War. New York and London: New York University Press, 1986, 77.
16 Although the former Director of the SAS Peter de la Billiere has claimed that the SAS played a major role in the Malayan emergency, its performance was marginal given that the counter-insurgency was heavily based on resettlement of the population and the creation of what John Newsinger has termed a ‘veritable police state’. John Newsinger, ‘Who Dares…’ History Today, 48, 12 (December 1998), 40.
17 The film is discussed in Rankin, Ian Fleming’s Commandos, 392–393.
18 Gavin Mortimer, The SBS in World War II: An Illustrated History. Oxford: Osprey Pub, 2013, 16–17.
19 James Owen, Commando: Winning World War II behind Enemy Lines. London: Little Brown, 2012, 210.
20 C.E. Lucas Phillips, Cockleshell Heroes. London: Heinemann, 1956 (Repr. Pan Books 2000).
21 Mountbatten had even approved, against his better judgement, sending the commander of the Royal Navy’s boom patrol detachment, Major H.G. Hasler, on the raid even though it was judged so risky that few or none of the raiders was expected to return. Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten: The Official Biography. London: Collins, 1985, 167–168.
22 Ian Christie (ed.), Powell, Pressburger and Others. London: BFI, 1978; Nanette Aldred, ‘A Canterbury Tale: Powell and Pressburger’s Film Fantasies of Britain’ in David Meller (ed.), A Paradise Lost: The Neo-Romantic Imagination in Britain, 1935–55. London: Lund Humphries for the Barbican Gallery, 1987, 117–124.
23 Both men wanted to work with John Davis and Earl St John, who offered a seven-year contract. They turned this down and completed only one film for Rank. Nathalie Morris, ‘Ill Met by Moonlight (1957)’, www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/500329. Accessed 19 August 2015.
24 Patrick Leigh Fermor, ‘Afterward’ in W. Stanley Moss, Ill Met by Moonlight. London: Cassell, 2014, 177.
25 Ibid., 175.
26 For details see Ben Macintyre, SAS Rogue Heroes. London: Penguin Random House, 2016.
27 Quayle seemed particularly obsessed by appearances, writing in his autobiography ‘My friends (in Albania) were in bad shape. All but one had grown long bears, only Jim Crane was clean-shaven. Through all their ordeals he had kept a soldier’s pride in his appearance’. Anthony Quayle, A Time to Speak. London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1990, 297. See also Roderick Bailey, The Wildest Province: SOE in the Land of the Eagle. London: Jonathan Cape, 2008, 206–218.
28 Marina Eleftheriadou, ‘Z and Other Cinematic Tales from the 30-year Greek Civil War’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 26, 4 (August 2015), 618–619.
29 “One critic wrote that ‘This was not the kind of film being made in the United States in 1960 and is still not.“ ‘Five Branded Women’, www.threemoviebuffs.com. Accessed 19 August 2017.
30 Gabriel Miller, The Films of Martin Ritt: Fanfare for the Common Man. Oxford (MI): University of Mississippi Press, 2000.
31 He also made the disastrous big budget flop The Molly Maguires in 1970, dealing with anarchist sabotage in the coal mining communities of nineteenth-century Pennsylvania.
32 Clarisse Loughrey, ‘Jeanne Moreau: The Cinema Icon Who Defined French Cool’, The Independent, 31 July 2017.
33 For Stuart see Charlton Ogburn, The Marauders. London: Quality Book Club, 1959 (1st edn 1956), 201.
34 Suid, Guts and Glory, 425.
35 Lisa Dombrowski, If you Die I’ll Kill You: The Films of Samuel Fuller. Middletown (CO): Wesleyan University Press, 2008, 144–145.
36 New York Times, 14 June 1962.
37 Ogburn, The Marauders, 104.
38 Fuller, A Third Face, 376.
39 McRaven, Spec Ops, 158.
40 Giles Milton, The Ministry of Ungentlemanly Warfare. London: John Murray, 2017, 148–149.
41 Marvin was everyone’s idea of the tough, hard-boiled soldier hero. The actor Ian Holm has suggested that Marvin portrayed the ‘man of violence who looked capable of raw brutality’ making even John Wayne look ‘artificial and glossy’. Ian Holm, Acting My Life: An Autobiography. London: Bantam Press, 2004, 121.
42 The New York Times, June 16, 1967.
43 Radio Times, 29 January 2006.
44 Callum MacDonald, The Killing of Obergruppenfuhrer Reinhard Heydrich. London: Macmillan, 1989, 78.
45 Ibid., 125.
46 Ibid., 190.
47 Forrest Bryant Johnson, Hour of Redemption: The Heroic Saga of America’s Most Daring POW Rescue. New York: Warner, 2002, 95.
48 The only real purpose was to release fellow prisoners from the Japanese, a ‘personal commitment’ hat McRaven has noted rather stands at odds with the ethos of contemporary professional forces. McRaven, Spec Ops, 282–283. The Princesa atrocity was not even an effective way to dispose of the prisoners, involving as it did the use of precious aviation fuel. It also failed to kill all the prisoners since eleven managed to escape to another island to tell the tale. The US high command in the Pacific was concerned that the atrocity might be repeated with the possible backlash from domestic public opinion in the United States if it was discovered that no efforts had been made at rescue. For details of the Princesa atrocity see Hampton Sides, Ghost Soldiers: The Astonishing Story of One of Wartime’s Greatest Escapes. London: Abacus, 2005, 7–17.
49 James Plath, ‘The Great Raid – DVD Review’, Movie Metropolis, 22 September 2006. http://moviemet.com/review/great=raid-dvd-review-0. Accessed 16 October 2014. Some estimates of Japanese casualties from the Filipino mop-up are as high as 2,000, twice those of the main raid. Robert Lapham and Bernard Norling, Laphams Raiders: Guerrillas in the Philippines 1942–1945. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996, 181.
50 The screenplay by Carlo Bernard and Doug Miro used The Great Raid on Cabanatuan by William B. Breuer and Ghost Soldiers by Hampton Sides.
51 Roger Ebert, ‘Review of The Great Raid’, 11 August 2005. www.rogerebert.com. Accessed 9 August 2017.
52 Rankin, Ian Fleming’s Commandos. London: Faber and Faber, 2011, 321.
53 Larry Cable, Conflict of Myths: The Development of American Counterinsurgency Doctrine and the Vietnam War. New York and London: New York University Press, 1986, 141.
54 It can be argued though that one of the first films to give a positive representation in counter-insurgency operations was The Green Berets in 1968.
55 Andrew J. Birtle, US Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine, 1942–1976. Washington DC: Center of Military History, US Army, 2006, 479.
56 Peter Bergen, Manhunt: From 9/11 to Abbottabad – The Ten-Year Search for Osama bin Laden. London: Vintage Books, 2013, 51–52.
