NOTES

Introduction

1. Tony Anderson, “CC Sabathia Works to Bring More Blacks to Baseball,” The Grio, September 1, 2009, www.thegrio.com/2009/09/yankee-pitcher-unhappy-with-number-of-blacks-in-mlb-1.php. Although over 180 RBI participants have been drafted by major league clubs, the program is unlikely to reverse the larger trends in sport that have pushed African Americans away from baseball.[back]
2. Major League Baseball (MLB) is the corporate entity that resulted from the joining of the National and American Leagues in 1903. It is often referred to as “organized baseball”; “major league baseball” (lowercased) refers to the sport that MLB controls.[back]
3. Determining a player’s racial identity is not always a simple matter. The Yankees’ Jerry Hairston Jr., for example, was considered an African American in calculating these demographic patterns. But his mother is Mexican, and Hairston competed for Mexico in the World Baseball Classic. Alex Rodriguez and Manny Ramirez were transnational citizens as children, spending part of their lives in the Dominican Republic, the rest in the United States.[back]
4. Marc J. Spears, “NBA on Top of Diversity Game,” Black Voices, May 17, 2007, www.blackvoices.com/black_sports/special/_a/nba-on-top-of-diversity-game/20070330152409990002; Travis Reed, “Study: NFL Has Slightly More Latino, Asian Players,” August 27, 2008, www.usatoday.com/sports/football/2008-08-27-1555250552_x.htm.[back]
5. ESPN.com, “Sheffield Says Latin Players Easier to Control Than Blacks,” June 3, 2007, http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2891875.[back]
6. Nate Penn, “Whack!ipedia,” GQ, June 2007; Perez on Sheffield’s comments: “That’s going to hurt a lot of people,” ESPN.com, June 6, 2007, http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2893756.[back]
7. Marcus Vanderberg, “Torii Hunter Is Right about Blacks in Baseball,” The Grio, March 11, 2010, www.thegrio.com/opinion/why-torii-hunter-was-right-about-blacks-in-baseball.php. Disturbed by the reaction to his comments, Hunter later said that he had chosen his words poorly and that “on the field, we’re all brothers.” SI.com, March 10, 2010, http://m.si.com/news/to/to/detail/2438783;jsessionid=11419856A17F0031A9F76AE05B062FF0.cnnsi2.[back]

Chapter 1. The Gospel of Baseball

1. Quoted in Geoffrey C. Ward, Baseball: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf: 1994), pp. xvii, 3.[back]
2. Quoted in Harold Seymour, Baseball: The Early Years (New York: Oxford University Press, 1960), pp. 83, 345. As an interesting aside, Dorothy Jane Mills has recently been given credit for coauthoring her husband Harold Seymour’s pioneering books on baseball’s history. See Alan Schwarz, “Straightening the Record,” New York Times, March 6, 2010.[back]
3. Louis A. Pérez Jr., “Between Baseball and Bullfighting: The Quest for Nationality in Cuba, 1868–1898,” Journal of American History 81, no. 2 (September 1994), pp. 494–95.[back]
4. Roberto González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 90.[back]
5. Pérez, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting,” p. 500.[back]
6. Quoted in Pérez, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting,” pp. 505–6.[back]
7. Ibid., p. 509.[back]
8. Ibid., pp. 511–12; Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 31 (cites January 2, 1897, Sporting Life article written years after the incident in which this interpretation was raised).[back]
9. Pérez, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting,” p. 515.[back]
10. Alejandro de la Fuente, A Nation For All: Race, Inequality, and Politics in Twentieth-century Cuba (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), p. 23.[back]
11. Louis A. Pérez Jr., On Becoming Cuban: Identity, Nationality, and Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), pp. 79–80.[back]
12. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, p. 117.[back]
13. John T. Bethell, “‘A Splendid Little War’: Harvard and the Commencement of a New World Order,” Harvard Magazine, November–December 1998, http://harvardmagazine.com/1998/11/war.html.[back]
14. Pérez, On Becoming Cuban, p. 248.[back]
15. These efforts abroad anticipated those in the U.S. after World War I, when sport was used to Americanize immigrant laborers and win the hearts and minds of recalcitrant factory workers.[back]
16. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, p. 127.[back]
17. Ibid., pp. 129–30.[back]
18. Ibid.[back]
19. Organized by Afro-Cuban veterans of the independence struggle in 1908, the Partido Independiente de Color (Independent Party of Color) focused on resolving the new nation’s racial inequities. It was banned by the government in 1910. When party activists protested in May 1912, it was savagely repressed. Fuente, A Nation for All, pp. 71–77.[back]
20. Cuba’s racial paradox, Alejandro de la Fuente argues, was that “under Cuba’s racial democracy, blackness was frequently denigrated as atavistic and savage, yet this ideology also called for all Cubans to be equal members of an ideal republic with all and for all.” Many Cubans struggled with the contradictions between the ideals of their new republic and its racial realities. Fuente, A Nation for All, pp. 14, 52.[back]
21. Fuente, A Nation for All, pp. 14, 52.[back]
22. Burgos, Playing America’s Game, p. 90.[back]
23. Ibid., pp. 96–98.[back]
24. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, pp. 100, 138.[back]
25. Pedro Julio Santana, interview, June 25, 1988, Santo Domingo.[back]
26. Pérez, “Between Baseball and Bullfighting,” p. 514; Gilbert M. Joseph, “Forging the Regional Pastime: Baseball and Class in Yucatán,” in Joseph L. Arbena, ed., Sport and Society in Latin America: Diffusion, Dependency, and the Rise of Mass Culture (New York: Greenwood Press, 1988), p. 34.[back]
27. Juan Bosch, interview, June 19, 1988, Santo Domingo.[back]
28. Pérez, On Becoming Cuban, p. 258.[back]
29. Quoted in Rob Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball: Baseball in the Dominican Republic, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), pp. 27–28.[back]
30. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave (New York: New American Library, 1968), pp. 83–84.[back]
31. Michael E. Lomax, Black Baseball Entrepreneurs, 1860–1901 (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2003), p. xix.[back]
32. Ibid., pp. 23–24.[back]
33. Ibid., pp. 29–30.[back]
34. David L. Fleitz, Cap Anson: The Grand Old Man of Baseball (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005), p. 112.[back]
35. Burgos, Playing America’s Game, p. 61.[back]
36. Harrisburg Patriot, June 29, 1989, quoted in Lomax, Black Baseball Entrepreneurs, p. 99.[back]
37. Quoted in Harold Seymour, The People’s Game (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 15.[back]
38. Atlanta Constitution, July 18, 1919; Pittsburgh Post, April 4, 1920.[back]
39. Seymour, The People’s Game, p. 95.[back]
40. Dean Cromwell, Championship Techniques in Track and Field (New York: Whittlesey House, 1949), p. 6.[back]

