Five
Use and Interpretation of the WJ IV Tests of Oral Language

The WJ IV Tests of Oral Language (WJ IV OL) (Schrank, Mather, et al., 2014b) are a set of tests that may be administered in conjunction with the WJ IV COG or the WJ IV ACH. The fact that the WJ IV OL is co-normed with the WJ IV COG and WJ IV ACH provides a “best-practice” scenario for identifying an individual's unique strengths and weaknesses as well as for obtaining information for instructional planning and programming. The combined and co-normed information provided by the WJ IV OL, the WJ IV COG, and the WJ IV ACH is especially appropriate for examining ability/achievement comparisons and intra-ability variations. Ability/achievement (scholastic aptitude/achievement, Gf-Gc/other ability, intellectual ability/achievement, academic knowledge/achievement, or oral language ability/achievement) comparisons and intra-ability variations are often used as one part of the selection criteria for learning disability programs. The oral language ability/achievement comparison is available when using the WJ IV OL and the WJ IV ACH, which is described later in the chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to explain the tests, clusters, and interpretive features of the WJ IV OL, as well as how it can be used with the WJ IV ACH.

Organization of the WJ IV OL

The WJ IV OL has nine English tests and three Spanish counterparts to measure varied aspects of oral language. The three Spanish tests are adaptations of Test 1: Picture Vocabulary, Test 2: Oral Comprehension, and Test 6: Understanding Directions. These tests are all contained within one easel test book. Figure 5.1 depicts the Selective Testing Table of the WJ IV OL. Although many of these tests were included in the WJ III COG or the WJ III ACH, the extensive renorming and addition of new tests and interpretive procedures improve and increase the diagnostic capabilities. The WJ IV OL includes measures of both expressive and receptive language. Table 5.1 provides an overview of the content and task demands for each of the oral language tests. Figure 5.2 illustrates the types of items that are included in each of the tests. The items shown are only illustrations, not actual test items.

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Don't Forget

Reminders to Examiners

• Many of the WJ III oral language tests are now included in the WJ IV OL.
• Oral language may be used as an ability to predict achievement.
• Important additional diagnostic information can be obtained by using the co-normed WJ IV COG and WJ IV ACH.
• It is not necessary to administer all of the tests in the WJ IV OL.
• The Spanish tests can provide English–Spanish comparisons in a bilingual evaluation.

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Figure 5.1 WJ IV OL Selective Testing Table

Copyright © 2014 by The Riverside Publishing Company. Reproduced from the Woodcock-Johnson® IV (WJ IV®), WJ IV® Tests of Oral Language. Reprinted with permission of the publisher. All rights reserved.

Table 5.1 Content and Task Demands of WJ IV OL Tests

Test Name	Description	Task Demands
Test 1: Picture Vocabulary Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos	Measures aspects of word knowledge, a comprehension-knowledge (Gc) ability.	Requires naming familiar to less familiar objects in English (or Spanish).
Test 2: Oral Comprehension Test 11: Comprensión oral	Measures oral comprehension of contextual information, an aspect of comprehension-knowledge (Gc).	Requires listening to a short passage in English (or Spanish) and supplying a key missing word.
Test 3: Segmentation	Measures phonetic coding, a narrow auditory processing (Ga) ability.	Requires listening to a word and breaking it into its parts (compound words, syllables, phonemes).
Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming	Measures speed of word retrieval, an aspect of cognitive processing speed (Gs).	Requires naming simple pictures quickly.
Test 5: Sentence Repetition	Measures memory span, a narrow ability of short-term working memory (Gwm).	Requires listening to a word, phrase, or sentence and repeating it verbatim.
Test 6: Understanding Directions Test 12: Comprensión de indicaciones	Measures working memory for language, an aspect of short-term working memory (Gwm).	Requires listening to a sequence of directions in English (or Spanish), and then following those directions by pointing to objects in a picture.
Test 7: Sound Blending	Measures phonetic coding, a narrow auditory processing (Ga) ability.	Requires listening to a series of syllables or phonemes and then blending the sounds into a word.
Test 8: Retrieval Fluency	Measures speed of lexical access, an aspect of long-term retrieval (Glr).	Requires naming as many items as possible in a given category within a 1-minute time limit.
Test 9: Sound Awareness	Measures phonetic coding, a narrow ability of auditory processing (Ga).	Requires providing a rhyming word in 9A and deleting a word part or sound to form a new word in 9B.

Figure 5.2 Item Types for the WJ IV OL Tests

Test 1: Picture Vocabulary

The task requires naming common to less familiar pictured objects.

What is this person holding? (Correct: gavel)

Test 2: Oral Comprehension (audio)

The task requires listening to short passages and then supplying the missing final word.

Without a doubt, his novels are more complex than the novels of many other contemporary ____

(Correct: writers, novelists, authors)

Test 3: Segmentation

This task requires breaking a word into its parts, progressing from compound words, to syllables, to individual phonemes.

1. Baseball. If we took the word apart, it would be… (Correct: base-ball)
2. Say the word puppet and then say the two parts. (Correct: pup-pet)
3. Say each sound in the word dog. (Correct: d-o-g /d//o//g/)

Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming (timed)

This task requires naming common pictured objects presented in rows as quickly as possible.

Test 5: Sentence Repetition (audio)

This task requires listening to and then repeating sentences that increase in length and syntactic complexity.

1. Joanna went to the zoo.
2. Arnold decided that he wanted to go scuba diving next year on his spring break.

Test 6: Understanding Directions (audio)

The task requires pointing to objects in a picture after listening to instructions that increase in linguistic complexity.

1. Point to the man on the bike. Go.
2. Point to the car in the intersection after you point to one of the flying birds. Go.
3. Before you point to the tallest building, point to the tree closest to a corner. Go.

Test 7: Sound Blending (audio)

This test requires synthesizing words and word parts, progressing from two parts and syllables to individual phonemes.