57 Jeremy Scahill, Dirty Wars, London: Penguin Books, 2013, 102–103.
58 It has been claimed the SAS squad was tasked with destroying Iraqi Scud missiles. The operation was one of several SAS missions into Iraq, though the only one to feature in several popular books as well as the documentary One That Got Away by Paul Greengrass. The film was widely viewed as one of the most successful special forces ventures in the 1990s, contrasting dramatically with the ill-fated US special forces venture into Mogadishu in 1993. See General Sir Peter de la Billiere, Storm Command: A Personal Account of the Gulf War. London: HarperCollins, 1993, 224–225, 235–249. Andy McNab, Bravo Two Zero. London: Corgi, 2013.
Chapter 3
1 A.O. Scott, ‘Pinned under the Weight of Skyscrapers and History in “World Trade Center” ’, The New York Times, 9 August 2006.
2 Such as the CIA unit known as Alec Station established in 1995 to understand the functioning and leadership of AQ. The Unit was absorbed into more general counter-terrorism operations a decade later as it was realized that AQ did not function like a traditional hierarchical terrorist organization but on a more horizontal and decentralized basis Mark Mazzetti, ‘C.I.A. Closes Unit Focused on Capture on of bin Laden’, New York Times, 4 July 2006.
3 Richard Maltby, Hollywood Cinema. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995, 353. Maltby suggests that Jimmy Cagney’s White Heat (1949) provided an early example of this kind of hectic action movie form.
4 See for example Yvonne Tasker, Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre and the Action Cinema. London and New York: Routledge, 1993, 93–94 and passim. For DeMille see Anton Karl Kozlovic, ‘Cecille B DeMille: Hollywood Macho Man and the Theme of Masculinity within His Biblical (and Other) Cinema’, Journal of Men, Masculinities and Spirituality, 2, 2 (June 2008), 116–138.
5 Leo Braudy, From Chivalry to Terrorism: War and the Changing Nature of Masculinity. New York: Vintage Books, 2005, 42.
6 Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600–1815. London: Pimlico, 2003, 362–363.
7 In the Dirty Harry film, The Enforcer, there is a brief terrorism theme when Callahan encounters Bobby Maxwell of the ‘People’s Revolutionary Strike Force’. The group steals clothes to disguise themselves for a crime spree and even acquire M72 LAW rockets and M16 rifles. Their motives though are more monetary than political. Callahan eventually tracks them down to Alcatraz and eliminates them in a gun battle.
8 Paul B. Rich, ‘Hollywood and Cinematic Representations of Far-Right Domestic Terrorism in the US’, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 26 March 2018.
9 Council of Foreign Relations, International Institutions and Global Governance Program, U.S. Opinion on Terrorism, September 04, 2009, www.cfr.org. Accessed 30 November 2017.
10 Stephen Prince, Firestorm: American Film in the Age of Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, 34.
11 See the remarks of James Gow, War and War Crimes. London: Hurst, 2013, 116.
12 Though the idea of catastrophic aerial terror attacks has a long history in popular fiction it stretches back to novels like Doom of the Great City in 1893 when anarchists attack London in an airship. See Matthew Carr, The Infernal Machine: An Alternative History of Terrorism. London: Hurst, 2011, 67.
13 The trope was still evident in Stephen Spielberg’s Munich in 2005 when a group of apparently naïve American athletes assist the Palestinian hijackers at the start of the film in scaling the iron gate into the compound housing the Israeli athletics team.
14 Though Riegler has suggested that several became more political in the wake of the 1993 attacks. Thomas Riegler, ‘Through the Lenses of Hollywood: Depictions of Terrorism in American Movies’, Perspectives on Terrorism, 4, 2 (2010). www.terrorism.org. Accessed 19 June 2017.
15 A problem recognized by Paul Hirst even before 9/11 in War and Power in the 21st Century. London: Polity, 2001, 97.
16 Lawrence Wright, The Terror Years. London: Constable, 2016, 205.
17 Ibid., 200–210.
18 Oliver Stone and Peter Kuznick, The Untold History of the United States. N.p.: Ebury Press, 2012, 235.
19 Tricia Jenkins, ‘Get Smart: A look at the General Relationship between Hollywood and the CIA,’ Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, 29, 2 (2009), 229. It was not until 2011 that the movie J. Edgar (with Leonardo Di Caprio starring as the FBI’s first director J. Edgar Hoover) that a rather darker screen narrative finally began to emerge of the FBI’s first director J. Edgar Hoover. In the film, Hoover is depicted as a highly political lawman. Even before the establishment of the FBI, he discredits the marriage of the anarchist Emma Goldman to secure her deportation for radical conspiracy, even though she was an American citizen.
20 Jenkins, ‘Get Smart’, 230.
21 Washington followed James Earl Jones as Admiral James Greer in Clear and Present Danger and Sydney Poitier as FBI deputy director Carter Preston in The Jackal.
22 Prince, Firestorm, 56.
23 The film script was influenced heavily by the work of the journalist Patrick Wright, who published The Looming Tower: Al Qaida and the Road to 9/11 in 2007, winning a Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award.
24 Stephen Holden, ‘A Feverish Thriller That Leaves No Car Unturned’, New York Times, 8 June 2001.
25 Roger Ebert, Review of ‘Swordfish’, 8 June 2001, www.rogerebert.com Accessed 3 November 2016.
26 Philip French, ‘Swordfish Is a Very Funny Word but a Very Silly Film’, The Guardian, 29 July 2001.
27 See, for example, Michael Hammond, ‘Some Smothering Dreams: The Combat Film in Contemporary Hollywood’ in Steve Neale (ed.), Genre and Contemporary Hollywood. London: BFI Publishing, 2002, 74.
28 Stephen Holden, ‘Terrorism That’s All Too Real’, The New York Times, 31 March 2002.
29 John Hellmann, American Myth and Legacy of Vietnam. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986, 212–214.
30 David Morell, First Blood. Bicester (OX): Headline Publishing Group, 2006 (1st edn 1972).
31 Ray Mears is a bush craft expert who has made a number of programmes for British TV on bush craft techniques and survival in the wilderness.
32 The film did not convince all critics and Janet Maslin in the New York Times thought Rambo ‘almost a Boy Scout, and a phenomenal Boy Scout at that’, Janet Maslin, ‘First Blood (1982)’, New York Times, 22 October 1982.
33 Robert B. Ray, A Certain Tendency of the Hollywood Cinema, 1930–1980. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985, 324–325.
34 John Hellmann, ‘Rambo’s Vietnam and Kennedy’s New Frontier’, in Michael Anderegg (ed.), Inventing Vietnam: The War in Film and Television. Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1991, 141.
35 Yvonne Tasker, Spectacular Bodies: Gender, Genre and the Action Cinema. London: Routledge, 1993, 107.
36 For a more general discussion see Harvey R. Greenberg, ‘Dangerous Recuperation: Red Dawn, Rambo and the New Decaturism’, Journal of Popular Film & Television, 15, 2 (Summer 1987), 60–70.
37 Harry W. Haines, ‘ “They Were Called and They Went”: The Political Rehabilitation of the Vietnam Veteran’, in Linda Dittmar and Gene Michaud (eds), From Hanoi to Hollywood: The Vietnam War in American Film. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 88.