Chapter 2. Blackball’s Heyday

1. From the Freeman, January 27, 1917, quoted in Janet Bruce, The Kansas City Monarchs: Champions of Black Baseball (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1985), p. 13.[back]
2. Bruce, The Kansas City Monarchs, pp. 15–24.[back]
3. Quoted in Donn Rogosin, Invisible Men: Life in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (New York: Atheneum, 1983), p. 33.[back]
4. Rogosin, Invisible Men, pp. 12–13.[back]
5. Bruce, The Kansas City Monarchs, pp. 62–63; Rogosin, Invisible Men, pp. 183–84.[back]
6. Salary figures are sketchy and incomes were skewed in both the Negro Leagues and the major league because star players made much more than other players. Black players were more likely than white players to play ball during the fall and winter to augment their incomes. John B. Holway, Blackball Stars: Negro League Pioneers (Westport, CT: Meckler, 1988), p. 6; Robert Gardner and Dennis Shortelle, The Forgotten Players: The Story of Black Baseball in America (New York: Walker, 1993), p. 45.[back]
7. Rogosin, Invisible Men, pp. 4, 33–35.[back]
8. Laurence Glasco, “The Double Burden: The Black Experience in Pittsburgh,” in Samuel P. Hays, ed., City at the Point: Essays on the Social History of Pittsburgh (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), pp. 69–109.[back]
9. Harold Tinker, interview, August 31, 1990, Pittsburgh.[back]
10. Quoted in Glasco, “The Double Burden,” p. 76.[back]
11. Monte Irvin, interview, November 4, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
12. Mal Goode, interview, February 23, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
13. Quoted in Rogosin, Invisible Men, p. 104.[back]
14. Gabe Patterson, interview, July 12, 1980, Pittsburgh; Joe “Showboat” Ware, interview, June 28, 1980, Pittsburgh.[back]
15. Ted Page, interview, June 24, 1980, Ashland, KY.[back]
16. Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), pp. 110–12.[back]
17. Pittsburgh Courier, “Posey’s Points,” April 10, 1937.[back]
18. Burgos, Playing America’s Game, pp. 112–16, 129–34; Rogosin, Invisible Men, pp. 105–6.[back]
19. Ken Belson, “Apples for a Nickel and Plenty of Empty Seats,” New York Times, January 6, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/01/07/sports/baseball/07depression.html.[back]
20. Life, June 2, 1941, “Satchel Paige, Negro Ballplayer, Is One of the Best Pitchers in Game.”[back]
21. August Wilson, interview, March 19, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
22. Goode interview.[back]
23. Clarence Bruce, interview, August 8, 1989, Pittsburgh.[back]
24. John Edgar Wideman, interview, May 9, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
25. Bruce, The Kansas City Monarchs, p. 45.[back]
26. Ibid., pp. 44–45.[back]
27. Irvin interview.[back]

Chapter 3. A Latin Challenge

1. Manuel Joaquín Báez Vargas, Pasion Deportiva (Santo Domingo: Editora Corripio, 1985), pp. 17–25.[back]
2. Manuel Joaquín Báez Vargas, interview, June 26, 1988, Santo Domingo; Rob Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball: Baseball in the Dominican Republic, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), pp. 6–10.[back]
3. Báez Vargas interview; Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 25–26.[back]
4. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 27.[back]
5. Pedro Julio Santana, interview, June 25, 1988, Santo Domingo; Báez Vargas interview; Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 7, 8, 28.[back]
6. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 12.[back]
7. Santana interview; Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 13, 18.[back]
8. Satchel Paige, as told to David Lipman, Maybe I’ll Pitch Forever (New York: Doubleday, 1962), p. 117.[back]
9. Báez Vargas interview.[back]
10. Santana interview.[back]
11. Roberto González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 204–7, 219–21.[back]
12. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, pp. 233–34; Milton H. Jamail, Venezuelan Bust, Baseball Boom: Andres Reiner and Scouting on the New Frontier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), pp. 13–15.[back]
13. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 41–44. Just days before ordering the execution of rebel leader Augusto César Sandino in 1934, Somoza attended a ball game in Managua with the U.S. ambassador, who he later said had agreed to the murder. When Somoza visited Trujillo in 1952, he tossed out the ceremonial first ball at a game in Ciudad Trujillo. Trujillo, wearing a crescent-shaped hat adorned with ostrich plumes, retired to the presidential box. After a few innings, Somoza left him there for a seat behind the dugout, the better to see the game.[back]
14. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 45–46.[back]
15. Cuqui Córdova, Historia de los Leones Rojos del Escogido (Santo Domingo: Editorial Cañabrava, 1999), pp. 41–48.[back]
16. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 38–39; Pittsburgh Courier, May 15, 1937.[back]
17. Pittsburgh Courier, May 15 and 29, 1937.[back]
18. Donn Rogosin, Invisible Men: Life in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (New York: Atheneum, 1983), pp. 167; Paige, as told to Lipman, Maybe I’ll Pitch Forever, pp. 117–20.[back]
19. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 36.[back]
20. Ibid., pp. 39–40.[back]
21. Layton Revel and Luis Muñoz, “On the Move with Lázaro Salazar,” Black Ball 2, no. 1 (spring 2009), pp. 68–77.[back]
22. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 42–43.[back]
23. Pittsburgh Courier, February 25, 1939.[back]
24. For a discussion of Trujillo and the massacre, see Michele Wucker, Why Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians, and the Struggle for Hispaniola (New York: Hill and Wang, 1999).[back]
25. Santana interview.[back]
26. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, p. 145.[back]
27. Diario de la Marina, October 1, 1923, quoted in González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, pp. 144–45, 173–74.[back]
28. Revel and Muñoz, “On the Move with Lázaro Salazar,” pp. 68–77.[back]
29. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, pp. 180–84.[back]
30. Ibid., p. 187.[back]
31. John Virtue, South of the Color Barrier: How Jorge Pasquel and the Mexican League Pushed Baseball toward Racial Integration (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008), pp. 38, 60–62.[back]
32. Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith, Modern Latin America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 236; Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, p. 61.[back]
33. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 74–78, 94.[back]
34. Ibid., p. 95.[back]
35. Ibid., p. 1.[back]
36. Ibid., pp. 1, 86–88.[back]
37. Pittsburgh Courier, May 6, 1944.[back]
38. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, p. 22.[back]
39. Orlando Cepeda, with Herb Fagen, Baby Bull: From Hardball to Hard Time and Back (Dallas, TX: Taylor, 1998), p. 2.[back]
40. Luis Tiant and Joe Fitzgerald, El Tiante: The Luis Tiant Story (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), p. 12. Tiant Sr., quoted in Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 221.[back]
41. Rogosin, Invisible Men, p. 174; Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 112–19.[back]