Tell me what each word is: pur-ple, /b//a//t/

Test 8: Retrieval Fluency (timed)

This test requires the examinee to name as many examples as possible in a given category within a 1-minute period. The task consists of three different categories.

I want you to name different articles of clothing that you can wear. You will have 1 minute to name as many as you can.

Test 9: Sound Awareness (audio)

The task includes two measures of phonological awareness (rhyming and deletion).

1. Tell me a word that rhymes with goat. (rhyming)
2. Say the word cat without the /k/ sound. (deletion)

How to Administer the WJ IV OL Tests

As with the WJ IV ACH, proper administration of the WJ IV OL requires training. Although individuals in a wide range of professions can learn the actual administration procedures, a higher degree of skill is required to interpret the tests or integrate the results with the WJ IV COG and WJ IV ACH. Refer to Chapter 2 for additional information about general principles of administration; most procedures apply to both the WJ IV OL and WJ IV ACH.

Testing Materials

The WJ IV OL requires the Test Book, the Test Record, audio equipment and the audio recording, at least two sharpened pencils with erasers, and a stopwatch.

Language Exposure and Use Questionnaire

When evaluating an English language learner or when using the Spanish tests in the WJ IV OL, you may wish to complete the Language Exposure and Use Questionnaire on the last page of the Test Record, which includes a number of questions about the history of the examinee's language use.

Administration Considerations

Prior to administering the WJ IV OL, read the Examiner's Manual, study the contents of the Test Book, review the information on the tabbed page, and review the specific instructions and boxes on the test pages. Administer several practice tests before an actual administration.

Order of Administration

You may administer the WJ IV OL tests in any order and you do not have to administer all of the tests. However, it is generally recommended that you administer the core tests, Tests 1 through 4, first.

Time Requirements

As a general rule, experienced examiners require about 40 minutes to administer the first eight tests. This will vary, of course, depending on the age and ability level of the examinee. Test 9: Sound Awareness is a screening measure for younger students or those who have poor phonological awareness, so you do not administer it in most cases. If the Spanish tests will be administered, allow for an extra 15 to 20 minutes.

Timed Tests

The WJ IV OL contains two timed tests: Rapid Picture Naming and Retrieval Fluency. The time limits are noted on the test page, as well as on the Test Record. Be sure to administer these tests using a stopwatch or a watch with a second hand.

Tests Using the Audio Recording

Use the standardized audio recording to present Oral Comprehension, Sentence Repetition, Understanding Directions, Sound Blending, and Sound Awareness (Deletion). As described with the WJ IV ACH, when administering these tests, use good-quality audio equipment and headphones. The audio equipment must have a good speaker, be in good working order, and produce a faithful, clear reproduction of the test items.

Although the WJ IV OL Examiner's Manual and Test Book provide detailed rules for test-by-test administration, this section presents important reminders about each test. Whether the reader is familiar with the WJ III oral language tests or just learning these tests, this section will serve as a guide or a good refresher. While studying the following descriptions of test administration procedures, you may also want to follow along with the material in the Test Book and Test Record. Appendix A.2 provides an overview of the finer points of administration of the WJ IV OL tests.

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Don't Forget

If you are administering the Spanish tests (Tests 10–12) or testing an English language learner, you may wish to complete the Language Exposure and Use Questionnaire on the last page of the Test Record.

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Test 1: Picture Vocabulary and Test 10: Vocabulario Sobre Dibujos

Administration

Be sure to know the correct pronunciation of the items. Pronunciation for more difficult items follows in parentheses. Refer to a standard dictionary for additional help with pronunciation. Select a starting point based on an estimate of the individual's present level of oral language skill. When administering each item, point to the appropriate picture or the specific part of the picture as directed in the instructions for each item in the Test Book. Be sure to complete any queries listed in the Test Book. Testing is conducted in complete page units because the examinee sees stimuli in the Test Book. The basal is established when the examinee correctly answers the six lowest-numbered items administered or until you have administered the page with Item 1. The ceiling is reached when the examinee misses the six highest-numbered items administered or until you have administered the page with the last item. Rapid Reference 5.1 lists the key administration points for Picture Vocabulary. All administration instructions and scoring procedures also apply to the parallel Spanish test, Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos.

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Rapid Reference 5.1

Key Administration Points for Test 1: Picture Vocabulary and Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos

• Materials needed: WJ IV OL Test Book and Test Record.
• Know the pronunciation of all test items.
• Use the Suggested Starting Points.
• Follow basal/ceiling rules: six consecutive lowest-numbered items correct/six consecutive highest-numbered items incorrect.
• Test by complete pages.
• Complete all queries as indicated in the Test Book.
• Be sure to point to the picture or picture part as directed.
• Record errors for further analysis.

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Item Scoring

Score each correct response with a 1 and each incorrect response with a 0. Do not penalize an examinee for mispronunciations resulting from articulation errors, dialects, or regional speech patterns.

Common Examiner Errors

Examiner errors include: (a) failing to point to the picture or specific picture part as directed, (b) failing to complete queries, and (c) failing to test by complete pages.

Test 2: Oral Comprehension and Test 11: Comprensión Oral

Administration

Administer Sample Items A and B to all examinees and then select a starting point based on an estimate of the examinee's present oral language skill. Present Sample Items A and B orally. Present Sample Items C and D and all test items using the audio recording. In rare cases, you may present the items orally. Attempt to say the sentence in exactly the same manner that it is presented on the audio recording. The basal is established when the examinee correctly answers the six lowest-numbered items administered or until you have administered Item 1. Continue testing until the examinee misses the six highest-numbered items administered or until you have administered the last item. Rapid Reference 5.2 lists the key administration points for Oral Comprehension. All administration instructions and scoring procedures also apply to the parallel Spanish test, Test 11: Comprensión oral.