38 Gregory A Waller, ‘Rambo: Getting to Win This Time’ in From Hanoi to Hollywood, 119–120.
39 David Puttnam, The Story so Far. London: Sphere Books, 1988, 320.
40 Ramin Setoodeh, ‘Sylvester Stallone Is Retiring from Playing Rambo’, Variety, 5 January 2016.
41 ‘The Senate Committee’s Report on the C.I.A’s Use of Torture’, New York Times, 9 December 2014; Senate Select Committee on Intelligence – Amnesty International. www.amnestyusa.org.
42 I have examined this issue at greater length in Paul B. Rich, ‘Cinema, Drone Warfare and the Framing of Counter-Terrorism’, Defence & Security Analysis, 34, 2 (2018).
43 Peter Bradshaw called the film ‘cack-handed and boring’. Peter Bradshaw, ‘Code Name: Geronimo – The Hunt for Osama in Laden – Review’, The Guardian, 12 December 2012.
44 Peter Bergen, Manhunt. From 9/11 to Abbottabad – The Ten-Year Search for Bin Laden. London: Vintage, 2013, 100.
45 Ibid., 122–123.
46 Prince, Firestorm, 17–18. For the CIA’s analysts’ efforts to process huge quantities of data see the revealing novel by Susan Hasler, Intelligence: A Novel of the CIA. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2010.
47 Alex von Tunzelmann, ‘Zero Dark Thirty’s Torture Scenes Are Controversial and Historically Dubious’, The Guardian, 25 January 2013.
48 Richard Spencer, ‘Revealed: The True Story of “Maya”: The CIA Analyst Who Hunted Down bin Laden’. The Daily Telegraph, 20 December 2014.
49 See especially Sherrie A. Inness, Tough Girls: Women Warriors and Wonder Women in Popular Culture. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998.
50 Bergen, Manhunt. From 9/11 to Abbottabad, 78.
51 One unnamed person interviewed by Steve Coll who was a participant in White House discussions, the CIA ‘really went to war’ after the attack as the White House ‘stood back’. Steve Coll, ‘The Unblinking Stare: The Drone War in Pakistan’, The New Yorker, 24 November 2014.
52 David Maxwell ‘Unconventional Warfare Does Not Belong to Special Forces’, War on the Rocks, 2 August 2013, www.warontherocks.com. Accessed 9 December 2017.
53 Paul Kendall, ‘Zero Dark Thirty: Fact v Fiction’, Daily Telegraph, 23 January 2015; Ben Khentish, ‘Former US Navy Seal Robert O’Neill Describes the Moment He “Shot Dead bin Laden” ’, The Independent, 30 April 2017.
54 Craig Whitlock and Barton Gellman, ‘To Hunt Osama bin Laden, Satellites Watched Over Abbottabad, Pakistan, and Navy Seals’, Washington Post, 29 August 2103; Kelsey D. Atherton, ‘New Details Emerge on the Surveillance Technology Used to Hunt bin Laden’, Popular Science, 30 August 2013, www.popsci.com. Accessed 30 November 2017.
55 Tony Shaw and Tricia Jenkins, ‘From Zero to Hero: The CIA and Hollywood Today’, The Cinema Journal, 56, 2 (Winter 2017), 91–113.
56 Naomi Wolf, ‘A letter to Kathryn Bigelow on Zero Dark Thirty’s Apology for Torture’, The Guardian, 4 January 2013.
57 Steve Coll, ‘“Disturbing” & “Misleading”’, The New York Review of Books, 7 February 2013.
58 ‘ “Zero Dark Thirty” writer Mark Boal on the Film’s Torture Controversy’, Airtalk, 12 February 2013, www.scpr.org. Accessed 5 December 2017.
59 Irin Carmon, ‘ “Zero Dark Thirty” Goes Feminist’, Salon, 2 January 2013.
60 M.L.R Smith, ‘Game of Drones: Reviewing “Eye in the Sky”,’ warontherocks.com. Accessed 18 July 2017.
61 Craig Chalquist, ‘ “Star Wars”: Modern Myth or Tantalizing Submyth?’ Huffpost, 12 March 2103, www.huffpost.com. Accessed 8 December 2017, see also Ursula K. Leguin, The Language of the Night. London and New York: Berkley Pub, 1985.
62 Patrick Brzeski, ‘Cannes: Indian “Rambo” Remake Finds It Answer to Stallone (Exclusive)’, The Hollywood Reporter, 18 May 2017; Tom Phillips, ‘China Finds Its Own Top Gun and Rambo in Wave of Patriotic Movies’, The Guardian, 23 September 2017.
63 CBS News, 25 May 2013.
64 Adrian Guelke, ‘Redefining the Global War on Terror?’, n.p, www.lse.ac.uk. Accessed 2 November 2016.
65 Scott Thill, ‘Cerebral Sci-Fi Films That Wipe Our Minds’, 5 July 2010, wired.com. Accessed 9 December 2017.
66 Rory Carroll, ‘Trump v Hollywood? Don’t Expect to See the Culture War Play Out’, The Guardian, 13 January 2017.
67 In the case of the 2014 film Live Die Repeat or Edge of Tomorrow we have soldiers fighting a war against invading aliens kitted out with robotic-type body armour, part-Robotcop and part-Avatar mercenaries. The movie is a sci-fiction action thriller with its central hero Major William Cage (Tom Cruise) gaining increasingly important intel on the enemy by constantly reliving past events.
Chapter 4
1 Mark Shiel, Italian Neorealism. London and New York: Wallflower, 2006, 11–12.
2 Mira Liehm, Passion and Defiance: Film in Italy from 1942 to the Present. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, 43–46; Peter Brunette, Roberto Rossellini. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, 44.
3 New York Times, 26 February 1946.
4 Robbie Collin described her as ‘the fiery embodiment of Rome’s indomitable working-class spirit’, Robbie Collin, ‘Rome Open City Review’, The Daily Telegraph, 6 March 2014.
5 Robert Katz, The Battle for Rome. New York and London: Simon and Schuster, 2004, 183.
6 Sidney Gottlieb, Roberto Rossellini’s Rome Open City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, 94.
7 Parker Tyler, Sex Psyche Etcetera in the Film. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1971, 49.
8 The role of women in the Italian underground in Rome would not be portrayed in Anglo-American films until the release of the film Massacre in Rome in 1973 when the real-life Anna is shown working alongside her lover.
9 The massacre is overlooked in the film The Red and the Black starring Gregory Peck which focuses on the moral struggle between the Catholic prelate, Monsignor Hugh O’Flaherty (played by Peck) and Kappler.
10 Katz, The Battle for Rome, 241; John Cornwell, Hitler’s Pope: The Secret History of Pius XII. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1999, 320–321.
