Chapter 9

Conjunctions and subjunctions

9.1 Introduction

Conjunctions and subjunctions have a linking function. For main clauses (MC) and subordinate clauses (SC), see 10.4, 10.8; for the conjunction field ‘f’ which contains the link itself, see 10.7.3.6.

9.1.1 Classification

Traditional grammar uses an overarching term for the single word class of conjunctions, which includes both coordinating conjunctions (e.g. og, ‘and’; men, ‘but’; eller, ‘or’) and subordinating conjunctions (e.g. at, ‘that’; om, ‘if’; fordi, ‘because’). However, NRG and several modern Norwegian grammars distinguish between the distinct word classes of conjunctions (coordinating, Nw. konjunksjon) and subjunctions (subordinating, Nw. subjunksjon), a practice we will follow in this book.

9.1.2 Coordination

Coordination involves linking together two clauses (either two main clauses or two subordinate clauses) or two clause elements of a similar grammatical type. The link itself is often a conjunction placed between the elements to be linked. See 9.1.4.1ff.

Subjects coordinated
Aksel og Anna liker jazz.	Aksel and Anna like jazz.
Objects coordinated
Selskapet vil utvikle kunnskap og kompetanse. The company wishes to develop know-how and competence.
Verbs coordinated
De sitter og snakker.	They are sitting chatting.
Main clauses coordinated
Han tok bilen og jeg syklet.	He took the car and I cycled.
Subordinate clauses coordinated
De sa at de ville komme, men at de ville komme for sent. They said that they would come, but that they would be late.

Note – The Norwegian term konjunkt is often applied to a phrase that is linked, and should not be confused with the English ‘conjunct’, which is a kind of adverb, with similarities to a conjunction, linking a clause or phrase with a previous part of the same sentence (see 6.2.5.3.) An English term sometimes used for konjunkt is ‘conjoin’.

9.1.3 Subordination

Subordination is the incorporation of a subordinate clause (shown by round brackets in the examples below) into a main clause sentence (shown by < >). The link word used is often a subjunction (9.3) or other subordinator (9.4) which comes at the beginning of the subordinate clause. In the example below, the subjunction is fordi.

<Vi gikk inn i fjøset	(fordi været var forferdelig)>.
We went into the barn	because the weather was awful.
Main clause − Independent	Subordinate clause − Dependent

There is often a hierarchy of clauses, one within another like a Chinese box, by which clauses are subordinated. In the next example the subordinate clause marked [C – C] is subordinated to the subordinate clause (B – B), which in turn is subordinated to the main clause sentence <A – A>. See 10.8, 9.1.4f.

9.1.4 Position of conjunctions

9.1.4.1 Conjunctions

Conjunctions are usually found between the two sentence elements, phrases or clauses to be coordinated. See 9.1.2 above and 10.4. The use of a conjunction does not usually affect the word order in the clause that follows.

• Han hadde kanskje rett, men han burde ikke sagt det.
  He may have been right but he shouldn’t have said so.

Å være eller ikke være …

To be or not to be …

Occasionally, conjunctions occur at the beginning of a sentence. Certain conjunctions never start a sentence, however; these include explanative and conclusive conjunctions. See 9.2.5f.

Og dette er bare begynnelsen.

And this is just the beginning.

9.1.4.2 Subjunctions

1. (a) Subjunctions introduce a subordinate clause and are found at the beginning of the subordinate clauses when the order is MC + SC:

   Vi kjøper et nytt hus	hvis vi har råd til det.
   We will buy a new house	if we can afford it.
   MC	Sub.conj. SC

• Thus, when the order is SC + MC, they occur at the beginning of the sentence:

1. Hvis vi har råd til det,	kjøper vi et nytt hus.
   If we can afford it	we will buy a new house.
   Sub.conj. SC	MC

2. (b) In the case of attributive clauses and certain consecutive clauses, the subordinate clause cannot precede the main clause, so a subjunction or other subordinator (9.1.5.3) cannot begin the sentence:

   Læreren min,	som underviser i norsk,	er meget hyggelig.
   My teacher,	who teaches Norwegian,	is very nice.
   	Other subordinator
   	Attributive clause
   Oljeresursene skal forvaltes slik at		de kommer hele det norske samfunnet til gode.
   The oil resources will be managed so that		it benefits the whole of Norwegian society.
   	Sub. conj.	Consecutive clause

   Jeg spurte	om	de kunne veksle en hundrelapp.
   I asked	whether	they could change a hundred kroner note.
   	Sub. conj.	Indirect question

9.1.5 Conjunctions, subjunctions, conjunctional adverbs and other subordinators

9.1.5.1 Conjunctions and subjunctions

Conjunctions normally consist of a single word (og, eller, men, for, så(cf.9.2), whereas subjunctions (9.3) may either be single words (at, ‘that’; da, ‘as’; ettersom, ‘because’; fordi, ‘because’; om, ‘whether/if’; siden, ‘since’; som, ‘as’) or complex subjunctions comprising several words, often a combination of adverb or preposition + subjunction (for at, ‘in order to’; selv om, ‘although’; slik at,‘so that’; som om, ‘as if’; så at, ‘so that’).

9.1.5.2 Conjunctional adverbs

Clauses may also be linked by a conjunctional adverb (6.3.4.4) in a separate main clause. Compare:

Han dro hjem, for det var sent.

       Conjunction

He went home because it was late.

Cf.

Han dro hjem. Det var nemlig sent.

         Conjunctional adverb

He went home. It was late, you see.

The function is the same in both cases, but the conjunctional adverb may come first in the clause, causing inversion: finite verb – subject (FV–S). See 10.7.2. Subjunctions are found with subordinate clause word order: subject – clausal adverb – finite verb (S−FV). See 10.4.3.

Kasper klarte ikke lære å kjøre. Likevel fikk han mye hjelp.

         Conjunctional adverb FV S

Kasper couldn’t learn to drive. Even so he had a lot help.

Cf.

Kasper klarte å lære å kjøre, selv om han ikke fikk mye hjelp.

         Subjunction S CA FV

Kasper could learn to drive although he did not have a lot of help.

9.1.5.3 Other subordinators

Other subordinators include interrogative and relative subjunctions/adverbs. These differ from conjunctions in that they introduce a subordinate clause and at the same time constitute a clause element within that clause:

Jeg spurte	hva hun ville.
	Subordinator = object
I asked what she wanted.

Jeg vet	hvor alle likene er begravd.
	Subordinator = adverbial
I know where all the bodies are buried.

Notice that an interrogative as subject must be followed by som (see 9.4.1.2 and 10.8.1.2(a)):

Jeg lurer på	hvem som gjorde det.
	Subordinator = subject
I wonder who did that.

9.1.5.4 Indicators of subordination

Not all subordinate clauses are introduced by a subjunction or other subordinator. Some have no introductory word, because the words at or somhave been omitted (see (c) below). There are, however, various indicators of subordination. These are not necessarily a word class or sentence element, but may be a marker showing the clausal relationship. Such indicators include:

1. (a) An introductory word in the subordinate clause: for example, a subjunction, interrogative pronoun or adverb, or subjunction or adverb. See 9.3.1ff. and 9.4.1ff.

   Han sier at han vil emigrere.
   He says that he wants to emigrate.

   Spør hvorfor han ønsker å emigrere.
   Ask why he wants to emigrate.

   Jeg vet hvor han ønsker å emigrere.
   I know where he wants to emigrate.

2. (b) The position of the clausal adverbial immediately before the finite verb. See 10.3.6.3.

   Han fortalte meg at han aldri ville se meg igjen.
   He told me he never wanted to see me again.