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Rapid Reference 5.2

Key Administration Points for Test 2: Oral Comprehension and Test 11: Comprensión oral

• Materials needed: WJ IV OL Test Book, Test Record, audio recording, and audio equipment.
• Use the Suggested Starting Points.
• Orally administer Samples A and B to all examinees.
• Use audio recording for Samples C and D and all test items.
• Follow basal/ceiling rules: six consecutive lowest-numbered items correct/six consecutive highest-numbered items incorrect.
• Accept only one-word responses unless otherwise noted.
• Request one-word responses if examinee gives longer responses.
• Do not penalize for articulation errors or regional/dialectical speech differences.
• Do not penalize for responses that differ in tense or number.
• Score as incorrect answers that are a different part of speech.

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Item Scoring

Score each correct response 1 and each incorrect response 0. Unless noted, only one-word responses are acceptable. If a person gives a two-word or longer response, ask for a one-word answer. Responses are correct when they differ from the correct response only in verb tense or number (singular/plural). A response is incorrect if the examinee substitutes a different part of speech, such as a noun for a verb. Do not penalize for mispronunciations resulting from articulation errors, dialects, or regional speech patterns.

Common Examiner Errors

Examiner errors include: (a) failing to use the audio recording, (b) failing to ask for one-word responses when a longer response is given, and (c) failing to imitate the recording if administering the test orally.

Test 3: Segmentation

Administration

Present Introduction 1 to examinees with estimated ability of preschool to grade 1, and Introduction 2 to grade 2 through adults. The basal is established when the examinee correctly answers the five lowest-numbered items correctly or when you have administered Item 1. The ceiling is reached when the examinee misses the five highest-numbered items administered or until you have administered the last item. If necessary, you may repeat any item during the test. Score the examinee's last response for each item. You may wish to record incorrect responses for later error analysis. Rapid Reference 5.3 lists the key administration points for Segmentation.

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Rapid Reference 5.3

Key Administration Points for Test 3: Segmentation

• Materials needed: WJ IV OL Test Book, Test Record.
• Use the Suggested Starting Points.
• Follow the basal/ceiling rules: five consecutive lowest-numbered items correct/five consecutive highest-numbered items incorrect.
• If starting with Introduction 2 and the examinee does not get the first five items correct, continue testing until a ceiling is reached. Then return to Introduction 1 and administer Items 1 through 10.
• For Items 11 through 20, even if the sounds are not pronounced perfectly, score the response as correct if the person has broken the word into the correct number of segments or parts.
• For Items 21 through 37, listen carefully for each sound. All sounds must be pronounced to receive credit.

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Item Scoring

Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.

Common Examiner Errors

Examiner errors include: (a) saying the letter name rather than the sound when a letter is presented within slashes (e.g., /s/); (b) on Items 11 through 20, scoring a response as incorrect if it's not pronounced perfectly even though it had the correct number of segments; and (c) scoring a response as correct on Items 21 to 37 when all of the sounds are not provided.

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Caution

Some examiners may not be able to hear word parts or phonemes. In these cases, the examiner should enlist the help of a speech-language therapist or reading specialist to administer and score this test.

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Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming

Administration

All examinees begin with the sample items to ensure that the task is understood. For each error made on the sample items, provide immediate corrective feedback as indicated in the Test Book. The examinee must name all 10 samples correctly before beginning the test. This test has a 2-minute time limit and requires the use of a stopwatch or a watch with a second hand. Turn the page immediately after the examinee has named the last item on the page. The Test Record is designed to help you keep your place. It has extra space after each group of five items that constitutes a row on the test page, and it has a solid line below the last item on each test page. As you approach each solid line, make sure you are ready to turn the Test Book page. If the examinee pauses for more than 2 seconds, say “Try the next one.” If needed, point to the next picture. If the examinee finishes before the end of 2 minutes, record the exact finishing time in minutes and seconds on the Test Record. It is important to record the exact finishing time because early finishers who do well on the task will receive higher scores than others that work for the full time limit. Rapid Reference 5.4 lists the key administration points for Rapid Picture Naming.

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Rapid Reference 5.4

Key Administration Points for Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, stopwatch.
• Administer all sample items to all examinees.
• Follow the error correction procedure on sample items until examinee gets all 10 correct.
• Testing begins with Item 1 for all examinees.
• Adhere to the 2-minute time limit and record exact finishing time in minutes and seconds.
• Accept synonyms and words similar in meaning as correct.
• Turn the page immediately after the examinee responds to the last item on a page.

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Item Scoring

Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0. If the examinee uses a synonym, such as kitty or kitten for cat, or a word that is similar in meaning, such as plant for flower, score the item as correct. It may not be feasible to write separate 1s for each correct response if the examinee is naming quickly. If you have trouble keeping up with the examinee, you may use a continuous line for all correct responses or you may write in just the 0s. After testing, go back and add the 1s.

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) not following the error correction procedure correctly on all sample items, (b) not pointing to the next picture if the examinee pauses for more than 2 seconds, (c) not accepting as correct common synonyms for the pictures, (d) not turning the page immediately after the examinee gets to the bottom, and (e) exceeding the time limit of 2 minutes.

Test 5: Sentence Repetition

Administration

Locate the appropriate starting point for each examinee by consulting the Suggested Starting Points table in the Test Book. Sample A and Items 1 through 8 are presented orally. Present Sample B and all remaining items from the audio recording. You may pause the recording if the examinee requires more time to respond, but do not replay any items except as noted in the Test Book. Samples A and B and Items 1 and 2 may be repeated. Key administration points for Sentence Repetition are listed in Rapid Reference 5.5.

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Rapid Reference 5.5

Key Administration Points for Sentence Repetition

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, audio recording, and audio equipment.
• Use examinee's current level of oral language ability to estimate a starting point.
• Follow the basal/ceiling rules: four consecutive lowest-numbered items correct/four consecutive highest-numbered items incorrect.
• Do not repeat any test items except as allowed on Items 1 and 2.
• Pause the recording if the examinee needs more response time.