11 Katz, The Battle for Rome, 263.
12 Brunette, Roberto Rossellini, 49.
13 Sidney Gottlieb, ‘Introduction’ in Roberto Rossellini’s Rome Open City, 20–21.
14 Brunette, Roberto Rossellini, 75.
15 Peter Bondanella, The Films of Roberto Rossellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, 77.
16 Ibid., 66.
17 Inga M. Pierson, ‘Towards a Poetics of Neorealism: Tragedy in the Italian Cinema, 1942–1948’. PhD Diss. New York University, 2008.
18 Rose Maria Celeste, ‘Beyond a Myth: The Truth about the Quattro Giornate di Napoli’, Pforzheimer Honours College Thesis, Paper 9, 2005.
19 Curzio Malaparte, The Skin. New York: New York Review Books, 2013 (2nd edn 1949), 45.
20 Katz, The Battle for Rome, 67.
21 Austin Fisher, Radical Frontiers in the Spaghetti Western. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2014.
22 New York Times, 21 September 1967.
23 Martin Evans, ‘The Battle of Algiers: Historical Truth and Filmic Representation’, Open Democracy, 18 December 2012, www. opendemocracy.net/martin-evans/battle-of-elgiers-historical-truth. Accessed 17 December 2014.
24 Ibid. See also Martha Crenshaw, ‘The Effectiveness of Terrorism in the Algerian War’ in Martha Crenshaw (ed.) Terrorism in Context. University Park (PA): University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995, 473–513.
25 Carlo Celli, Gillo Pontecorvo. Oxford: Scarecrow Press, 2005, 50.
26 Ibid., 51.
27 Walid Benkhaled, ‘Genesis of a Film: The Battle of Algiers’, Opendemocracy, 20 December 2012. www.opendemocracy.net/walid-benkhaled/genesis-of-a-film-of-algiers. Accessed 17 December 2014.
28 Pepe le Moko depicted an anxious and guilt-ridden gangster ultimately betrayed by an Arab police inspector as well as the dark-skinned woman Inez, reinforcing orientalist images of the untrustworthy and duplicitous east. Janice Morgan, ‘In the Labyrinth: Masculine Subjectivity, Expatriation and Colonialism in Pepe le Moko’ in Matthew Bernstein and Carolyn Studlar (eds.), Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film. New Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers University Press, 1997, 253–167. The writer and future director Sam Fuller, arriving in Algeria with the American army in 1943, found the Casbah a shattering experience since it ‘destroyed, once and for all, my exotic movie fantasies. The place was nothing more than a squalid quarter in a big, bustling city’. Fuller, A Third Face, 124.
29 Gerard Chaliand, Revolution in the Third World. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977, 70.
30 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1969 (1st edn 1961).
31 John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1830–1970. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
32 Alistair Horne, A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. Harmondsworth: Peregrine Books, 1979, 184.
33 Frantz Fanon, ‘Algeria Unveiled’ in A Dying Colonialism. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 43.
34 Horne, A Savage War of Peace, 185; Haider Eid and Khaled Ghazel, ‘Footprints of Fanon in Gillo Pontecorvo’s “The Battle of Algiers” and Sembene Ousmane’s Xala’, English in Africa, 35, 2 (October 2008), 151–161.
35 Joan Mellen, ‘An Interview with Gillo Pontecorvo’, Film Quarterly, 26, 1 (Autumn 1972), 2–10.
36 Norma Claire Moruzzi, ‘Veiled Agents; Feminine Agency and Masquerade in The Battle of Algiers’ in Sue Fisher and Kathy Davis (eds), Negotiating at the Margins: The Gendered Discourses of Power and Resistance. New Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers University Press, 1993, 272.
37 Benkhaled, ‘Genesis of a Film’.
38 Mani Sharpe, ‘Gender, Myth, Nationalism: Gillo Pontecorvo’s The Battle of Algiers’, Open Democracy, 18 December 2012, www.opendemocracy.net/mani-sharpe/gender-myth-nationalism-gillo-pontecorvo. Accessed 17 December 2014.
39 Ibrahim Fawal, Youssef Chahine. London: BFI Publishing, 2001, 84.
40 Roger Trinquier, Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency. Westport: Praeger, 2006 (1 edn 1964), 11.
41 Philip Dine, Images of the Algerian War: French Fiction and Film, 1954–1992. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994, 24–25.
42 The best embodiment in the Algerian conflict was not Massu but Colonel Marcel Bigeard, who, as Dine has suggested, ‘rose from the ranks to become perhaps the most romantic figure of the Algerian war’. It was Bigeard’s third Para regiment (3e R.P.E) which was allotted the Casbah after Massu split Algiers into four separate sections on a quadrillage pattern ibid. 44.
43 Horne, A Savage War of Peace, 189–190.
44 Ibid., 190.
45 Edgar O’Balance, The Algerian Insurrection, 1954–1962. London: Faber and Faber 1967, 80.
46 Bill Ayres, Fugitive Days: Memoirs of an Antiwar Activist. Boston: Beacon Press, 2001, 178 and passim.
47 John Robb, Brave New War: The Next Stage of Terrorism and the End of Globalization. London: John Wiley, 2007, 111–112.
48 Celli, Gillo Pontecorvo, 49–67.
49 ‘The Battle of Algiers: Neo Realist Revolution’, Cinetropolis, 4. http//cinetropolis.net/the-battle-of-algiers-neo-realist-revolution. Accessed 4 August 2014. The New York Times critic Stuart Klawans suggested as recently as 2004 that the film was banned in France until 1971. Stuart Klawans, ‘FILM: Lessons of the Pentagon’s Favourite Film’, New York Times, 4 January 2004.
50 Liehm, Passion and Defiance, 215. Ron Briley, ‘Terrorism on Screen: Lessons from the Battle of Algiers’, Perspectives in History, October 2010, www.historians.org/publications-and-directories/perspectives-on-history/october. Accessed 4 August 2014.
51 New York Times, 7 September 2003. See also Joseph Masco, ‘Counterinsurgency, The Spook and Blowback’ in John D Kelly et al. (eds), Anthropology and Global Counterinsurgency. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 2010, 193–206.
52 Celli, Gillo Pontecorvo, 70–71.
53 Marlon Brando, Songs My Mother Taught Me. London: Century, 1994, 324–325.
54 Ibid., 320. Brando gave up the opportunity to star in Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid to play the part of Walker in Queimada, one of the few occasions when a film dependent on European finance and direction represented a better prospect than a mainstream Hollywood movie.
55 Julio Garcia Espinosa, ‘For an Imperfect cinema’, www.ejumcut.org. Accessed 19 July 2017. See also Timothy Barnard, ‘Form and History in Cuban Film’ in John King et al. (eds), Mediating Two Worlds: Cinematic Encounters in the Americas. London: BFI Pub, 1993, 231–240; John King, Magic Reels: A History of Cinema in Latin America. London: Verso, 1990, 149–153
56 Carr, Infernal Machine, 148. See also Robin Morgan, The Demon Lover: The Roots of Terrorism. New York and London: Pocket Books, 1989, 64.