3. (c) But note that, in the following examples, the subordinate clauses have no specific indicator of subordination:

   Hunden som trodde (at) han var katt … [at omitted: see 10.8.4.1]
   The dog that believed he was a cat …

   Den gutten (som) Eva var forelsket i, bor i Tromsø. [som omitted: see 10.8.4.2]
   The lad Eva was in love with lived in Tromsø.

9.2 Conjunctions

9.2.1 Introduction

There are very few conjunctions, but the conjunctional adverbs (9.1.5.2, 6.3.4.4) fulfil almost the same function. Conjunctions are classified according to their function into copulative, disjunctive, adversative, explanative and conclusive conjunctions.

Section	Term	Example
9.2.2	Copulative	og, samt, and; pluss, plus
9.2.3	Disjunctive	eller, or
9.2.4	Adversative	men, but
		(ikke …) men, (not…) but
9.2.5	Explanative	for, for
9.2.6	Conclusive	så, so

9.2.2 Copulative conjunctions

Copulative means ‘connecting’.

9.2.2.1 Og – ‘and’

Og (‘and’) is the most frequent word in Norwegian. In practice, /g/ is always omitted in pronunciation.

Og is used to link two (or more) main clauses, clause elements, words or phrases of the same kind.

• Erik drakk øl og Eva drakk vin.
  Erik drank beer and Eva drank wine.
• Paret fikk femteplassen i tango, slowfox og quickstep.
  The couple took fifth place in the tango, slow foxtrot and quickstep.
• Bøkene hans er triste og morsomme.
  His books are sad and funny.

As in English, one may sometimes coordinate elements that differ:

Hun er vakker og med barn.

She is beautiful and pregnant.

Note – Sometimes, å is incorrectly used where the norm would have og:

• *De sitter å snakker instead of De sitter og snakker

9.2.2.2 Samt – ‘as well as’

Samt belongs to formal style and renders ‘and’, ‘together/along with’, ‘as well as’ but differs in usage from og. The most important difference is that samt cannot link clauses.

• Vi skal invitere familie og venner samt naboer.
  We will invite family and friends as well as neighbours.

9.2.2.3 Double conjunctions (correlative conjunctions)

1. (a) Både … og – ‘both … and’

The coordination of two elements may be strengthened by the addition of the conjunctional adverb både to form både … og, a construction that emphasises that both elements have equal weight. Like og this can be used with clauses, clause elements or phrases.

Dette har vakt sterke reaksjoner blant både elever og lærere.
This has provoked strong reactions among both pupils and teachers.

Note – Unlike English ‘both … and’, både … og can coordinate more than two items:

Både Per, Pål og Espen … Both Per, Pål and Espen …
[brothers in fairy-tales]

1. (b) Other double conjunctions include:

   såvel … som, both … and [more formal than både … og]; dels … dels, partly … partly; ikke bare … men også, not only … but also

   Det er ikke bare hva du sier, men også hvordan du sier det.
   It is not only what you say but also how you say it.

9.2.2.4 Pluss – ‘plus’

Originally used with numerals (fem pluss fem er ti, ‘five plus five is ten’), Norwegian pluss is used increasingly as a conjunction with quantities.

• Prisen er 1000 kroner pluss porto.
  The price is 1000 kroner plus postage.

Note – In recent years, pluss at has also come to be used as a subjunction, ending a list:

• Hun sier at han lyver, at han stjeler, at han slår, pluss at han løper etter andre.
  She says that he lies, that he steals, that he is violent, and that he chases after other women.

9.2.3 Disjunctive conjunctions

Disjunctive means ‘alternative’. In addition to eller (‘or’) a number of double conjunctions consist of a conjunctional adverb + eller. These strengthen the element of choice.

9.2.3.1 Eller – ‘or’

Eller links all kinds of words, phrases or clauses.

Vil du ha te eller kaffe?

Would you like tea or coffee?

9.2.3.2 Enten … eller – ‘either … or’

Enten … eller ((og)så) usually causes inversion of the verb in both clauses.