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Item Scoring

Score each verbatim response 1 and each incorrect response 0.

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) replaying items, (b) not using the audio recording, and (c) scoring an item correct when it is not repeated verbatim.

Test 6: Understanding Directions and Test 12: Comprensión De Indicaciones

Administration

Select a starting point based on an estimate of the examinee's present level of listening comprehension. Consult the Suggested Starting Points table located in the Test Book to determine which picture or set of pictures to administer first. The three Suggested Starting Points are Picture 1 (preschool), Pictures 2 and 3 (kindergarten through grade 4), or Pictures 4 and 5 (grade 5 through adult). Administer all items for each picture in the suggested set. Follow the Continuation Instructions shown at the end of each set of pictures to determine when to discontinue testing or what additional pictures to administer. Continue testing until you reach the discontinue criterion for a particular set of pictures.

Before administering each picture, allow the examinee to review the picture for about 10 seconds. Do not repeat or replay an item. In rare cases, you may present the items orally. Attempt to say the item in the same manner that it is presented on the audio recording. Rapid Reference 5.6 lists key administration points for Understanding Directions. All administration instructions and scoring procedures also apply to the parallel Spanish test, Test 12: Comprensión de indicaciones.

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Rapid Reference 5.6

Key Administration Points for Test 6: Understanding Directions and Test 12: Comprensión de indicaciones

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, audio recording, and audio equipment.
• Use examinee's current level of listening comprehension to estimate starting point.
• Use the audio recording to administer this test.
• Allow examinee to review the picture for 10 seconds before administering items for that picture.
• Do not allow the examinee to begin pointing until the word “go” is stated for each item.
• Complete all items for each picture administered.
• The examinee must complete all steps to receive credit on an item.
• The examinee must recall steps in order unless order is not specified.
• Follow the continuation instructions shown after each set of pictures to determine when to discontinue or what additional pictures to administer.
• Do not repeat any items.
• Become familiar with the pictures and items in order to facilitate scoring the examinee's pointing responses.

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Item Scoring

Score each correct response 1 and each incorrect response 0. For the item to be scored as correct, the examinee must complete all of the steps of the direction. Many of the items require the examinee to point to certain objects before pointing to other objects. If the direction does not specify the sequence, the examinee may point in any order.

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) not using the audio recording, (b) not scoring the items correctly, (c) not allowing the examinee to review the picture for 10 seconds before administering the items, and (d) not reading the directions as presented on the audio recording if administering the test orally.

Test 7: Sound Blending

Administration

Before beginning the test, locate the track for Sample B on the audio recording and adjust the volume to a comfortable level. Present Sample Item A orally. If the examinee does not understand the task, demonstrate further with the additional items provided in the Error or No Response box on the page in the Test Book. Present Sample Item B and all test items from the audio recording. Although the audio recording provides adequate time for most examinees to respond, you may pause or stop the recording if the examinee needs more response time. Because it is difficult to replicate the items orally, present this test using the audio recording; however, in rare cases, you may present Items 1 through 16 orally. Attempt to say each item in the same manner that it is presented on the audio recording. Do not repeat any item during the test.

If the examinee only pronounces the word phoneme-by-phoneme or syllable-by-syllable (like it is presented on the recording) instead of saying it fluently (sounds blended into a whole word), tell the examinee to “Say the word smoothly.” Give this reminder only once during the test. Score the examinee's last response for each item. You may wish to record incorrect responses for later error analysis. Rapid Reference 5.7 lists the key administration points for Sound Blending.

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Don't Forget

After the first reminder, words that are pronounced in parts and not blended into a whole word are scored as incorrect.

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Rapid Reference 5.7

Key Administration Points for Test 7: Sound Blending

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, audio recording, and audio equipment.
• Administer sample items to all examinees.
• Follow the basal/ceiling rules: six consecutive correct/six consecutive incorrect.
• Words must be pronounced as a blended whole to receive credit.
• Only give the reminder to say the whole word smoothly one time during the entire test.
• Pause the audio if more response time is needed.
• Do not replay any items.

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Item Scoring

Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) not using the audio recording, (b) scoring responses correct that are not blended together into a whole word, (c) failing to remind the examinee to say the word smoothly the first time the response is not blended, and (d) not scoring the examinee's last response as correct or incorrect for each item.

Test 8: Retrieval Fluency

Administration

Retrieval Fluency requires a stopwatch or a watch or clock with a second hand. Administer all three items to all examinees. Each item has a 1-minute time limit. Do not count duplicate answers; for example, if the examinee says “giraffe” three times, mark only one correct response. If you cannot remember whether the examinee has duplicated a word, do not stop the examinee or ask if the response was already named. Instead, give the response credit and balance the scores if you are unsure of another response. If the examinee pauses for 10 seconds, say “Go ahead. Say the words as fast as you can.” Key administration points for Retrieval Fluency are listed in Rapid Reference 5.8.

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Rapid Reference 5.8

Key Administration Points for Retrieval Fluency

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, stopwatch.
• Administer all three items to all examinees.
• Allow 1 minute for each item.
• Use tally marks to record correct responses.
• Do not count duplicate responses.
• Do not ask examinee to repeat a response.
• Accept variations as correct.

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Item Scoring

Use tally marks on the lines provided in the Test Record to record the number of correct responses for each item. Group the tally marks by fives for easier totaling (i.e., ). For Item 1, you may accept brand names of foods or drinks as correct (e.g., Coke®, Spaghetti-Os®). You may also accept different variations of the same type of food or drink (e.g., Swiss cheese, cheddar cheese, American cheese). For Item 2, accept variations of the same name as correct (e.g., Bob, Bobby, Robert). For Item 3, accept variations of the same type of animal (e.g., bear, grizzly bear, black bear, polar bear).

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) failing to give credit for variations of correct responses, (b) not stopping each item after one minute, and (c) counting exact duplicate responses as correct.