57 Michael R. Mille, ‘State of Siege Undesirable’, The Cornell Daily Sun, 89, 2 (18 April 1972), www.cdsun.library.cornell.edu. Accessed 18 August 2017.
58 Albert Parry, Terrorism: From Robespierre to the Weather Underground. London: Dover, 1976, 276–277.
59 Maya Jaggi, ‘French Resistance: Costa Gavras’, The Guardian, 4 April 2009.
60 Some newspapers have tended to interpret events surrounding the trials of Sendero activists through the prism of the movie. Elisabeth Davies, ‘Peru’s “Dancer Upstairs” Gets 20 Years for Helping Rebel’, The Independent, 5 October 2005.
61 Orin Starn, ‘Maoism in the Andes: The Communist Party of Peru Shining Path and the Refusal of History’, Journal of Latin American Studies, 27 (1995), 408.
62 Orin Starn, ‘Missing the Revolution: Anthropologists and the War in Peru’, Cultural Anthropology, 6, 1 (1991).
63 Orin Starn, ‘Villagers at Arms: War and Counterrevolution in Central-South Andes’ in Steve J. Stern (ed.), Shining and Other Paths: War and Society in Peru, 1980–1995. Durham (NC): Duke University Press, 1998, 225.
64 Robin Hauck, ‘Politics and Personality’, Interview Film Review, 29 April 2003, tech.mit.edu. Accessed 18 August 2017.
65 ‘Shakespeare, Nicholas: The Dancer Upstairs’, 3 July 2003, www.urbancinephile.com.au. Accessed 18 August 2017.
66 Robert Lima, Stages of Evil: Occultism in Western Drama. Lexington: The University of Kentucky Press, 2005; Dark Prisms: Occultism in Spanish Drama. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2009.
67 Alex Danchev, ‘The Artist and the Terrorist, or the Paintable and the Unpaintable: Gerhard Richter and the Baader-Meinhof Group’ in On Art and War and Terror, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011, 8–27.
68 Harold James, A German Identity, 1770–1990. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1990, 192–193.
69 Carrv Infernal Machine, 169.
70 Ellen Setter, ‘The Political Is Personal: Margarethe von Trotta’s Marianne and Julianne’ in Charlotte Brunsdon (ed.), Films for Women. London: BFI Publishing, 1987, 114–115.
71 See the film review by Philip French, ‘If Not Us Who? Review’, The Guardian, 3 March 2012. The term ‘Hitler’s Children’ comes from the book on the RAF by Becker, Hitler’s Children.
72 A view hardly supported by research on terrorist movements globally. For a summary see Richard English, Terrorism: How to Respond. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, 28–31.
73 Robin Morgan, Demon Lover: The Roots of Terrorism. New York and London: Pocket Books, 1989, 208.
74 Becker, Hitler’s Children, 179.
75 Christopher Hitchens, ‘Once upon a Time in Germany’, Vanity Fair, 17 August 2009.
76 Cited in Becker, Hitler’s Children, 180.
77 Christopher R. Cook, ‘The Cinematic Lessons of Terrorism: The 9/11 Filter and the Dangers of Decontextualization of Violence in The Battle of Algiers and The Green Berets’, www.researchgate.net. Accessed 12 July 2017.
78 Bruce Hoffmann, ‘A Nasty Business’, The Atlantic, January 2002.
Chapter 5
1 Mercenaries played a shadowy role in British covert action after formal decolonization, though the growing importance of the CIA in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa in the 1960s appears to have increased the costs of this beyond the budget of British MI6. Jonathan Bloch and Patrick Fitzgerald, British Intelligence and Covert Action. Dingle (County Kerry): Brandon/Mount Eagle Pub, 1983, 143. Lawrence Devlin, Chief of Station in the Congo in the early 1960s, recalled that ‘Washington insisted on no covert relationship with the mercenaries, but since our objective was to prevent the rebels from taking control of the country, I could not realistically ignore the men selected by Tshombe to carry out the mission’. Lawrence Devlin, Chief of Station, Congo. New York: Public Affairs, 2007, 228.
2 Howard Hughes, ‘Rough Diamond: The Dark Side of War in Dark of the Sun’, Cinema Retro, 8, 22 (2012), 37.
3 Anthony Mockler, Mercenaries. London: Macdonald 1969.
4 Georges Nzongola-Ntalala, The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila. London and New York: Zed Books, 2007, 128–129.
5 Ibid., 132.
6 For details of the operation see Major Thomas P. Odom, Dragon Operations: Hostage Rescues in the Congo, 1964–1965. Leavenworth Paper No 14: Fort Leavenworth (KAN), US Army Command and General Staff College, 1988.
7 Ian Colvin, The Rise and Fall of Moise Tshombe. London: Leslie Frewin, 1968, 195. See also Howard Epstein, Revolt in the Congo 1960–1964. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1965, 165.
8 S.J.G Clarke, The Congo Mercenary Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs, 1968, 83.
9 For an examination of this idea see Susan Williams, Who Killed Hammarskjold: The UN, the Cold War and White Supremacy in Africa. London: Hurst and Co, 2011; Paul B. Rich, ‘The Death of Dag Hammarskjold, The Congolese Civil War and Decolonisation in Africa, 1960–1965’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 23, 2 (May 2013), 352–375.
10 Tony Geraghty, Who Dares Wins. London: Fontana 1981, 109; Burchett and Roebuck, The Whores of War.
11 Hoare’e early exploits in the Congo are recorded in Mike Hoare, The Road to Kalamata. London: Leo Cooper, 1989.
12 Mike Hoare, Congo Mercenary. London: Paladin Press, 2008 (1st edn 1967), 50. ‘Colonel Mike Hoare’, in Soldiers of Fortune: Mercenary Wars, www.mercenary-wars.net/biography/mike-hoare.html. Accessed 19 September 2104.
13 Ibid., 61–62.
14 The reasons for the crash continue to interest historians.
15 Howard M. Epstein, Revolt in the Congo. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1965, 156–160.
16 Hoare, Congo Mercenary, 32.
17 Glenn Erickson, ‘Dark of the Sun’, DVD Savant Review, 27 July 2011. www.dvdtalk.com/dvdsavant/s3608dark.html. Accessed 18 January 2012.
18 This was exemplified by the 1969 spaghetti war movie The Seven Red Berets (Sette baschi rossi) involving a party of mercenaries retreating through a war-torn Congo. The movie had a far less optimistic ending; as in Dark of the Sun the party embarks on a train but comes under attack once more from the Simbas with all the mercenaries being killed and Claire spared because she is found protecting a black child. Interestingly the Simba leader who spares Clare is not the savage General Moses that led the earlier massacre but a communist with a red star on his khaki military cap. This would have been too much for MGM to stomach by the early 1970s.
19 ‘Think nothing of it’, Curry says to the pilot of the plane taking them to Nairobi. ‘- all in a day’s work’. Wilbur Smith, The Mercenaries. London: Pan Books 1965, 264.