• Enten føler du for dem, eller så gjør du det ikke.
  Either you feel for them or you don’t.

9.2.3.3 Verken … eller – ‘neither … nor’

This expression implies negation (‘neither … nor’), so no additional negative in the form of ikke is necessary (although this is not infrequently found). Note that verken (also spelled hverken) … eller may be extended to link more than two elements.

• Hverken jeg eller min bror vet noe.
  Neither my brother nor I know anything.

9.2.4 Adversative conjunctions

Adversative means ‘opposite’ and expresses a contrast, restriction or correction. Note that opposition can also be expressed by the conjunctional adverbs derimot, ‘on the other hand’; dog, ‘yet’; likevel, ‘yet’; imidlertid, ‘however, nevertheless’; enda, ‘yet’. See 6.2.5.3(a).

9.2.4.1 Men – ‘but’

Men (‘but’) links words, phrases or clauses.

• De synes det er fint å være ute, men de liker ikke å gå langt.
  They think it’s good to be outdoors, but they do not like walking far.
• Han er fra Bergen, men nokså stillferdig.
  He is from Bergen, but still fairly quiet.

9.2.5 Explanative conjunctions

Explanative means ‘explaining’. The conjunctional adverbs jo, nemlig also express explanation. See 6.2.5.3(d).

9.2.5.1 For – ‘for’, ‘as’

For (‘for’, ‘as’) always links two main clauses:

• Det var veldig spennende, for vi visste ikke hva vi skulle finne.
  It was very exciting as we didn’t know what we would find.

For is not used as much as the near-synonymous subjunction fordi.

9.2.6 Conclusive conjunctions

Conclusive indicates ‘conclusion, result’. Conclusion may also be expressed by means of conjunctional adverbs such as altså, ‘therefore’; derfor, ‘consequently’; dermed ‘consequently’.

9.2.6.1 Så – ‘so’

Så (‘so’) links clauses and expresses a conclusion or result:

• Vinden rev i teltet, så jeg regnet ikke med mye søvn.
  The wind was pulling at the tent, so I wasn’t counting on much sleep.

9.3 Subjunctions

9.3.1 Introduction

9.3.1.1

1. (a) Subjunctions are more varied and more numerous than conjunctions. In addition to the simple general subordinators (at, om), they often comprise a compound (ettersom, ‘because’; fordi, ‘because’; liksom, ‘as if’) or a word group that, in many cases, is a combination of an adverb or preposition + at or om (etter at, ‘since’; uten at, ‘except that’; for så vidt, ‘for that matter’; selv om, ‘even if’; som om, ‘as if’). In this way, they are able to express many subtle semantic distinctions.
2. (b) The general subordinators (9.3.2) may introduce subject and object clauses and clauses constituting the predicative complement, attribute or adverbial in the sentence. The infinitive marker (9.3.3) only occurs with infinitives. The semantically differentiated subordinators (9.3.4f) only introduce adverbial clauses, see 10.8.2.2.
3. (c) The infinitive marker å, ‘to’ (often omitted in grammars, or else given its own word class) is here classified as a subjunction (see 9.3.3).

9.3.1.2 Subjunctions

9.3.2	General subordinators Explicative • indirect speech   at that • indirect question  om whether See also som (9.4.1.2).
9.3.3	The infinitive marker å, to
9.3.4	Semantically differentiated subordinators
9.3.4.1	Temporal	bare, if only; da, as; før, before; etter at, after, since; idet, when, just as; inntil, until; mens, while; når, when; siden, since, as
9.3.4.2	Causal	da, as, since; ettersom, because; fordi, because; idet, as, since; siden, since, as
9.3.4.3	Conditional	bare, as long as, if only; dersom, in case, as long as; hvis, if; ifall, if, in case; når, when; om, if, whether; så fremt, if, provided (that)
9.3.4.4	Concessive	enda, although, even though; selv om, even though; skjønt, although, though
9.3.4.5	Final	for at, so that, in order that; så, so
9.3.4.6	Consecutive	så, so; så … at, so … that; uten at, unless
9.3.4.7	Comparative	enn, than; jo … jo, the … the…; liksom, as if; som, as; som om, as if

9.3.2 General subordinators

The general subordinators at, ‘that’, and om, ‘whether’, merely indicate that the clause they introduce is a subordinate clause. They have only a very vague intrinsic meaning.