Test 9: Sound Awareness

Administration

Administer both subtests (Rhyming and Deletion) to obtain a raw score for this test. For 9A Rhyming, consult the Suggested Starting Points table to determine an appropriate starting point. The basal is established when the examinee has correctly answered six consecutive lowest-numbered items administered or when you have administered Item 1. For 9B Deletion, all examinees begin with sample items and then Item 1. For both subtests, a ceiling is reached when the examinee misses the six highest-numbered items administered or when you have administered the last item. Administer subtest 9A: Rhyming orally. You may repeat items upon request. For subtest 9B: Deletion, administer Sample Item A orally and Sample B and all test items from the audio recording. Letters printed within slashes, such as /s/, indicate that you should say the most common sound of the letter (the phoneme), not the letter name. Consider recording errors for later error analysis. Rapid Reference 5.9 lists the key administration points for Sound Awareness.

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Rapid Reference 5.9

Key Administration Points for Sound Awareness

• Materials needed: Test Book, Test Record, audio recording, and audio equipment.
• Administer both subtests to obtain a raw score.
• Know the pronunciation of samples and items that are presented orally.
• Administer the sample items to all individuals for each subtest.
• Choose an appropriate starting point for 9A Rhyming.
• Begin with Item 1 on 9B Deletion for all examinees.
• Follow the ceiling rules for both subtests (9A and 9B): six consecutive incorrect.
• For 9A Rhyming, responses must be real words to receive credit.
• Record errors for further analysis.
• Use the audio recording as directed on 9B Deletion.

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Item Scoring

Score each correct response 1 and each incorrect response 0. For 9A Rhyming, responses must be real words to receive credit, so score rhyming nonsense words as 0. Do not penalize for mispronunciations resulting from articulation errors, dialects, or regional speech patterns.

Common Examiner Errors

Common examiner errors include: (a) mispronouncing the samples and items that are presented orally, (b) failing to administer both subtests to obtain a score, and (c) not using the audio recording for 9B: Deletion.

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Don't Forget

Sound Awareness is a screening measure intended for use with younger children (K–3). It can be used with older individuals who may have limits in phonological processing.

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How to Score the WJ IV OL

Tests Requiring a Special Scoring Procedure

Only two of the tests in the WJ IV OL have a special scoring procedure: Understanding Directions and Retrieval Fluency. The score on Understanding Directions is based on the number of correct responses the examinee has on the set of pictures administered. Each correct response is scored 1 and each incorrect response is scored 0. On the Test Record, write the number of points earned for each picture in the space provided. When indicated on the Test Record, record the cumulative total for the two pictures specified. In the Score Entry section on the Test Record, enter the number of points for each picture or set of pictures administered and enter an X if the set was not administered. To obtain estimated age and grade equivalents, locate the number of points in the appropriate column corresponding to the group of pictures administered. If you have administered more than one group of pictures, use the last group administered following the continuation instructions to estimate age and grade equivalents.

On Retrieval Fluency, the raw score is based on the total number of tally marks recorded for each of the three items. Record a tally mark for each correct response, grouping them by fives. For each item, count the correct responses and record the total in the Number Correct box. The maximum number that can be entered for each item is 99. To obtain estimated age and grade equivalents, add the three item totals together and locate that sum in the Scoring Table.

Scoring Reminders for Each Test

Test 1: Picture Vocabulary and Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • Enter the number of items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 2: Oral Comprehension and Test 11: Comprensión oral

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • Score 1 if the response differs from the correct answer in verb tense or number.
   • Score 0 if the response is a different part of speech from the correct answer.
   • Unless noted otherwise, score two-word or longer responses 0.
   • Enter the number of items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 3: Segmentation

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0. Examinee must provide all parts of the word, or all sounds in the word, for the item to be correct.
   • Do not penalize for dialect variations or articulation errors.
   • For Items 11 through 20, do not penalize the examinee if he or she does not say the letter sounds perfectly as long as the word has been broken into the correct number of parts.
   • Enter the number of items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • If the examinee provides a synonym (e.g., puppy for dog) or a word similar in meaning (e.g., plant for flower), score the response as correct.
   • Do not penalize mispronunciations resulting from articulation errors, dialect variations, or regional speech patterns.
   • Record the total completion time, in minutes and seconds, in the Time boxes of the Test Record. There is a 2-minute time limit for this test.
   • Record the total number of correct responses in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 5: Sentence Repetition

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • Do not penalize mispronunciations resulting from articulation errors, dialect variations, or regional speech patterns.
   • Enter the number of items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 6: Understanding Directions and Test 12: Comprensión de indicaciones

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • The examinee must complete all steps in the direction to receive credit.
   • Except where order is noted, the examinee may respond to the directions in any order to receive a 1.
   • Enter the number of points for each picture administered in the appropriate box.
   • Enter the cumulative number of points for the sets of pictures (as directed in the Test Record).
   • In the Score Entry section, enter the number of points for each group of pictures administered or an X if not administered.
   • If obtaining estimated AE/GE, combine the points for the highest set of pictures administered and find the total in the corresponding column.

Test 7: Sound Blending

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • Items that are pronounced in parts (as they are on the audio recording) are considered as errors and scored 0.
   • Score the last response given, including self-corrections.
   • Add the number of points for all items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal and record the total in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.

Test 8: Retrieval Fluency

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Use tally marks to record each correct response on the Test Record.
   • Duplicate responses do not receive credit.
   • Variations of a response do receive credit (e.g., Bob, Bobby, Robert).
   • Record the total number of correct responses in the Number Correct box after each item on the Test Record.
   • If the total score for an item exceeds 99, enter 99 as the number correct.
   • Enter the number correct for each of the three items when using the online scoring program.