Chapter 4. The Winds of War

1. Brad Snyder’s Beyond the Shadow of the Senators: The Untold Story of the Homestead Grays and the Integration of Baseball (Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2003) is the best account of Washington, D.C., black baseball.[back]
2. Roberto González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 46, 268–70; Red Smith (Philadelphia Record) is quoted in the Pittsburgh Courier, November 3, 1945.[back]
3. Steven A. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration, vol. 2 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006), p. 551.[back]
4. William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 17–22.[back]
5. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration, vol. 2, pp. 551–52; Brian Knowlton, “Forgotten Battalion’s Last Returns to Beachhead,” New York Times, June 6, 2009; Chafe, The Unfinished Journey, p. 19.[back]
6. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration, vol. 2, pp. 551–52; Andrew Wiese, Places of Their Own: African American Suburbanization in the Twentieth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), p. 171.[back]
7. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration, vol. 2, p. 880; Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation’s Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 200.[back]
8. August Wilson, interview, March 19, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
9. Donn Rogosin, Invisible Men: Life in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (New York: Atheneum, 1983), p. 100.[back]
10. Snyder, Beyond the Shadow of the Senators, pp. 113–47; Rogosin, Invisible Men, p. 100.[back]
11. “Negro Leaguers Who Served with the Armed Forces in WWII,” Gary Bedingfield’s Baseball in Wartime, www.baseballinwartime.com/negro.htm, accessed June 8, 2009; Snyder, Beyond the Shadow of the Senators, pp. 155–66.[back]
12. Snyder, Beyond the Shadow of the Senators, p. 147.[back]
13. Cum Posey, “Posey’s Points,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 31, 1942, and March 27, 1943.[back]
14. Jules Tygiel, “Black Ball,” in John Thorn et al., eds., Total Baseball (New York: Total Sports, 1999), p. 501.[back]
15. These critiques can be found on the pages of the black press. Neil Lanctot, in his remarkable study Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), offers the best survey of black baseball’s internal problems.[back]
16. Charles D. Chamberlain, Victory at Home: Manpower and Race in the American South during World War II (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003), p. 155; White quoted in Chafe, The Unfinished Journey, p. 29.[back]
17. George Schuyler, “Keeping the Negro in His Place,” American Mercury 17 (August 1929), pp. 469–76.[back]
18. Green, The Secret City, pp. 248–49.[back]
19. Chafe, The Unfinished Journey, p. 181.[back]
20. Reich, ed., Encyclopedia of the Great Black Migration, vol. 2, pp. 509–11; Green, The Secret City, pp. 254–56.[back]
21. Pittsburgh Courier, December 20, 1938.[back]
22. Ches Washington, Pittsburgh Courier, December 11, 1937.[back]
23. Wendell Smith, Pittsburgh Courier, September 2, 1939.[back]
24. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper and Row, 1944), p. 1004.[back]
25. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, pp. 232–33.[back]
26. Pittsburgh Courier, February 12, 1938, February 19, 1938, October 28, 1939, and August 29, 1942. Benswanger said that Cum Posey had dissuaded him from going through with the tryouts.[back]
27. Pittsburgh Courier, July 25, 1942.[back]
28. Ibid.[back]
29. Quoted in Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, pp. 240–41.[back]
30. Pittsburgh Courier, August 15, 1952, August 22, 1942.[back]
31. Quoted in Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, pp. 238–39.[back]
32. Buck Leonard, interview, February 5, 1993, Rocky Mount, NC.[back]
33. Pittsburgh Courier, July 25, 1942.[back]
34. “Catholics Call for Fair Play in Major Leagues,” Pittsburgh Courier, August 15, 1942; Pittsburgh Courier, “Pirates’ Chief Scout to Handle Epochal Try-outs,” August 22, 1942.[back]
35. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, p. 241.[back]
36. Ibid., pp. 245–46.[back]
37. Joe Bostic, People’s Voice, July 11, 1944, quoted in Jim Reisler, Black Writers/Black Baseball: An Anthology of Articles from Black Sportswriters Who Covered the Negro Leagues (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1994), pp. 80–81.[back]
38. Wilson quoted in Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, p. 253.[back]
39. Rob Ruck, “Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh” (PhD thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1983), pp. 559–62; Simon Gerson, Pete: The Story of Peter V. Cacchione, New York’s First Communist Councilman (New York: International Publishers, 1976), p. 129.[back]
40. Peter Golenbock, “Men of Conscience,” in Joseph Dorinson and Joram Warmund, eds., Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), p. 14. Golenbock cites his own conversation with Chandler in 1983. See also Murray Polner, Branch Rickey: A Biography (New York: Atheneum, 1982), p. 174. I have not been able to find coverage of this in the Pittsburgh Courier.[back]
41. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 174–79.[back]
42. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, pp. 266–70.[back]
43. Pittsburgh Courier, May 19, 1945.[back]
44. Ruck, Sandlot Seasons, pp. 174–79.[back]
45. Pittsburgh Courier, December 29, 1945; Bill Weaver, “The Black Press and the Assault on Professional Baseball’s Color Line,” Phylon 40, no. 4 (winter 1979), p. 307. Racine is quoted in William Simons, “Jackie Robinson and the American Mind,” Journal of Sport History 12, no. 1 (spring 1985), p. 43; Ferguson is quoted in the Pittsburgh Courier, November 3, 1945.[back]
46. Rob Ruck, “Crossing the Color Line,” in Lawrence Hogan, ed., Shades of Glory (Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2006), p. 338.[back]
47. Jules Tygiel, “The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson,” American Heritage 35, no. 5 (August–September 1984), available at www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1984/5/1984_5_34.shtml.[back]
48. Quoted in Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, p. 279.[back]
49. Ibid., p. 275.[back]
50. Pittsburgh Courier, April 6, 1946.[back]
51. Wendell Smith, Pittsburgh Courier, April 27, 1946; Joe Bostic, People’s Voice, April 27, 1946; Joseph Sheehan, New York Times, April 19, 1946.[back]
52. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, pp. 292–93.[back]
53. See Study of Monopoly Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Study of Monopoly Power of the Committee on the Judiciary, serial no. 1, part 6, Organized Baseball, 82nd Congress, 1st Session (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1952). The section of the committee report focusing on race is included in Jules Tygiel, ed., The Jackie Robinson Reader (New York: Dutton, 1997), pp. 128–33.[back]
54. Buck Leonard, interview, February 5, 1993, Rocky Mount, NC.[back]
55. Lanctot, Negro League Baseball, p. 346.[back]
56. Ruck, Sandlot Seasons, pp. 182–86; Pittsburgh Courier, October 16, 1948.[back]