20 The New York Times, 4 July 1968.
21 Glenn Erickson, ‘Dark of the Sun’, DVDTalk, 27 July 2011. www.dvdtak.com/dvdsavant/s3608dark.html. Accessed 18 January 2012.
22 It has been suggested Laputa is more Milton than Rider Haggard with the need for a religious regeneration of the tribal people in South Africa. See David Daniell, ‘Buchan and the Popular Literature of Imperialism’ in Bart Moore-Gilbert (ed.), Literature and Imperialism. Roehampton: Roehampton Institute of Education, 1983, 131.
23 Michael Evans, ‘The Wretched of the Empire: Politics, Ideology and Counterinsurgency in Rhodesia, 1965–80’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 18, 2 (June 2007), 195–192.
24 James Blackford, ‘Lloyd, Euan’, www.screenonline.org.uk/people/id/1418957/index.html. Accessed 17 September 2014.
25 John Hooper, ‘CIA Methods Exposed in Kidnap Enquiry’, The Guardian, 1 July 2005.
26 Daniel C. Bach, ‘Patrimonialism and Neo-Patrimonialism: Comparative Trajectories and Readings’, Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, 49, 3 (2011), 275–294.
27 For details see Frederick Forsyth, The Outsider. London: Transworld Publisher, 2013. Alison Flood, ‘Frederick Forsyth: I was an MI6 Agent’, The Guardian, 2 September 2015.
28 Graham Greene, ‘The Last Buchan’ in The Lost Childhood and Other Essays. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1951, 119.
29 Vincent Canby, ‘ “Dogs of War’: Forsyth’s Mercenaries’, New York Times, 13 February 1981.
30 Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment. New York: Anchor Books, 1983, 169.
31 Robert Schnakakenberg, Christopher Walken: The Man, The Movies, The Legend. Philadelphia: Quirk Books, 2008, 86. Perhaps at another level, though, the marginal character of Shannon that Walken plays reflected his own sense of marginality as a method actor trained through the New York City Studio. ‘I am a foreigner in my own country’, he is quoted as saying, ‘because I come from another country, the country of show business.’
32 ‘Frederick Forsyth’, Soldiers of Fortune: Mercenary Wars. www.mercenary-wars.net/biography/frederick-forsyth.html. Accessed 29 September 2016.
33 Dominick Donald, ‘Could Coup-coup Land’, The Guardian, 12 August 2006.
34 Adam Roberts, The Wonga Coup. London: Profile Books, 2006.
35 Rebecca Murray, ‘Director Edward Zwick Discusses “Blood Diamond”’ www.movies.about.com/od/blooddiamond/a/bloodez112806. Accessed 8 October 2014.
36 Paul Richards, ‘Rebellion in Liberia and Sierra Leone: A Crisis of Youth?’ in Oliver Furley (ed.), Conflict in Africa. London: I.B Tauris, 1981, 134–164; Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth & Resources in Sierra Leone. London: Heinemann, 1996, Vol. 91, 103, 106.
37 Parker Mott, ‘Review Johnny Mad Dog’, 3 February 2011. www.thefinaltake.com/johnny-mad-dog-boyz–n-the-war-hood. Accessed 15 October 2014.
38 Elisabeth Wilson, ‘Deviancy, Dress and Desire’ in Sue Fisher and Kathy Davis (eds), Negotiating at the Margins (New Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers University Press, 1993), 57.
39 Canby, ‘“Dogs of War”: Forsyth’s Mercenaries’.
40 Mark Moring, ‘ “Machine Gun Preacher” Under Heavy Fire’, Christianity Today, 22 September 2011. www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2011.septemberweb-only./machinegunpreacher.html. Accessed 29 September 2014.
41 Thomas Dawson, ‘Machine Gun Preacher’, Sight and Sound, January 2012.
42 Catherine Shoard, ‘Machine Gun Preacher – Review’, The Guardian, 13 September 2011.
43 Laura Freeman, ‘The African Warlord Revisited’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 26, 5 (October 2015), 795.
44 A comparison made by Donald Clarke, ‘Siege of Jadotville: Suave, Brave Acting By Jamie Dornan’, The Irish Times, 19 September 2016.
45 Conor Cruise O’Brien, Memoir: My Life and Themes. London: Profile Books, 1998, 223.
46 For a modern reworking of the conspiracy theory developed to explain Hammarskjold’s death see Susan Williams, Who Killed Hammarskjold? The US, the Cold War and White Supremacy in Africa. London: Hurst, 2011; Paul B Rich, ‘The Death of Dag Hammarskjold, the Congolese Civil War and decolonisation in Africa, 1960–65’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 23, 2 (May 2012), 352–375.
47 Rajeshwar Dayal, Mission for Hammarskjold: The Congo Crisis. London: Oxford University Press, 1976, 274.
48 Victor Blombart, In Praise of Antiheroes: Figures and Themes in Modern European Literature, 1830–1980. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1999, 5–6.
49 David Cromwell, ‘Hollywood Weaponised Dream Factory: Interview with Matthew Alford, author of Reel Power’, Media Lens, 23 October 2010. http://dissidentvoice.org/2010/10/hollywood-weaponised-dream-factory. Accessed 21 January 2015.
Chapter 6
1 Todd Shepard, The Invention of Decolonisation: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France. New York: Cornell University Press, 2006, esp. 55–81.
2 Ibid., 272.
3 Martin Evans, ‘Projecting a Greater France’, History Today, 50, 2 (February 2000), 19–25.
4 Anthony Clayton, The Wars of French Decolonisation. London and New York: Longman, 1994, 1.
5 Charles O’Brien, ‘The “Cinema Colonial” of 1930s France: Film Narratives as Spatial Practice’ in Matthew Bernstein and Gaylyn Studler (eds), Visions of the East: Orientalism in Film. New Brunswick (NJ): Rutgers University Press, 1997, 207–225.
6 Barnet Singer and John Langdon, Cultured Force: Makers and Defenders of the French Colonial Empire. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2004.
7 A.P. Thornton, Imperialism in the Twentieth Century. London and Basingstoke: The Macmillan Press, 1980, 39–40. Thornton pointed out that the ‘doctrine of civilisation’ was always rather short of doctrinaires since those who espoused it mostly came from non-colonial backgrounds. A.P. Thornton, Doctrines of Imperialism. London: John Wiley and Sons, 1965, 187. See also Michael W. Doyle, Empires. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1986, 319.
8 Lou Dimarco, ‘Losing the Moral Compass: Torture and Guerre Revolutionnaire in the Algerian War,’ Parameters, Summer 2006, 63–76.
9 See for example George Marshall and W.H. Morris Jones (eds). Decolonisation and After: The British and French Experience. London: Routledge, 1980; Martin Thomas, Fight or Flight: Britain, France and Their Roads from Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
10 Economist, 17 February 2011.
11 Dine, Images of the Algerian War, 215.
12 Douglas Porch, Counterinsurgency: Exposing New Myths of the New Way of War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013, 164–165.