Test 9: Sound Awareness

1. Scoring Reminders:
   • Score correct responses 1 and incorrect responses 0.
   • For 9A, record the number of items answered correctly plus one point for each item below the basal in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.
   • For 9B, record the number of items answered correctly in the Number Correct box on the Test Record.
   • Enter the number correct for both subtests when using the online scoring program.
   • If obtaining estimated AE/GE, add together the scores for the two subtests (A + B).

How to Interpret the WJ IV OL Tests

The tests on the WJ IV OL measure several different linguistic abilities, including phonological awareness, speed of lexical access, memory, vocabulary, and listening comprehension. Figure 5.3 illustrates the various skills measured by the WJ IV OL and their relationship to CHC theory.

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Don't Forget

See Chapter 4 of this book for information on all of the scores available in any of the WJ IV batteries: WJ IV ACH, WJ IV OL, or WJ IV COG.

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Figure 5.3 Various Skills Measured by the WJ IV OL Tests and Their Relationship to CHC Theory

Test 1: Picture Vocabulary and Test 10: Vocabulario Sobre Dibujos

This test requires the individual to name pictured objects, ranging from familiar objects to less familiar objects. Early items only require a pointing response (receptive vocabulary). All other items require an oral response (expressive vocabulary). This test measures vocabulary, verbal ability, and cultural knowledge, all of which are aspects of comprehension-knowledge (Gc). Picture Vocabulary is primarily a single-word expressive vocabulary task.

Low performance may result from limited vocabulary, limited exposure to English (or Spanish if Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos is administered), or word retrieval problems. Observation, as well as an analysis of errors, will help you determine whether poor performance is a result of limited vocabulary or retrieval problems. Errors that are related to the correct response (e.g., describe an attribute or function) may indicate a retrieval problem. Errors that are not directly associated with the correct response may indicate a weakness in vocabulary knowledge. In contrast, errors that are associated with the word meaning indicate a strength in vocabulary knowledge, even though the response is scored as incorrect. Sometimes a student may know the function of an object, but not be able to come up with the exact name. For example, Eric, a fourth-grade student, described hinges as the things that let the door swing back and forth. Dan, a student at a community college, noted that the caduceus was a medical symbol, but he didn't know exactly what it was called.

Vocabulary knowledge is highly related to reading comprehension. The importance of this knowledge increases as reading skill develops. Thus, instruction that is designed to increase vocabulary should help improve reading comprehension. An individual could have low scores on this test for several reasons: English as a second language, limited experiences and opportunities, cultural differences, or limited knowledge of word meanings. Rapid Reference 5.10 summarizes interpretive information for Picture Vocabulary and Vocabulario sobre dibujos.

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Rapid Reference 5.10

Interpretation of Test 1: Picture Vocabulary and Test 10: Vocabulario sobre dibujos

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Lexical knowledge (VL), Language development (LD)
3. Stimuli: Visual (pictures)
4. Task Requirements: Orally identifying pictures of objects
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Object recognition, lexical access and retrieval
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Building vocabulary and knowledge, text talks, semantic maps, reading aloud to the individual

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Test 2: Oral Comprehension and Test 11: Comprensión Oral

This test requires the individual to listen to a short passage and then provide the final word to complete it. This task measures listening ability and language development, both of which are aspects of comprehension-knowledge (Gc). The individual must use previously acquired knowledge, syntax, and context clues to identify the missing word. Oral Comprehension is primarily a receptive language task.

Low performance may result from limited semantic or syntactic knowledge, limited exposure to English, or poor attention. This oral test is similar in format to the WJ IV ACH Passage Comprehension test but the examinee listens to a passage instead of reading a passage. Comparing the results of these two tests will help you determine whether limited oral language or decoding skill is impacting reading comprehension performance. Both reading and listening comprehension involve several of the same abilities, such as vocabulary, reasoning, and background knowledge. Students with oral language impairments and intellectual disabilities may obtain similar scores on both measures of listening and reading comprehension. Oftentimes, students with learning disabilities will score higher on measures of listening comprehension than on measures of reading comprehension. Some students, however, have higher scores on Passage Comprehension than on Oral Comprehension. This suggests that comprehension improves when reading rather than when listening. For example, students with language impairments may score higher on Passage Comprehension because the printed words remain in front of them. The text facilitates comprehension and reduces the effects of memory on comprehension. Thus, consideration of the discrepancies between listening and reading comprehension can provide you with useful information.

As noted, some students may have difficulty on this task because they have trouble retaining information in memory. Analysis of other tests involving memory, such as Sentence Repetition and Understanding Directions, can help clarify and pinpoint memory difficulties. An individual could have low scores on this for several reasons: poor attention, weak memory, low oral language, or limited background knowledge. A summary of interpretive information is presented in Rapid Reference 5.11.

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Don't Forget

Consideration of the discrepancies between listening comprehension and reading comprehension is useful information for learning disability evaluations.

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Rapid Reference 5.11

Interpretation of Test 2: Oral Comprehension and Test 11: Comprensión oral

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Listening ability (LS)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (oral sentences)
4. Task Requirements: Listening to short passages that increase in linguistic complexity and providing the final word
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Construction of propositional representations through syntactic and semantic integration of orally presented passages in real time
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Providing shortened directions, increasing knowledge of English (or Spanish) syntax, building vocabulary and knowledge

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Test 3: Segmentation

This test requires the person to break apart words, progressing from compound words, to syllables, to individual phonemes. Segmentation, the ability to break apart the sounds within a word, is a critical phonological awareness ability that underlies aspects of spelling. If a student does poorly on Segmentation, it is likely that he or she will have difficulty putting sounds in the correct order when spelling words. Segmentation is the opposite of blending, which requires pushing the sounds together to form a word. Both of these abilities are critical for reading and spelling words. An individual could have low scores on this test for several reasons: poor phonological awareness, English as a second language, articulation difficulties, weak memory, or inadequate instruction. Fortunately, most students can learn how to segment speech sounds. Rapid Reference 5.12 provides an instructional sequence for teaching segmentation skills and Rapid Reference 5.13 summarizes interpretive information.