Chapter 5. Integration’s Curse

1. William Nack, Sports Illustrated, May 5, 1997; Wendell Smith, Pittsburgh Courier, May 24, 1947; Jonathan Eig, Opening Day: The Story of Jackie Robinson’s First Season (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007), pp. 166–67. Nineteen of Robinson’s steals were during the regular season; the other was during the 1955 World Series.[back]
2. National League teams averaged sixty stolen bases in 1946; that number was up to seventy-four per team in 1966, after the league had been substantially integrated. Martin Johnson, “The Speed to Steal,” The Root, June 12, 2009, www.theroot.com/views/speed-steal; Jackie Robinson, as told to Alfred Duckett, I Never Had It Made: An Autobiography (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco, 1995), p. 67.[back]
3. Mal Goode, interview, February 23, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
4. The New York Sun article ran May 1, 1947; Jimmy Cannon, New York Post, May 10, 1947, quoted in Jules Tygiel, “Jackie Robinson,” in Patrick B. Miller and David K. Wiggins, eds., Sport and the Color Line: Black Athletes and Race Relations in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 173.[back]
5. John Crosby, Syracuse Herald, November 12, 1972; Durocher quoted in Tygiel, “Jackie Robinson,” p. 174; Roger Kahn, The Boys of Summer (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), p. 358; William Nack, “17 Days in May,” Sports Illustrated, May 5, 1997.[back]
6. Goode interview.[back]
7. Jules Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).[back]
8. Harold Parrott, The Lords of Baseball (New York: Praeger, 1976), p. 194, quoted in Jules Tygiel, “Jackie Robinson,” p. 168.[back]
9. Jackie Robinson, I Never Had It Made, quoted in Tygiel, “Jackie Robinson,” p. 169.[back]
10. Harold Parrott, “The Betrayal of Robinson,” in Jules Tygiel, ed. The Jackie Robinson Reader (New York: Dutton, 1997), p. 138.[back]
11. David Falkner, Great Time Coming: The Life of Jackie Robinson, from Baseball to Birmingham (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), p. 175, places this meeting later in the season.[back]
12. Wendell Smith, Pittsburgh Courier, May 24, 1947; Associated Press, New York Times, May 18, 1947; Jackie Robinson, “Why I’m Quitting Baseball,” in Tygiel, ed., The Jackie Robinson Reader, p. 217.[back]
13. Tygiel, “Jackie Robinson,” p. 185.[back]
14. Joseph Dorinson and Joram Warmund, eds., Jackie Robinson: Race, Sports, and the American Dream (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1988), pp. 184–85.[back]
15. Jenkins was born in Chatham, Ontario, a Canadian town largely populated by African Americans fleeing the United States after the imposition of the Fugitive Slave Act in 1850.[back]
16. New York World-Telegram and Sun, July 25, 1949, quoted in Jules Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 335.[back]
17. Quoted in Geoffrey C. Ward, Baseball: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1994), p. 293.[back]
18. Monte Irvin, interview, November 4, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
19. Harold Tinker, interview, August 31, 1990, Pittsburgh.[back]
20. Irvin interview.[back]
21. George Vecsey, “Ray Dandridge, the Hall of Fame and Fences,” New York Times, May 10, 1987.[back]
22. Rob Ruck, “Raymond Dandridge,” in David L. Porter, ed., Biographical Dictionary of American Sports: Baseball (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), pp. 132–33.[back]
23. Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment, p. 232.[back]
24. The Campanis incident is discussed in chapter 8.[back]
25. Boston Chronicle, quoted in Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment, p. 178.[back]
26. Will quoted in Sol Gittleman, “The Fuse That Lit the Fire,” Tufts Journal, June 10, 2009, http://tuftsjournal.tufts.edu/2009/06_1/corner/01/. Gaston quoted in Howie Rumberg, “Now Honoring No. 42: Jackie Robinson Saluted on Anniversary of Breaking MLB’s Color Barrier,” Sports News, April 15, 2010, http://blog.taragana.com/sports/2010/04/15/now-honoring-no-42-jackie-robinson-saluted-on-anniversary-of-breaking-mlbs-color-barrier-94050/.[back]
27. George Will, Bunts: Curt Flood, Camden Yards, Pete Rose, and Other Reflections on Baseball (New York: Scribner, 1998), p. 87.[back]
28. Roy Wilkins, Michigan Chronicle, November 3, 1945, quoted in Bill Weaver, “The Black Press and the Assault on Professional Baseball’s Color Line,” Phylon 40, no. 4 (winter 1979), p. 307.[back]
29. Manning Marable, Race, Reform and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945–1982 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1984), pp. 13–25.[back]
30. Goode interview.[back]
31. Pittsburgh Courier, October 1, 1955.[back]
32. Dr. Jake Milliones, interview, November 18, 1991, Pittsburgh; Robert Curvin, “Remembering Jackie Robinson,” New York Times Magazine, April 4, 1982, p. 46.[back]
33. Quoted in Arnold Rampersad, Jackie Robinson: A Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), p. 179.[back]
34. John Edgar Wideman, interview, May 9, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
35. Goode interview.[back]
36. August Wilson, interview, March 19, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]
37. Wideman interview.[back]
38. Wilson interview.[back]
39. Neil Lanctot, Negro League Baseball: The Rise and Ruin of a Black Institution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), p. 392.[back]
40. John Holway, interview, September 1, 1991, Pittsburgh.[back]

Chapter 6. ¡Viva México!

