Under dynamic leaders such as Philip II and Alexander the Great, the ancient Macedonian war machine achieved a series of spectacular victories that have enshrined their names among the ranks of the most renowned generals of all time, and have ensured that the army they forged continues to be admired and studied thousands of years later. The backbone of the Macedonian army was the pike-phalanx, an intimidating mass of infantry who wielded distinctive and unusually long spears or pikes, known as sarissas. However, as this book points out, despite the fame and achievements of the ancient Macedonian military, profound gaps exist in our knowledge concerning almost every aspect of how this phalanx was equipped and functioned.
These uncertainties have spawned a particularly lively and long-standing set of debates regarding the weapons, organization, and tactics of the pike-phalanx, and various rival interpretations have been put forward. As usual, the root cause of the mysteries surrounding this topic is the scarcity of the ancient sources, which consist of a handful of descriptions of the Macedonian phalanx by ancient authors, some contested archaeological finds of pieces of equipment, and a scattering of often vague images in ancient art. Since all the participants in these disputes have been drawing upon this same set of ambiguous primary source material, the arguments have tended to go around and around over the same territory for generations, with the fervor of the disagreements matched only by the improvability of the assertions. The existing ancient evidence may suggest a range of potential answers to basic questions such as how long a sarissa was or how it was held, but within that range, it is impossible to settle upon a definitive conclusion, however vigorously proponents of the various theories might present their arguments. Thus, barring a fresh archaeological discovery, or the finding of a new text, these debates have been stuck in something of a rut whose parameters are delineated by the available evidence. The most significant accomplishment of this innovative book is that it offers a means of breaking free of this scholarly impasse by bringing a new methodology to bear upon these perennial mysteries.
One major way in which Christopher Matthew accomplishes this welcome task is by employing the techniques of what is sometimes termed ‘experimental archaeology’: a method in which the scholar reconstructs objects or practices from the ancient world – in this particular case, ancient arms and armour – and carries out a series of experiments in order to assess specific aspects of their characteristics and use. Vital components of such an approach are a close attention to the information provided by the full array of primary source materials as well as an adherence to vigorous standards of experimental protocol, including the meticulous recording of materials and procedures and the careful, measured, observation of results.
When properly done such a study employs a scientific methodology akin to that found in a laboratory, and one that is equally valid. Even if such an approach cannot definitively resolve a particular debate, it can often eliminate one or more suggested interpretations by revealing them to be untenable: for example, by demonstrating their incompatibility with the limitations imposed by human physiology. Therefore, experimental archaeology offers a new way to access information about the ancient world and an alternative approach to what previously seemed to be intractable problems. What gives validity to such studies is that they are based on unchanging laws of physics, geometry, chemistry, and biology. The flight of an arrow today is subject to precisely the same forces of gravity, drag, velocity, wind, and mass as one that was shot 2,000 years ago. Thus, if one can accurately replicate the physical characteristics of an ancient arrow, one can measure and discuss what it may or may not have been capable of doing, and this is true whether or not any ancient literary source explicitly discusses the details of its performance.
Such reconstructive or experimental archaeology is already well-established as a beneficial and valued tool in certain fields of study – for example, among academics that focus on the Neolithic or other prehistoric eras. In such circles, publications which describe experiments in flint-knapping or ceramic production are routine. This methodology has been a bit slower to find widespread application among archaeologists and historians who work on the classical cultures of the ancient Mediterranean. The area that has probably most embraced this approach is the study of classical warfare, a field which perhaps somewhat naturally invites attempts at reconstructing weapons and armour. This process has been facilitated by the efforts and interests of amateur military re-enactors and hobbyists, who often couple considerable scholarly erudition with practical experience in traditional artisanal crafts such as metal- or woodworking. Academics investigating the Roman legions or gladiator combat have done much useful work utilizing experimental archaeology that has greatly enhanced our understanding of these warriors. In recent years, however, a growing number of scholars have applied these methods to an exciting range of topics beyond the field of military history, producing insights into numerous aspects of ancient life and culture, from the masks worn in Greek theatrical performances to the hairstyles that adorned upper-class Roman women.
This book constitutes an ideal model of how to deploy the techniques of experimental archaeology in combination with the traditional scrutiny of textual and iconographic evidence. Christopher Matthew methodically takes us through every aspect of the Macedonian pike-phalanx, starting with its possible origins and then proceeding to analyse each individual piece of equipment that was employed by Macedonian phalangites, how it was held or worn, what its physical properties would have been, the implications of these characteristics for how it would have been held and used, how this in turn would have determined how the men were arranged in the phalanx, how groups of men would have stood and moved together, the effects the sarissa would have had upon an opponent, and how all of this information taken together can help us to understand how the pike-phalanx operated in actual combat. At each step of this investigation, Matthew applies the knowledge and insights gained at one stage to illuminate questions concerning the next, resulting in a cohesive and holistic analysis that resolves many longstanding debates.
To give but one example of how his practical, science-based, approach elucidates vexing issues, Matthew offers a careful examination of how the balance point of a sarissa would be variously affected by different-sized spearheads, the presence or absence of a buttspike, and the attachment of a metal shaft guard. With a weapon as unwieldy and ponderous as a 5m sarissa, the point of balance is an absolutely crucial matter that dictates where it could have been held and how it could have been used. A surprising number of earlier studies, however, have failed to fully take this simple but decisive point into account. By doing so, Matthew’s research convincingly clarifies or resolves some of the perennial theories and disputes about these basic features of the weapon. Admittedly, this is not an entirely new approach to this topic; in a series of articles published in the 1970s, Minor M. Markle reported impressions derived from fashioning a replica sarissa and conducting a few basic tests (including placing a man holding it on a small horse). However, the experiments conducted by Matthew possess a level of scientific rigour and thoroughness previously neither attempted nor attained.
While in this foreword I have chosen to emphasize the experimental archaeological aspects of this book, I should stress that it also contains lengthy and detailed passages of more traditional forms of inquiry. It is by combining all of these analytical tools that Matthew amply achieves his goal of offering a novel and illuminating exploration of how the imposing Macedonian pike-phalanx operated and, for well over a century, dominated the battlefields of the ancient world.
Gregory S. Aldrete
Frankenthal Professor of History and Humanistic Studies,
University of Wisconsin-Green Bay.