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Don't Forget

It is easiest to segment compound words, then syllables, and then phonemes.

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Rapid Reference 5.12

Instructional Sequence for Segmentation

• Progress from compound words, to syllables, to phonemes.
• Begin with words with two sounds, then three, and then four.
• Use chips or tiles to represent the sounds or word parts.
• Have the person say the whole word.
• Say a word and have the person represent the sounds with blocks.
• Say a word and have the person represent the sounds with letter tiles.

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Rapid Reference 5.13

Interpretation of Test 3: Segmentation

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Auditory Processing (Ga)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Phonetic coding (PC)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (oral words)
4. Task Requirements: Listening to a word and breaking it into parts and phonemes
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Analysis of phonological elements in immediate awareness
6. Response Modality: Oral (word parts, phonemes)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Provide direct instruction in segmentation with letter tiles, provide practice segmenting words for spelling

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Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming

Rapid Picture Naming (Rapid Reference 5.14) measures the narrow abilities of naming facility and speed of lexical access (i.e., the speed of producing names for objects). This test measures the speed or fluency of recognition, retrieval, and oral production of the names of common pictured objects. A considerable body of research suggests that speed of lexical access or how quickly individuals can name highly familiar visual stimuli is a strong predictor of reading performance and a cognitive marker of developmental dyslexia (Georgiou & Parrila, 2013). This type of task appears most related to reading fluency. An individual could have low scores on this test for several reasons: poor attention, slow articulation speed, or slow processing speed.

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Rapid Reference 5.14

Interpretation of Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming

1. Primary Broad CHC Factors: Long-term Retrieval (Glr), Processing Speed (Gs)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Naming facility (NA), Speed of lexical access (LA)
3. Stimuli: Visual (pictures)
4. Task Requirements: Recognizing objects then retrieving and saying their names rapidly
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Speed/fluency of retrieval and oral production of recognized objects; speeded serial naming, rapid object recognition
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Increase reading fluency through speed drills, record and monitor progress

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Test 5: Sentence Repetition

Sentence Repetition (Rapid Reference 5.15) measures auditory memory span (i.e., attention to temporally ordered, verbalized acoustic stimuli; registration of the stimuli sequence in immediate memory; and repetition of the sequence). Unlike repeating a string of unrelated words, such as on the WJ IV COG Memory for Words test, performance on this task can be aided by meaning and use of the sentence context. When Sentence Repetition is combined with the WJ IV COG Memory for Words test, the two tests form the narrow ability cluster Auditory Memory Span. Auditory memory span can be considered a narrow ability within the broader construct of working memory because the tasks require controlled, focused attention to retain a string of orally presented information, often the first part of a working memory task. Because no transformation or manipulation of information is involved in tasks such as Sentence Repetition and Memory for Words, they measure short-term memory span. These tests require the individual to recall a string of words that increases in length or sentences that increase in both length and complexity. An individual could obtain low scores on this test for several reasons, such as limited attention, poor memory, or limited oral language.

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Rapid Reference 5.15

Interpretation of Test 5: Sentence Repetition

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Short-term Working Memory (Gwm), Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Auditory memory span (Gwm-MS), Listening ability (Gc-LS)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (words, sentences)
4. Task Requirements: Listening to and repeating phrases or sentences in correct sequence
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Formation of echoic memories aided by a semantic, meaning-based code
6. Response Modality: Oral (words and sentences)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Rehearsal, provide visual cues, associate new information with prior knowledge, shorten instructions

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Test 6: Understanding Directions and Test 12: Comprensión de Indicaciones

This test requires the individual to listen to a sequence of oral instructions and then follow the directions by pointing to various objects in a colored picture. The directions gradually increase in linguistic complexity. This test measures listening ability and language development, both of which are aspects of comprehension-knowledge (Gc). Understanding Directions also measures memory span and working memory, two aspects of short-term working memory (Gwm). Some of the items are simple measures of memory span (e.g., Point to the tree); others measure working memory because they involve rearranging or reordering the sequence (e.g., Before you point to the tree, point to the flower and then the butterfly). An individual may have low scores on this test for several reasons: poor attention, limited receptive vocabulary knowledge, or weaknesses in listening comprehension, attention, or memory. Rapid Reference 5.16 presents a summary of interpretive information for Understanding Directions.

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Rapid Reference 5.16

Interpretation of Test 6: Understanding Directions and Test 12: Comprensión de indicaciones

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Short-term Working Memory (Gwm), Comprehension-Knowledge (Gc)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Memory span and working memory (Gwm-MS, WM), Listening ability (Gc-LS)
3. Stimuli: Visual (pictures) and auditory (oral sentences)
4. Task Requirements: Studying a picture then listening to a sequence of directions and then following the directions by pointing to items in the picture
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Creation of a mental schema or plan of action in immediate awareness
6. Response Modality: Motoric (pointing)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Simplify language used and reduce the amount of material to decrease the memory load; provide visual cues; repeat important information, as needed.

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Test 7: Sound Blending

Sound Blending is a key ability of phonemic processing. Sound blending and segmentation are the most essential skills for accurate reading and spelling and are good predictors of reading and spelling achievement. The Sound Blending test involves the ability to push together or synthesize sounds to form words. As with the Segmentation test, an individual could have low scores on this test for several reasons: poor phonological awareness, English as a second language, articulation difficulties, weak memory, or inadequate instruction. An individual who has a low score on Sound Blending is also likely to have a low score on the WJ IV ACH Word Attack test. In order to read phonically regular nonsense words, one has to push together the sounds to form the word. Conversely, a student with a high score on Sound Blending is likely to have good phonics skills, unless this type of instruction has been limited. Fortunately, most students can be taught how to blend sounds together to form words. Rapid Reference 5.17 illustrates a recommended sequence for teaching sound blending. Rapid Reference 5.18 presents a summary of interpretive information for Sound Blending.