13 This idea was developed in a series of novels by the colon writer Luis Bertrand at the end of the nineteenth century. The supposed link back to the earlier classical period was an attempt to provide some sort of ethical justification for the brutal conquest and land grab by the colons over the previous half century. See Andrew Hussey, The French Intifada: The Long War between France and the Arabs. London: Granta, 2014, 121–125.
14 Matthew Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, 219.
15 Ibid., 285.
16 Dine, Images of the Algerian War, 227.
17 Roger Ebert, ‘Le Petit Soldat’, 1 January 1960, www.rogerebert.com. Accessed 6 October 2017.
18 See the remarks of Drew Hunt, ‘Le Petit Soldat’, Slant, 4 March 2013, www.slantmagazine.com. Accessed 6 October 2017.
19 Dine, Images of the Algerian War, 216.
20 Few intellectual groupings went as far as completely identifying with the Arab cause. The magazine Conscience Algeriennes, established in 1950, was a notable exception by having two Arabs on its editorial committee and championing the active involvement of Algerians in any ‘solution’ to the Algerian issue. – a position well in advance of the French Communist Party. Out of these debates of the 1950s emerged the ideology of the ‘third world’ which would have considerable impact on radical debates in the following two decades. See Marc Ferro, Colonization: A Global History. London and New York: Routledge, 1997, 179–181.
21 However Robert Gildea has seen the film championing the idea of a united Europe. See Gildea, The Past in French History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1994, 107.
22 Naomi Greene, Landscapes of Loss: The National Past in French Cinema. Princeton: Princeton University Press, esp. 3–23.
23 Dine, Images of the Algerian War, 219.
24 Fall, Street without Joy, 253–256.
25 Benedicte Cheron, Pierre Schoendoerffer. Paris: CNRD Editions, 2012, 61.
26 Ibid., 72.
27 See Gavras’s exposition of his ideas on film making see ‘Costa Gavras on Filmmaking’, Current, 2 June 2015. www.criterion.com. Accessed 17 January 2018.
28 John Talbott, ‘The Strange Death of Maurice Audin’, VQR, Spring 1976.
29 Jean-Pierre Jeancolas, ‘French Cinema and the Algerian War: Fifty Years Later’, Cineaste, Winter 2007, 44.
30 Peter Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Vietnam to Algeria. London: Pall Mall Press, 1964; Beatrice Heuser, ‘The Cultural Revolution in Counter-Insurgency’, The Journal of Strategic Studies, 30, 1 (February 2007), 153–156.
31 Fall, Street without Joy, 370.
32 Douglas Porch, ‘French Imperial Warfare1945-1962’ in Daniel Marston and Carter Malkasian (eds), Counterinsurgency in Modern Warfare. New York: Osprey Publishing, 2008, 88–100.
33 Carl Schmitt, Theory of the Partisan. New York: Telos Press, 2007 (1st edn 1975), 72–73. Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Vietnam to Algeria, 123.
34 Benjamin Stora, ‘Still Fighting: The ‘Battle of Algiers, Censorship and the “Memory Wars”’, Interventions, 9, 3 (2007), 365–370.
35 Hugo Frey, Nationalism and the Cinema in France. New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2014, 147–148.
36 Sally Totnam, How Hollywood Projects Foreign Policy. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. See also Joseph Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Succeed in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs, 2004.
37 Cheron, Pierre Schoendoerffer, 188.
38 Jeff Robson, ‘Intimate Enemies’, 29 June 2008. www.eyeforfilm.org. Accessed 16 August 2017.
39 ‘France-Algeria war Film Sparks Cannes Protests’, Al Arabiya News, 21 May 2010.
40 See the review of the film by Kirk Honeycutt, ‘Outside the Law’, Hollywood Reporter, 14 October 2010. www.hollywoodreporter.com.
41 Though its thin plot line led the Hollywood Reporter to dismiss it as ‘frenetic and ultimately mind-numbing as a Call of Duty video game’. Hollywood Reporter, 14 October 2012.
42 Antonio Giustozzi, Empires of Mud: War and Warlords in Afghanistan. London: Hurst, 2012. Paret, French Revolutionary Warfare from Vietnam to Algeria, 123.
Chapter 7
1 Andrew L/ Mendelson and C. Zoe Smith, ‘Vision of a New State: Israel as Mythologised by Robert Capa’, Journalism Studies, 7, 2, 2006, 587–202.
2 Al Jazeera, ‘The Day Israel Attacked America’, 30 October 2014. www.aljazeera.com. Accessed 19 October 2016
3 David E. Kaufman, Jewhooing the Sixties: American Celebrity and Jewish Identity, Lebanon (NH): University Press of New England, 2012, 72.
4 Neal Gabler, An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood. New York: Anchor Books, 1988, esp. 1–7.
5 Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews. New York: Harper and Row, 1987, 525–526.
6 Shlomo Sand, The Invention of the Land of Israel. London: Verso, 2012, 257.
7 Ella Shohat, Israeli Cinema, London: I.B Tauris, 2010, 55.
8 Martin Gilbert, Israel: A History. London: Black Swan, 1998, 211–213.
9 Otto Friedrich, City of Nets: A Portrait of Hollywood in the 1940s. New York: Harper and Row, 1986, 172–173.
10 Though its symbolic effectiveness was boosted by a chronically undermanned Palestine Police Force that proved increasingly ineffective in tracking down Jewish terrorists, due to internal politicization and faulty intelligence analysis See for instance Bruce Hoffmann, ‘The Palestine Police Force and the gathering of counterterrorism intelligence, 1939–1947,’ Small Wars and Insurgencies, 24, 4 October 2013, 609–647.
11 Leslie A. Fiedler, Waiting for the End: The American Literary Scene from Hemingway to Baldwin. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1964, 73; Bradley Burston, ‘The “Exodus Effect”: The Monumental Fictional Israel the Remade American Jewry,’ Haaretz, November 9 2012.
12 Cobb and Saint had studied at the Actors Studio in New York and appeared in Elia Kazan’s movie On The Waterfront in 1954 with Marlon Brando.
13 Karl Sabbagh, Britain in Palestine. Croydon: Skyscraper Pub, 2012, 104; Eugene Rogan, The Arabs: A History. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2009, 334.
14 For details see Nurith Gertz and Yael Munk, ‘Israeli Cinema Engaging the Conflict’ in Josef Gugler (ed.) Film in the Middle East and North Africa. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2011, 155–164.
15 The film was booed in some Polish cinemas for the film’s simplification of events. The Bielskis certainly helped to save some 1,200 Jews, though many Poles believe that the Jewish Partisans helped Russian partisans attack the village of Naliboki leading to 128 people being killed. Kate Connolly, ‘Jewish resistance film sparks Polish anger,’ The Guardian 5 March 2009.
16 Randy Roberts and James S. Olson, John Wayne: American, Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995, 524–525.