1. Quincy Trouppe, 20 Years Too Soon (Los Angeles: S and S Enterprises, 1977), pp. 143–45; Donn Rogosin, Invisible Men: Life in Baseball’s Negro Leagues (New York: Atheneum, 1983), p. 174; John Virtue, South of the Color Barrier: How Jorge Pasquel and the Mexican League Pushed Baseball toward Racial Integration (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2008), pp. 112–19; Pittsburgh Courier, July 17, 1943, July 31, 1943.[back]
2. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 131–33.[back]
3. To avenge the first attack on U.S. territory since 1812, General John “Black Jack” Pershing led thousands of troops in pursuit of Villa, chasing him into the Sierra Nevada. Eleven months later, they came back empty-handed.[back]
4. Shirley Povich, Washington Post, March 10, 1946.[back]
5. Ibid. See also Roberto González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 293–98.[back]
6. Shirley Povich, Washington Post, March 12 and March 18, 1946.[back]
7. New York Times, April 17, 1946.[back]
8. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, p. 22.[back]
9. New York Times, March 22, 1946.[back]
10. Kyle Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” part 1, Collier’s, June 22, 1946, pp. 17, 62.[back]
11. Jerry Hannifin, Washington Post, April 14, 1946.[back]
12. Shirley Povich, Washington Post, April 3, 1946; Arthur Daley, New York Times, April 3, 1946.[back]
13. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” pp. 62–63.[back]
14. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, p. 118.[back]
15. New York Times, April 18, 1946; Washington Post, April 20, 1946.[back]
16. Life, June 24, 1946, p. 121.[back]
17. Milton Bracker, Saturday Evening Post, March 8, 1947, p. 145.[back]
18. New York Times, June 22, 1946.[back]
19. Ray Gillespie, “‘O. B. Getting Dose of Own Medicine’—Pasquel,” the Sporting News, February 28, 1946, quoted in Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, p. 134.[back]
20. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 162–63.[back]
21. Shirley Povich, Washington Post, April 13, 1946; John Lardner, “Baseball’s Big Bamboozle,” Sport, May 1967, p. 79.[back]
22. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” pp. 17, 63.[back]
23. Povich, Washington Post, April 13, 1946. Ironically, Rickey and Griffith, who themselves shamelessly exploited the Negro Leagues and Cuba for profits and players, were among the owners goading Chandler to come down hard on jumpers.[back]
24. New York Times, March 10, 1946.[back]
25. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” p. 71.[back]
26. Life, June 24, 1946.[back]
27. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” pp. 17, 63.[back]
28. New York Times, April 4, 1946.[back]
29. New York Times, May 17, 1946.[back]
30. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” p. 70.[back]
31. New York Times, May 17 and May 22, 1946.[back]
32. Milton Bracker, New York Times, May 16, 1946.[back]
33. Téodulo Manuel Agundis, El verdadero Jorge Pasquel (México: Atenea Gráfica, 1956), p. 170, quoted in Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, p. 145.[back]
34. Bus Ham, Washington Post, April 12, 1946.[back]
35. Shirley Povich, Washington Post, April 13, 1946.[back]
36. Study of Monopoly Power: Hearings before the Subcommittee on the Study of Monopoly Power of the Committee on the Judiciary, serial no. 1, part 6, Organized Baseball, 82nd Congress, 1st Session (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1952), p. 475.[back]
37. Study of Monopoly Power, pp. 479–83.[back]
38. Study of Monopoly Power, pp. 480–81.[back]
39. New York Times, August 3, 1946.[back]
40. New York Times, December 13, 1946.[back]
41. Study of Monopoly Power, pp. 480–81.[back]
42. Washington Post, April 15, 1946; Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 150–51.[back]
43. New York Times, August 11, 1946.[back]
44. Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 175.[back]
45. New York Times, August 5 and August 29, 1946.[back]
46. González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana, pp. 14–18.[back]
47. Sporting News, January 27, 1947.[back]
48. This policy would be revised in the early 1950s, to the delight of Cuban fans.[back]
49. Milton Bracker, New York Times, December 16, 1946.[back]
50. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 183–84.[back]
51. Ibid., p. 162.[back]
52. Crichton, “Hot Tamale Circuit,” p. 71.[back]
53. Frank Graham Jr., “The Great Mexican War of 1946,” Sports Illustrated, September 19, 1966, p. 126.[back]
54. Washington Post, February 24, 1947; New York Times, February 20, 1947; New York Times, March 12, 1947.[back]
55. Jules Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 165–66.[back]
56. Roscoe McGovern, New York Times, February 26, 1947.[back]
57. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 183–95.[back]
58. Ibid., pp. 186.[back]
59. New York Times, October 29, 1947.[back]
60. New York Times, January 22, 1948.[back]
61. New York Times, January 28, 1948, and February 3 and February 4, 1948.[back]
62. New York Times, September 21, 1948, and October 30, 1948.[back]
63. Graham, “The Great Mexican War of 1946,” p. 129.[back]
64. Virtue, South of the Color Barrier, pp. 188–90; Rickey quoted in Lee Lowenfish, Branch Rickey: Baseball’s Ferocious Gentleman (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), p. 488.[back]