9.3.2.1 At

1. (a) At, ‘that’ is as important among subjunctions as og is among conjunctions. As in English, this subjunction may often be omitted (10.8.4.1). At is used most often to introduce a statement in indirect speech, and follows a verb of saying or reporting:

   De sa (at) de skulle undersøke saken.
   They said (that) they would look into the matter.

Compare direct speech:

1. De sa: «Vi skal undersøke saken».

2. (b) At introduces subordinate clauses that have a nominal function. These clauses function in much the same way as a noun phrase, subject, object or prepositional object. When at introduces the sentence, it is obligatory.

   At dette har skadet partiet, er udiskutabelt.
   That this has damaged the party is undeniable.

   Vi så (at) de var ulykkelige.
   We saw that they were unhappy.

9.3.2.2 Om

Om ‘if, whether’ corresponds to at, but is used to introduce indirect yes/no questions. See 10.8.1.2.(b). Unlike at, om may not be omitted. Note that om can also be used elliptically to respond to real or presumed questions. Om is also used as a conditional or concessive conjunction. See 9.3.4.3f.

• Vi spurte om han ville være med på teater.
  We asked whether he wanted to join us in the theatre.

Compare the direct question:

• Vi spurte: «Vil du være med på teater?»

Note also the rather formal hvorvidt:

• Det er ikke klart hvorvidt hun trekker seg.
  It is not clear whether she is retiring.

9.3.3 The infinitive marker å

For the use of the infinitive, see 5.3.1.

The infinitive marker å, ‘to’ is only used together with an infinitive form.

• Han prøvde å bli valgt inn i nasjonalforsamlingen.
  He tried to get elected to Parliament.

In some constructions å may be omitted (5.3.1.5):

Du behøver ikke (å) komme.

You don’t need to come.

Perhaps because of the similarity in their pronunciation, og, ‘and’ is often incorrectly substituted for å (compare also 9.2.2.1, Note):

• *Han prøver og bli et bedre menneske.
  He is trying to be a better person.

9.3.4 Semantically differentiated subordinators

Unlike at and om, most subjunctions indicate a specific semantic relationship between the main clause and subordinate clause, for example condition, cause or intention. They can, therefore, be categorised according to the meaning of the clause they introduce.

9.3.4.1 Temporal subjunctions

Temporal means ‘time-based’. See also 9.5.1.9.

• Da vi kom hjem, var alt i orden.
  When we got home everything was all right.
• Man vet aldri når man kan ha bruk for det.
  You never know when you might need it.
• De rike blir enda rikere, mens de fattige blir hengende etter.
  The rich are getting even richer while the poor lag behind.

9.3.4.2 Causal subjunctions

Causal means ‘expressing reason, cause’.

• Siden det er så fint vær, går vi en tur.
  As it’s such fine weather, we will take a walk.

Fordi, ettersom and more rarely siden clauses may either precede or follow the main clause. Fordi is the most common causal conjunction.

• Han gikk hjem, fordi hun uansett ikke ville snakke med ham.
  He went home as, no matter what, she wouldn’t speak to him.
• Ettersom han var sent ute, måtte vi begynne uten ham.
  As he was delayed, we had to begin without him.
• Vi måtte begynne uten ham ettersom han var sent ute.
  We will have had to begin without him as he was delayed.

9.3.4.3 Conditional subjunctions

Conditional means ‘expressing a condition’. See 10.8.5.2 for different kinds of conditional clause.

