Airbus argued consistently that U.S. civil aerospace, and particularly Boeing, received a steady stream of government-funded support through Department of Defense and NASA-related research and development. The European Union, for example, calculated Boeing had received $18 billion in indirect support since 1992, while the Chicago–based company had said it took “hardly any” benefit from these sources. In 2002, the Europeans estimated the benefit accounted for about 8.6 percent of Boeing’s turnover, or well above the 4 percent limit set by the bilateral agreement. An MD-11 makes the world’s first engine-only controlled landing at Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards Air Force Base, California, during the Propulsion Controlled Aircraft program—a joint NASA and U.S. aerospace industry research effort that successfully developed an alternative safety backup system in the 1990s. NASA