17 Ibid., 492–493.
18 Jock Haswell, Citizen Armies. London: Haswell for the History Book Club, 1975, 241.
19 None of the women Douglas married were Jewish, though his marriage to his first wife Diana Douglas in 1943 was through a rabbi, whose strictures on bringing up his children as Jewish Douglas decided to ignore. Kirk Douglas, The Ragman’s Son. London: Pan Books, 1988, 108.
20 Ibid, 207–208.
21 Sabbagh, Britain in Palestine, 100.
22 Roberts and Olson, John Wayne, 525.
23 CBN’s spokesman Michael Conrad explained that the Six Day War was the fulfilment of Christ’s prophecy in Luke 21:24 that ‘And they will fall by the edge of the sword, and be led away captive into all nations.’ The Jerusalem Post 17, May 2017.
24 Rogan, The Arabs, 430–431.
25 Christopher Dobson, Black September. London: Robert Hale, 1974, 127–132.
26 Sam Borden, ‘Long-Hidden Details Reveal Cruelty of 1972 Munich Attackers’, New York Times, 1 December 2015.
27 Isabel Kershner, ‘From Israel’s Archives, Papers on the Munich Killings’, New York Times, 7 September 2012.
28 Dobson, Black September, 140–141.
29 Patrick Seale, Abu Nidal: A Gun for Hire. New York: Random House, 1992, 47.
30 Though significantly not Abu Nidal, perhaps because the movement proved so successful in murdering Palestinian moderates.
31 Jonathan Freedland, ‘ “We Thought this would be the End of Us”: The Raid on Entebbe, 40 Years on’, The Guardian, 25 June 2016.
32 See for example Larry Getlen, ‘The Hostage Rescue that Convinced the West Not to Negotiate with Terrorists’, New York Post, 28 November 2015.
33 Jonathan Bloch and Patrick Fitzgerald, British Intelligence and Covert Action. Dingle (Kerry): Brandon/Mount Eagle Pub, 1983, 162 and passim.
34 Lemuel A Johnson, The Devil, The Gargoyle and the Buffoon: The Negro as Metaphor in Western Literature. Port Washington and London: National University Publications, 1971.
35 Jesse Bernstein, ‘A Plea for a Good Entebbe Movie’, Tablet, 30 June 2016.
36 Thomas Riegler, ‘ “Terrorology”: Who analyses and comments on the terrorist threat?’, www.inter-disciplinary.net. Accessed 19 December 2016.
37 Colin Shindler, Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream. London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 1995, 215.
38 Those involved in prosecuting Palestinian terrorists captured by the police tended to see the Soviet Union as being at best peripherally involved in sustaining what one Italian magistrate told Loretta Napoleoni a ‘chain of terrorist Do-it Yourselfs across the Middle East’ that the Palestinian were left to manage. Loretta Napoleoni, Terror Inc: Tracing the Money Behind Global Terrorism. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 2004, 72.
39 Michael Burleigh, Blood Rage: A Cultural History of Terrorism. London: Harper Perennial 2008, 187.
40 Ibid., 186.
41 Prince, Firestorm briefly refers to the film in 32–33.
42 Matthew Gault, ‘ “Here’s What Commandos” “Stealth” Motorbike Will Look Like: A Killer Dirt Bike Even Chuck Norris Would Ride”, 7 January 2015. warisboring.com. Accessed 25 October 2016.
43 Ryan Lambe, ‘The Rise and Fall of Cannon Films’, 20 September 2013. www.denofgeek.com. Accessed 30 September 2016.
44 Geoffrey Hempsted, ‘George Smiley and Post-Imperial Nostalgia’ in Raphael Samuel (ed.), Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity: Volume 111. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1989, 232–240.
45 Adam Sisman, John Le Carre: The Biography. London: Bloomsbury 2015, 432.
46 William F. Buckley, ‘Terror and a New Woman’, New York Times, 13 March 1983.
47 John Le Carre, The Little Drummer Girl. London: Pan Books, 1983, 177.
48 Le Carre, The Little Drummer Girl, 351.
49 Ibid., 350.
50 Ibid., 367.
51 John L. Cobbs, Understanding John Le Carre. Columbia (SC): University of South Carolina Press, 1997, 154.
52 Le Carre, The Little Drummer Girl, 516.
53 Ibid., 517.
54 Hall overlooked Streep for Keaton who impressed him with her performance in Annie Hall in 1977 (for which she won an Oscar) and Reds with Warren Beatty in 1981. Sisman, John Le Carre, 436. One obvious choice, with hindsight, was Vanessa Redgrave’s daughter Natasha Richardson: but in 1984 she had not yet starred in a leading role in any major feature film (it would eventually be Ken Russell’s 1986 film Gothic as Mary Shelley).
55 George Jonas, Reflections on Islam. Toronto: Key Porter Books, 2007. 63.
56 Ibid., xix.
57 Prince, Firestorm, 91.
58 Ibid., 95.
59 Frank Kermode, ‘Review of Munch’, YouTube, 20 August 2010. www.youtube.com. Accessed 20 November 2016.
60 As a young man of twenty Spielberg bought Pontecorvo’s 1966 Lion d’Or trophy for the movie when he put it up for action (he later returned it to the director at the Venice Film Festival in 1993). Frey, Nationalism and the Cinema in France, 141.
61 Andrew Gumbel, ‘Israel Attacks Spielberg over “Munich”, His Movie on 1972 Olympics Massacre’, The Independent, 24 December 2005.
62 Gary Younge, ‘Israeli Consul Attacks Spielberg’s Munich as “Problematic”’, The Guardian, 12 December 2005.
63 John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery and Romance. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1976, 67–69.
64 Ewen MacAskill and Ian Black, ‘Munich: Mossad Beaks Cover’, The Guardian, 26 January 2006.
Epilogue
1 Jean Larteguy, The Centurions. London: Penguin, 2015 (1st edn 1960), 10.
2 For some critics the movie supplies a sort of moral template for post-Brexit Britain. Steve Rose, ‘The Great Retreat’, The Guardian, 21 July 2017.
3 Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914–1991. London: Abacus, 1995.
4 For an exploration of this link between Hollywood and the KMT see Karen J. Leong, The China Mystique: Pearl S Buck, Anna May Wong, Mayling Soong and the Transformation of American Orientalism. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2005.
5 Mevliyar Er and Paul B. Rich, ‘Abd el-Krim’s Guerrilla War against Spain and France in North Africa: An Adventure Setting for Screen Melodramas’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 26, 4 (2015), 597–615.
6 See David L. Altheide, ‘Fear, Terrorism and Popular Culture’ in Jeff Birkenstein et al. (eds), Reframing 9/11: Film, Popular Culture and the ‘War on Terror’. New York: Continuum, 2010, 11–20.
7 Neville Bolt, The Violent Image: Insurgent Propaganda and the New Revolutionaries. London: Hurst, 2012, 162.
8 See for instance John Mackinlay, The Insurgent Archipelago. London: Hurst, 2009.
9 Paul B. Rich, ‘Cinema, Drone Warfare and the Framing of Counter-Terrorism’, Defence & Security Analysis, 34, 2 (2018).