• Hvis vi kommer til Oslo, skal vi besøke deg.
  If we come to Oslo, we will visit you.
• Hvor ville du reise, i fall du kunne velge?
  Where you go if you could choose?
• Om du ikke hadde kommet nå, vet jeg ikke hva jeg hadde gjort.
  If you hadn’t come now I don’t know what I would have done.

9.3.4.4 Concessive subjunctions

Concessive means ‘expressing a concession’. Such clauses express a contrast with the main clause. Selv om is the most frequent way of introducing such clauses.

• Hun gir aldri opp selv om oppgaven virker håpløs.
  She never gives up even if the problem seems hopeless.
• Han hadde kjøpt seg nye, flotte, enda de andre var langtifra slitt.
  He had bought new, smart ones, even though the others were scarcely worn.

Note – Uaktet and skjønt, ‘despite, in spite of’ are now rare. Fordi om is fairly frequent in the spoken language.

9.3.4.5 Final subjunctions

Final in this sense means ‘expressing an intention or purpose’. These are sometimes difficult to distinguish from consecutive conjunctions.

• For at vi skal bli bedre kjent…
  In order for us to get better aquainted…
• Du har jo bodd i Uppsala, så du må være flink i svensk.
  You have lived in Uppsala, of course, so you must be fluent in Swedish.

9.3.4.6 Consecutive subjunctions

Consecutive means ‘expressing a result or consequence’.

• Kom, la oss stige ned og forvirre språket deres så den ene ikke forstår den andre!
  Come, let’s go down and confuse their language so they won’t be able to understand each other. (Genesis 11: 7)

Så can also introduce a main clause (see also 9.2.6.1).

9.3.4.7 Comparative subjunctions

Comparative means ‘expressing a comparison’. See also 2.5.

1. 1 Det så ut som om lynet hadde slått ned.
   It looked as if lightning had struck.

1. 2 Det skal bli varmere enn det har vært. (See also 2.5.10.3.)
   It will be warmer than it has been.

1. 3 Jo mer vi trener, desto/dess flinkere blir vi.
   The more we train, the better we get.

These include the fairly formal liksom:

1. 4 Han smilte liksom han visste noe.
   He smiled as if he knew something.

Notice the fixed order of clauses in sentence 3 above; the subordinate clause introduced by jo + comparative must come first and the main clause with desto + comparative has inversion. There is no difference in meaning between expressions formulated with jo … desto and jo … jo, dess … dess.

• Jo mer bonden produserer, jo mer støtte.
  The more the farmer produces, the greater the financial support.

9.4 Other subordinators

9.4.1 Introduction

Pronouns and adverbs used to introduce a subordinate clause are also subordinators.

9.4.1.1	Interrogative pronouns and adverbs	hvem, who; hva, what; hvor, where; når, when
9.4.1.2	Relative subjunctions and adverbs	som, who, which, that; der, where

9.4.1.1 Interrogative pronouns and adverbs

1. (a) Interrogative pronouns (4.8) and interrogative adverbs (6.2.4.5) introduce hv-questions. See 10.7.4.2. When they are used to form subordinate clauses, i.e. indirect questions, no other subjunction is required before them as they also constitute a clause element.

   Jeg vet ikke hvor han har gått.

   I don’t know where he has gone.

Compare direct question:

1. Hvor har han gått?

   Where has he gone?

2. (b) However, when an interrogative pronoun is the subject of a subordinate clause, som is introduced as a subject marker (4.8.1.1):

   Jeg vet ikke hvem som kysser henne nå.	Subject
   I don’t know who is kissing her now.

Cf.

1. Jeg vet ikke hvem (som) hun kysser nå.	Object
   I don’t know who she is kissing now.

9.4.1.2 som

See also 6.2.4.4 for relative adverbs.

Som is the most common of all subordinators, and introduces relative clauses.