Chapter 7. New Caribbean Currents

1. New York Daily News, July 20, 1972, quoted in Jules Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 343.[back]
2. David Falkner, Great Time Coming: The Life of Jackie Robinson, from Baseball to Birmingham (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), pp. 120–21; John Holway, Black Diamonds: Life in the Negro Leagues from the Men Who Lived It (Westport, CT: Meckler, 1989), p. 73.[back]
3. Orlando Cepeda with Herb Fagen, Baby Bull: From Hardball to Hard Time and Back (Dallas, TX: Taylor, 1998), pp. 11–12.[back]
4. The Republic of Baseball: Dominican Giants of the American Game, documentary film directed by Dan Manatt, written by Manatt and Rob Ruck (Manatt Media LLC, 2006). Quotes in this chapter attributed to Felipe Alou are from this source unless stated otherwise.[back]
5. Samuel Regalado, Viva Baseball: Latin Major Leaguers and Their Special Hunger (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), pp. 7, 40, 117. The statistics tracking the changing demographics of major league baseball are not very precise. They gauge the number of players of a particular grouping who appeared in the majors that season but do not differentiate between those who played briefly and those who were with a club the entire season.[back]
6. Myron Cope, Sports Illustrated, March 7, 1966.[back]
7. David Maraniss, Clemente: The Passion and Grace of Baseball’s Last Hero (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), p. 57.[back]
8. C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), pp. 165–66.[back]
9. Manuel Mota, interview, January 14, 2001, Santo Domingo.[back]
10. Rob Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball: Baseball in the Dominican Republic, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998).[back]
11. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 73.[back]
12. Mota interview.[back]
13. Mays, Cepeda, and Alou quoted in Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball.[back]
14. Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball. Quotes in this chapter attributed to Juan Marichal are from this source unless stated otherwise.[back]
15. Quoted in Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball.[back]
16. Juan Marichal, with Charles Einstein, A Pitcher’s Story (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), pp. 62–63; Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 82.[back]
17. Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball.[back]
18. David Maraniss, Clemente, pp. 160–62.[back]
19. Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball.[back]
20. Roberto González Echevarría, The Pride of Havana: A History of Cuban Baseball (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 345.[back]
21. Ibid., pp. 346–47.[back]
22. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 108–9.[back]
23. Felipe Alou, with Herm Weiskopf, Felipe Alou: My Life and Baseball (Waco, TX: World Books, 1967), pp. 59–60.[back]
24. Alou, with Weiskopf, Felipe Alou, pp. 119–20; Felipe Alou, with Arnold Hano, “Latin-American Ballplayers Need a Bill of Rights,” Sport, November 1963, pp. 21, 76–79.[back]
25. New York Times, “Big-League Stars Play Here,” October 12, 1963; William J. Biordy, “Latin All-Stars Paced by McBean,” New York Times, October 13, 1963.[back]
26. Alou, with Hano, “Latin-American Ballplayers Need a Bill of Rights.”[back]
27. Manatt and Ruck, The Republic of Baseball.[back]
28. Stan Isaacs, Newsday, July 23, 1964.[back]
29. New York Times, August 4, 5, 6, 1964; Time, August 14, 1964.[back]
30. Bob Broeg, St. Louis Post-Dispatch, quoted in Larry R. Gerlach, “Crime and Punishment: The Marichal-Roseboro Incident,” Nine: A Journal of Baseball History and Culture 12, no. 2 (spring 2004), p. 12. Gerlach’s judiciously analyzed and well-researched article is the best account of the incident and its consequences.[back]
31. Dick Young, New York Daily News, August 26, 1965, quoted in Gerlach, “Crime and Punishment,” pp. 11–12.[back]
32. Sporting News quoted in Adrian Burgos Jr., Playing America’s Game: Baseball, Latinos, and the Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 225.[back]
33. Jim Brosnan, Life, October 10, 1960, p. 174; Myron Cope, Sports Illustrated, March 7, 1966.[back]
34. Kal Wagenheim, Clemente! (Chicago: Olmstead, 2001; orig. published 1974), p. 71; Cope, Sports Illustrated, March 7, 1966.[back]
35. Quoted in Cope, Sports Illustrated, March 7, 1966.[back]
36. Campbell J. Gibson and Emily Lennon, “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States, 1850–1990” (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, February 1999), www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html.[back]
37. Quoted in Bernardo Ruiz, American Experience: Roberto Clemente, DVD (PBS Home Video, 2007).[back]
38. Howard Kohn, Sport, quoted in Wagenheim, Clemente! pp. 82–83.[back]
39. Quoted in Ruiz, American Experience: Roberto Clemente.[back]
40. Cope, Sports Illustrated, March 7, 1966.[back]
41. Wagenheim, Clemente! pp. 135–52.[back]
42. Ruiz, American Experience: Roberto Clemente; Wagenheim, Clemente! p. 171.[back]
43. Rob Ruck, “Remembering Roberto Clemente,” Pittsburgh, December 1972, pp. 40–41.[back]

Chapter 8. Whiteout

1. Eric Johnson, “Nightline Classic: Al Campanis,” April 12, 2007, http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/ESPNSports/story?id=3034914.[back]
2. Steve Springer, “April 6, 1987: The Nightline That Rocked Baseball,” Los Angeles Times, April 6, 1997, http://articles.latimes.com/1997-04-06/sports/sp-46070_1_league-baseball.[back]
3. Peter Gammons, “The Campanis Affair,” Sports Illustrated, April 20, 1987; Richard Goldstein, “Al Campanis Is Dead at 81,” New York Times, June 22, 1998.[back]
4. Gammons, “The Campanis Affair.”[back]
5. Reggie Jackson, “We Have a Serious Problem That Isn’t Going Away,” Sports Illustrated, May 11, 1987.[back]
6. Jules Tygiel, Baseball’s Great Experiment: Jackie Robinson and His Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 508.[back]
7. Gerald W. Scully, The Business of Major League Baseball (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), p. 172; Michael Martinez, “Baseball’s Upswing in Minority Hiring Is Followed by Clash of Interpretations, “ New York Times, April 6, 1988.[back]
8. John Steinbreder, “Let’s Make A Statement,” Sports Illustrated, November 21, 1988.[back]
9. Doron P. Levin, “Pittsburgh Recalls a Neglected Title,” New York Times, September 12, 1988.[back]
10. A disclaimer: I worked with the Pirates on the 1988 event honoring the Negro Leagues, received financial backing for a 1993 documentary film I wrote and directed, Kings on the Hill: Baseball’s Forgotten Men (San Pedro Productions), which MLB distributed with study guides to a few thousand schools, and worked with the Pirates again on Legacy Square, their installation at PNC Park honoring the Negro Leagues.[back]
11. Springer, “The Nightline That Rocked Baseball.”[back]
12. “Ex-Dodgers GM Campanis Dead at 81,” CNN/SportsIllustrated.com, June 21, 1998, http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/news/1998/06/21/obit_campanis_lead/; Peter Schmuck, “Remembering Al Campanis,” Sporting News, June 29, 1998.[back]
13. Consumers, however, would pay indirectly for the bonanza of televised sport, because advertising drove up the prices. As cable television emerged, they would pay directly, too.[back]
14. Rob Ruck, Sandlot Seasons: Sport in Black Pittsburgh (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 194–201. The nature of minor league ownership also changed, as local ownership faded and most surviving minor league teams became part of major league farm systems.[back]
15. Ruck, Sandlot Seasons, pp. 195–99.[back]
16. Jackson, “We Have a Serious Problem.”[back]
17. Ibid.[back]
18. See Bret L. Billet and Lance J. Formwalt, America’s National Pastime: A Study of Race and Merit in Professional Baseball (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995), pp. 21–22; Rod Carew interview with John O’Dell, January 24, 2009.[back]
19. Marvin Miller, A Whole Different Ballgame: The Sport and Business of Baseball (New York: Birch Lane, 1991), p. 39.[back]
20. Ira Berkow, “Generation Gap for Blacks in Baseball,” New York Times, February 15, 1999.[back]
21. Scott Kendrick, “2009 Baseball Team Payrolls,” December 23, 2009, About.com: Baseball, http://baseball.about.com/od/newsrumors/a/09teamsalaries.htm, accessed September 28, 2009.[back]
22. Brent Staples, New York Times, May 17, 1987; Billet and Formwalt, America’s National Pastime, discusses several of these studies, pp. 21–22, 28; Scully, The Business of Major League Baseball, pp. 173–78.[back]
23. Additional choices were awarded teams that lost players to free agency.[back]
24. Chris Isidore, “Green Behind Decline of Blacks in Baseball,” April 13, 2007, http://money.cnn.com/2007/04/13/commentary/sportsbiz/index.htm.[back]
25. Frank B. Butts, Laura M. Harfield, and Lance C. Hatfield, “African-Americans in College Baseball,” Sport Journal, http://thesportjournal.org/article/african-americans-college-baseball, accessed September 17, 2009; John Helyar, “Robinson Would Have Mixed View of Today’s Game,” ESPN.com, April 9, 2007, http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/jackie/news/story?id=28285842, accessed July 3, 2009.[back]
26. Allan Simpson, “A Black and White Issue,” Perfect Game USA (n.d. but sometime in 2009), http://www.pgcrosschecker.com/Articles/DisplayArticle.aspx?article=563.[back]
27. Butts, Harfield, and Hatfield, “African-Americans in College Baseball”; David Ogden and Randall A. Rose, “Using Giddens’s Structuration Theory to Examine the Waning Participation of African Americans in Baseball,” Journal of Black Studies 35, no. 4 (March 2005), p. 230; Vahe Gregorian, “Blacks Are Fading from Baseball,” STLtoday.com, June 19, 2006, accessed October 13, 2009, www.accessmylibrary.com/archive/5976-st-louis-postdispatch-st-louis-mo./june-2006.html.[back]
28. Tom Verducci, “Blackout,” Sports Illustrated, July 7, 2003.[back]
29. Quoted in Joseph A. Reaves, “Generation Gap for Blacks in Baseball,” Arizona Republic, April 15, 2007.[back]
30. Quoted in Verducci, “Blackout.”[back]
31. Table CH-3, “Living Arrangements of Black Children Under 18 Years Old: 1960 to Present,” U.S. Bureau of Census, Annual Social and Economic Supplement: 2003, Current Population Survey, Series P20–553, America’s Families and Living Arrangements: 2003 (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2003), www.census.gov/population/www.socdemo/hh-fam.html; William Darity Jr. and Samuel L. Myers Jr., “Changes in Black Family Structure: Implications for Welfare Dependency,” American Economic Review 73, no. 2 (May 1983), pp. 59–64.[back]
32. Marvin Miller, A Whole Different Ball Game: The Sport and Business of Baseball (Secaucus, NJ: Carol, 1991), pp. 82, 141.[back]
33. Quoted in Dave Anderson, “A Flame Grew in Brooklyn,” New York Times, December 5, 1971.[back]
34. Brad Snyder’s A Well-Paid Slave: Curt Flood’s Fight for Free Agency in Professional Sports (New York: Penguin, 2006) is a splendid account of Flood and his struggles; see also Miller, A Whole Different Ball Game, pp. 185–86.[back]
35. Bill Nunn Jr. and Ebony quoted in Charles Korr, The End of Baseball As We Knew It (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002), p. 97.[back]
36. Brent Staples, “Where Are the Black Fans?” New York Times, May 17, 1987.[back]
37. These statistics were compiled by Sean Lahman, The Pro Football Historical Abstract: A Hardcore Fan’s Guide to All-Time Player Rankings (Guilford, CT: Lyons, 2008), pp. 25–27.[back]
38. Brad Muster, “Minority Hiring Practices in Professional Sports,” Sport Journal 4, no. 4 (fall 2001), www.thesportjournal.org/article/minority-hiring-practices-professional-sports, accessed May 21, 2010.[back]
39. Bloomberg Businessweek, “The Racial Gap in the Grandstands,” October 2, 2006, www.businessweek .com/magazine/content/06_40/b4003093.htm.[back]
40. Staples, “Where Are the Black Fans?”[back]
41. Michael Crowley, “The Case Against Michael Jordan,” Boston Phoenix, January 25, 1999, is one of many stories that have attributed this quote to Jordan.[back]
42. Walter LaFeber, Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (New York: Norton, 2002), pp. 73–74, 137.[back]
43. William C. Rhoden, $40 Million Slaves: The Rise, Fall, and Redemption of the New Black Athlete (New York: Crown, 2006), p. 140.[back]
44. Rhoden, $40 Million Slaves, p. 140.[back]
45. Jeffrey M. Jones, “Football Remains Runaway Leader as Favorite Sport,” December 29, 2008, www.gallup.com/poll/113503/Football-Remains-Runaway-Leader-Favorite-Sport.aspx?version=print; David W. Moore and Joseph Carroll, “Baseball Fan Numbers Steady, but Decline May Be Pending,” September 5, 2002, www.gallup.com/poll/6745/baseball-fan-numbers-steady-decline-may-pending.aspx, accessed October 7, 2009; Gallup Poll, “Baseball,” www.gallup.com/poll/1696/Baseball.aspx?version=print, accessed October 7, 2009; Harris Poll, “Football Expands Lead Over Baseball as America’s Favorite Sport,” February 1, 2010, www.harrisinteractive.com/vault/Harris_Interactive_Poll_Sports_Popularity_2010_02.pdf.[back]