When it correlates with the subject of the clause, som cannot be omitted:

• Her er kvinnen som drømmer om Romeo.
  Here is the woman that dreams of Romeo.

Contrast with the following example, in which som does not correlate with the subject:

• Her er kvinnen (som) Romeo drømmer om.
  Here is the woman that Romeo dreams of.

See also 9.4.1.1(b).

9.5 Some problem conjunctions and subjunctions

9.5.1 Translation into Norwegian of some problem conjunctions and subjunctions

Many English conjunctions and subjunctions have fairly direct equivalents in Norwegian, e.g. ‘that’ = at or som, ‘if’ = om, etc. However, the same word in English is often a conjunction or subjunction, preposition and adverb, with each part of speech possessing at least one equivalent in Norwegian. The conjunction or subjunction introduces a clause with a finite verb. While many Norwegian prepositions may govern an infinitive, they can do so only if there is no change of subject (from the main clause). If there is a change of subject, the sense can only be conveyed by means of a subjunction and a following clause.

Compare:

Vi må gjøre alt for å redde kjempepandaen.	Infinitive
We must do everything to save the giant panda.
Vi må gjøre alt for at kjempepandaen skal reddes.	Subjunction
We must do everything so that the giant panda is saved.

9.5.1.1 ‘After’

1. (a) As a subjunction before a full clause (i.e. one with a finite verb), use etter at:

   Security will have to be tightened after thieves have got into the premises.
   Sikkerheten må skjerpes etter at tyver har tatt seg inn i lokalet.

2. (b) As a subjunction before a non-finite clause (10.10.2), use etter å:

   To væpnede menn kom unna med 100 000 kroner etter å ha ranet en bank i Bergen.
   Two armed men escaped with 100 000 kroner after having robbed a bank in Bergen.

3. (c) As a preposition, use etter (7.6.1).

   After the robbery, the two robbers disappeared on foot.
   Etter ranet forsvant de to ransmennene til fots.

9.5.1.2 ‘As’

1. (a) When ‘as’ = ‘because’, ‘since’, use fordi:

   I had to walk as my car was at the garage.
   Jeg måtte gå fordi bilen min var på verksted.

2. (b) When ‘as’ = ‘just as’, use da, i det:

   As I was about to leave, it started to snow.
   Da jeg skulle gå, begynte det å snø.

3. (c) When ‘as’ = ‘while’, use mens:

   She knits as/while she is watching TV.
   Hun strikker mens hun ser på fjernsyn.

4. (d) When ‘as’ denotes ‘in the capacity of’, use som (cf. 9.5.1.3):

   As a child she was promised in marriage to the count.
   Som barn ble hun lovet bort til greven.

9.5.1.3 ‘As … as’

When a comparison is made in a positive clause, use like … som. When a comparison is made in a negative clause, use either ikke like … som or ikke så … som.

You are as tall as your sister.	Du er like lang som din søster.
I’m not as rich as you think.	Jeg er ikke så rik som du tror.

9.5.1.4 ‘Before’

1. (a) As a subjunction use før, innen:

   Before you go, have another beer.	Før du drar, ta en øl til.
   We ate before we went home.	Vi spiste før vi kom hjem.
   Before we take such a big step …	Innen vi tar slikt et stort
   	steg …

   This must be done before there is an accident.
   Dette må bli gjort før det blir en ulykke.

2. (b) As an adverb = ‘earlier’, ‘previously’, use før, tidligere:

   Have you been in Oslo before?

   Har du vært i Oslo før /tidligere?

3. (c) As a preposition of time use før (7.3.8), innen:

   We will go home before Christmas.

   Vi reiser hjem før jul.

4. (d) As a preposition of place = ‘in front of’, use foran:

   Two police cars drove before the president.
   To politibiler kjørte foran presidenten.