Chapter 9. The Rise of the Academies

1. Steve Wulf, “Standing Tall at Short,” Sports Illustrated, February 9, 1987.[back]
2. Murray Chass, “A New Baseball Strategy: Latin-American Bargains,” New York Times, March 22, 1998.[back]
3. Roberto Caines, interviews, June and July 1987, January and June 1988, Consuelo, DR.[back]
4. Caines interviews.[back]
5. Rob Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball: Baseball in the Dominican Republic, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), pp. 140–45.[back]
6. Coleridge Mayers, interviews, July 1987, San Pedro de Macorís.[back]
7. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 140–45.[back]
8. Armando Carty, interview, July 1988, San Pedro de Macorís.[back]
9. William Joseph, interviews, June and July 1988, Consuelo, DR.[back]
10. Sebastían “Basilio” Ferdinand, interview, January 1988, San Pedro de Macorís.[back]
11. Caines interviews.[back]
12. Mayers interviews.[back]
13. Joseph interviews; Winston Richards, interview, July 19, 1988, San Pedro de Macorís.[back]
14. The Reverend Joseph Ainslie, interview, August 1987, Seeley’s Bay, Ontario, Canada.[back]
15. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 139 and 164.[back]
16. Chass, “A New Baseball Strategy.”[back]
17. Kevin Barker, “Avila Led the Charge in MLB’s Latin Revolution,” ESPN.com, http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/hispanichistory/news/story?id=2607258, accessed July 24, 2010.[back]
18. Juan Marichal, interview, July 4, 1987, Campos Las Palmas, DR.[back]
19. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 170.[back]
20. Chass, “A New Baseball Strategy.”[back]
21. Alan Klein, Growing the Game: The Globalization of Major League Baseball (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), pp. 96–97. Klein’s Sugarball (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991) is an insightful portrait of Dominican baseball in the 1980s with a perceptive description and analysis of the academies. He returned to these questions in his magisterial Growing the Game, in which he globalizes the discussion.[back]
22. Rob Ruck, “Japanese Turning Dominican’s Beisbol into Besuboru,” Washington Post, July 21, 1992.[back]
23. Chass, “A New Baseball Strategy.”[back]
24. Juan Marichal, interview, January 16, 2010, Santo Domingo.[back]
25. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, pp. 50–51.[back]
26. Klein, Growing the Game, pp. 96–97.[back]
27. Melissa Segura, “Nationals Prospect Falsified Identity,” SI.com, February 17, 2009, http://sports illustrated.cnn.com/2009/baseball/mlb/02/17/nats.gonzalez/; and Melissa Segura, “When Signing a Dominican Prospect, It’s Buyer Beware,” SI.com, March 2, 2009, http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2009/writers/melissa_segura/03/02/dr.investigators/index.html.[back]
28. Dominican Baseball Camp, “Player Development,” www.dominicanbaseballcamp.com/playerdevelopment.htm, accessed November 12, 2009; Joel Millman, “Foreign Talent Loads the Bases in Minor Leagues,” WSJ.com, August 15, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124966930911615069.html.[back]
29. Barry Svrluga, “Tapping In to an Economy of Sale,” Washington Post, December 21, 2006; Melissa Segura, “When Signing a Dominican Prospect.” SI.com, March 2, 2009.[back]
30. Luke Cyphers, “Haitian Sensations: Behind the Rise of the Haitian-Dominican Player,” ESPN.com, March 10, 2009, http://espn.go.com/mlb/insider/news/story?id=3974286; Patrick Clark, “The Dominican Game,” Triplecanopy, http://www.canopycanopycanopy.com/5/the_dominican_game, accessed February 25, 2008.[back]
31. Christian Red, “Steve Swindal’s Boca Chica Baseball Academy Prospects Look Strong,” New York Daily News, October 18, 2009, www.nydailynews.com/sports/baseball/2009/10/18/2009-10-18_steve_swindals_prospects_look_strong.html, accessed November 9, 2009.[back]
32. Several individuals who worked for the Yankees, White Sox, and Red Sox lost their jobs after being implicated in the skimming. Few of those working in the island’s baseball industry were surprised at the practice. Jorge L. Ortiz, “Exploitation, Steroids Hitting Home in Dominican Republic,” USA Today, March 26, 2009.[back]
33. Jonathan M. Katz and Dionisio Soldevila, “For Some Dominican Players, Steroids Worth the Risk,” Associated Press, September 26, 2009.[back]
34. Marichal interview.[back]
35. Ortiz, “Exploitation, Steroids Hitting Home in the Dominican Republic.”[back]
36. Jesse Sanchez, “Game Regains Status in Puerto Rico,” MLB.com, http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100629&content_id=11719758&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb; Ken Belson, “Puerto Rico’s Baseball Pipeline Runs Low,” New York Times, June 28, 2010. In 2001, former major league pitcher Edwin Correa created the Puerto Rico Baseball Academy and High School. The academy, which MLB subsidizes, has seen more than seventy of its players drafted.[back]
37. Milton H. Jamail, Venezuelan Bust, Baseball Boom: Andres Reiner and Scouting on the New Frontier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), is a penetrating analysis of Venezuelan baseball and its connection to major league baseball and the nation’s culture.[back]
38. Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball, p. 186.[back]
39. Jorge L. Ortiz, “Puerto Rican Baseball Seeks Return to Glory,” USATODAY.com, January 24, 2006, www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2006-01-24-puerto-rico-winter-league-slump_x.htm.[back]
40. Ibid.[back]

Epilogue

1. Juan Marichal, interview, January 16, 2010, Santo Domingo.[back]
2. “The Dominican Republic and Haiti: Helping a Neighbour In Need, A Break in a History of Mistrust,” Economist, February 18, 2010.[back]
3. Jean Damu, “Haiti: Blood, Sweat and Baseball,” San Francisco Bay View, January 24, 2010, www.sfbayview.com/2010/haiti-blood-sweat-and-baseball/; Michel-Rolph Trouillot, Haiti: State Against Nation: The Origins and Legacy of Duvalierism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1990), p. 202.[back]
4. Karen Crouse, “In Helping Haiti, Pierre Garcon Wins Fans in Little Miami,” New York Times, February 2, 2010.[back]
5. Dominican Republic News and Travel Information Service, www.Dr1.com, March 12, 2010.[back]
6. Marichal interview.[back]
7. Junior Noboa, interview, January 15, 2010, Santo Domingo.[back]
8. Rob Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball: Baseball in the Dominican Republic, rev. ed. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), pp. 199–202; Milton H. Jamail, Venezuelan Bust, Baseball Boom: Andres Reiner and Scouting on the New Frontier (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), pp. 219–20.[back]
9. Tim Wendel, The New Face of Baseball: The 100-Year Rise and Triumph of Latinos in America’s Favorite Sport (New York: Harper Collins, 2003).[back]
10. Bill Center, “Jones to Start Career on Suspension,” San Diego Union-Tribune, May 22, 2010, www.signonsandiego.com/news/2010/may/22/jones-start-career-suspension/.[back]
11. Michael Schmidt, “Five-Tool Player, One Set of Prints,” New York Times, February 10, 2010; Michael Schmidt, “Dominican Prospects Will Face Strict Rules,” New York Times, May 7, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/05/08/sports/baseball/08drugs.html.[back]
12. Jeff Passan, “Alderson Addresses Dominican Corruption,” Yahoo! Sports, April 22, 2010, http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/news?slug=jp-dominican042210; Alden Gonzalez, “No Plans to Include Dominicans in Draft,” MLB.com, April 19, 2010, http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100419&content_id=9420804&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb.[back]
13. Noboa interview.[back]
14. Schmidt, “Dominican Prospects Will Face Strict Rules.”[back]
15. Marichal interview.[back]
16. Trevor Gooby, interview, January 17, 2010, La Gina.[back]
17. Marichal interview.[back]
18. Jonathan Mahler, “Building the Béisbol Brand,” New York Times, July 31, 2005; Douglas Eikermann, “Hispanic Fans Critical to Major League Baseball,” HispanicBusiness.com, July 10, 2008, http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=8f6c40cc51d9d391420b562189ffc007. For CFU Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport study, see Richard Lapchick with Alejandra Diaz-Calderon and Derek McMechan, The 2009 Racial and Gender Report Card: Major League Baseball, April 15, 2009, www.tidesport.org/RGRC/2009/2009_MLB_RGRC_PR_Final_rev.pdf.[back]
19. David Waldstein, “On Robinson’s Day, a Met Reflects,” New York Times, April 16, 2010; “Mixed News in Report on Diversity,” New York Times, April 30, 2010.[back]
20. Ben Nicholson-Smith, “Mets Release Gary Matthews Jr.,” MLB Trade Rumors, June 15, 2010, www.mlbtraderumors.com/2010/06/mets-release-gary-matthews-jr.html.[back]
21. Richard Berlin, interview, October 15, 2009.[back]
22. CBSSports.com, “MLB Salaries,” www.cbssports.com/mlb/salaries/top50?tag=pageRow;page Container.[back]