9.5.1.5 ‘Both … (and)’

1. (a) As a conjunction use både … og (cf. 9.2.2.3 (a)):

   The cells are equipped with both a shower and TV.
   Cellene er utstyrt med både dusj og fjernsyn

2. (b) As an indefinite pronoun, where ‘both’ can be replaced by ‘the two’, use begge (4.9.1):

   Both are possible.	Begge er mulige.
   Both are good.	Begge er gode.

9.5.1.6 ‘Either’

1. (a) As a conjunction ‘either … or’ (meaning ‘only one of A or B’) after a positive, use enten … eller:

   It has to be either today or tomorrow.
   Det må bli enten i dag eller i morgen.

2. (b) As a conjunction ‘either … or’ (meaning ‘both A and B’) after a comparative, use både … og:

   I’m younger than either Håkon or Frida.
   Jeg er yngre enn både Håkon og Frida.

3. (c) As a conjunction ‘either … or’ (meaning ‘both A and B’) after a negative, use verken … eller:

   He did not come either yesterday or today.
   Han kom verken i går eller i dag.

4. (d) As an adverb, use heller (6.5.1.3(c)):

   I’m not rich, but I’m not poor either.
   Jeg er ikke rik, men heller ikke fattig.

5. (e) As an indefinite pronoun meaning ‘both A and B’, use begge (4.9.1):

   a stream with houses on either side
   en bekk med hus på begge sider

6. (f) As an indefinite pronoun after a negative meaning ‘one of A or B’, use ingen etc. (4.6.6):

   I don’t know either of them.
   Jeg kjenner ingen av dem.

9.5.1.7 ‘Since’

1. (a) As a subjunction, when ‘since’ = ‘because’, ‘as’, use fordi, ettersom, siden, da:

   Since you ask, I am sixty years old.
   Ettersom du spør, er jeg seksti år gammel.

   Since no one had any objections, the proposal was accepted.
   Da ingen hadde noe å innvende, ble forslaget akseptert.

2. (b) As a preposition, when ‘since’ = ‘after’, use siden, etter at:

   Since reading that I have not smoked a single cigarette.
   Siden jeg leste det, har jeg ikke røkt en eneste sigarett. Etter at jeg leste det, …

3. (c) As an adverb, when ‘since’ = ‘since that time’, use siden (den gang):

   We haven’t been there since.
   Vi har ikke vært der siden (den gang).

9.5.1.8 ‘That’

1. (a) As a subjunction, use at:

   I said (that) we were disappointed.

   Jeg sa (at) vi var skuffet.

2. (b) As a relative pronoun, when ‘that’ = ‘which’, ‘who(m)’, use som. For the use of som and at in cleft sentences and existential sentences, see 10.3.2.4 and 10.7.3.4 respectively.

   He bought the house (that) we liked so much.
   Han kjøpte huset (som) vi likte så godt.

3. (c) For the use of ‘that’ as a demonstrative pronoun in Norwegian, see 4.3.2.

9.5.1.9 ‘When’

1. (a) As a temporal subjunction, use når or da (9.3.4.1). Note that når can also be used as an interrogative adverb (6.2.2.1):

   Tell me when you’re ready.	Si fra når du er klar.
   In 1975, when he was just ten …	I 1975, da han var bare ti år …

In a main clause reporting past events, da is used:

1. Da sprakk trollet.

   Then the troll exploded.

In a subclause reporting an isolated past event, da is used:

• Da kongsdattera og Askeladden giftet seg, ble det turet vidt og bredt.
  When the princess and Askeladden [figure in fairy tales] got married, there was a great celebration.

In a subclause reporting a repeated event in the past, however, når is used:

• Når Stockholms-toget passerte, stod vi guttene alltid og så på.
  When the Stockholm train went by, we lads always stood and watched.

1. (b) As a concessive subjunction, use selv om, til og med, skjønt:

   He drives even though he might cycle.
   Han kjører selv om han kunne sykle.

   Even when she is really furious she does manage to stay calm.
   Til og med når hun er virkelig rasende, klarer hun å holde seg rolig.