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Don't Forget

Blending and segmentation are the most important phonemic awareness tasks for word reading and spelling. They measure the synthesis and analysis processes involved in decoding and encoding.

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Rapid Reference 5.17

Sequence for Teaching Sound Blending

• Begin the instruction with continuous sounds that can be prolonged (e.g., /s/, /f/, /m/); you can sustain the sound as long as you have air.
• Progress from compound words to syllables to phonemes.
• Present words with two sounds, three, and then four (e.g., /m//e/; /sh//oe/; /c//a//t/; /s//a//n//d/).
• Gradually increase the interval between sounds from one-quarter second to a 1-second break.
• Using moveable letters, practice blending and segmenting (breaking apart the sounds) in words.

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Rapid Reference 5.18

Interpretation of Test 7: Sound Blending

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Auditory Processing (Ga)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Phonetic coding (PC)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (phonemes)
4. Task Requirements: Synthesizing language sounds (phonemes) into real words
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Synthesis of phonological elements in immediate awareness, matching the sequence of sounds to known words
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Early exposure to language sounds, promoting phonological awareness, direct instruction in sound blending and segmentation, practice blending sounds into words and breaking them apart using letter tiles

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Test 8: Retrieval Fluency

The Retrieval Fluency test requires fluent retrieval and oral production of examples of words for a category. This task does not include the encoding and storage processes, but rather measures the rate or automaticity of word retrieval. In CHC theory, the cognitive abilities measured by Retrieval Fluency are ideational fluency and speed of lexical access. Martin (2009) described this type of retrieval task as associative or encyclopedic knowledge having three principle characteristics:

1. Retrieval is explicit (specific names).
2. There is no intrinsic limit on the amount of information that can be retrieved.
3. This type of knowledge is idiosyncratic—some people will produce many responses; others will not.

An individual may have a low score on this test for several reasons: poor attention, limited vocabulary, weaknesses in word retrieval, or limited use of categorical strategies. For example, when thinking of foods to eat, one may picture the aisle of a grocery store; when thinking of names, one may picture the students in a classroom; and when thinking of animals, one may begin with animals at the zoo. Rapid Reference 5.19 summarizes interpretive information for Retrieval Fluency.

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Rapid Reference 5.19

Interpretation of Test 8: Retrieval Fluency

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Long-term Retrieval (Glr)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Ideational fluency (FI), Speed of lexical access (LA)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (directions only)
4. Task Requirements: Naming as many examples as possible from a given category (food, first names, and animals)
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Recognition, fluent retrieval, and oral production of examples of semantic category; activation of semantic network
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Oral elaboration, use of cues, allowing more time, building vocabulary and knowledge

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Test 9: Sound Awareness

This test requires the individual to analyze and manipulate phonemes by performing rhyming and deletion tasks. No reading is required. Because this test measures two specific aspects of phonological awareness, it is particularly useful in evaluating both beginning readers and older individuals who are experiencing reading difficulty. Additional information regarding phonological awareness can be obtained by administering Test 7: Sound Blending and, from the WJ IV COG, Test 5: Phonological Processing, which includes three subtests: Word Access, Word Fluency, and Substitution. You may also want to compare the results of these tests to the WJ IV ACH Word Attack test to determine if problems are with phonological awareness, phoneme–grapheme knowledge, or both. Interventions will often focus on increasing the ability to rhyme words. Rapid Reference 5.20 provides a sequence of rhyming skills from the easiest to the most difficult, and Rapid Reference 5.21 provides an overview of skill development in phonological awareness. Rapid Reference 5.22 provides a summary of interpretive information for Sound Awareness.

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Don't Forget

Deletion tasks are much more difficult than rhyming.

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Caution

English language learners may have particular difficulty with these types of tasks.

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Rapid Reference 5.20

Sequence of Rhyming Development

• Recognition: Do these two words rhyme?
• Oddity: Tell me the word that does not rhyme.
• Completion: Finish what I say with a rhyming word.
• Production: What word rhymes with…?

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Rapid Reference 5.21

Sequence of Skill Development for Phonological Awareness

• Discriminating rhymes
• Producing rhymes
• Isolating initial and final sounds
• Blending sounds (compound words, syllables, phonemes)
• Segmenting sounds (compound words, syllables, phonemes)
• Manipulating sounds (e.g., deleting, substituting, transposing)

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Rapid Reference 5.22

Interpretation of Test 9: Sound Awareness

1. Primary Broad CHC Factor: Auditory Processing (Ga)
2. Narrow CHC Abilities: Phonetic coding (PC)
3. Stimuli: Auditory (questions, words)
4. Task Requirements: Providing rhyming words, deleting word parts and phonemes from whole words to create a new word
5. Cognitive Processes Used: Access, retrieval, and application of English phonology
6. Response Modality: Oral (words)
7. Related Educational Interventions or Accommodations: Explicit instruction in rhyming and sound manipulation, orally (rhyming) and with letter tiles (deletion)

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Oral Language Clusters

The WJ IV OL has nine oral language clusters: Oral Language, Broad Oral Language, Oral Expression, Listening Comprehension, Phonetic Coding, Speed of Lexical Access, and three Spanish clusters: Lenguaje oral, Amplio lenguaje oral, and Comprensión auditiva. Two additional clusters are available when using tests from the WJ IV COG: Vocabulary and Auditory Memory Span.

You will want to consider an individual's performance on the oral language clusters in relation to his or her performance on the reading, math, and written language tests. Rapid Reference 5.23 lists possible instructional implications for individuals with limited oral language ability.

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Rapid Reference 5.23

Possible Instructional Implications for Individuals With Limited Oral Language

• Consider the impact on reading, math, and written language performance.
• Refer the individual to a speech/language specialist for a comprehensive language evaluation.
• Develop oral vocabulary and oral language comprehension prior to or simultaneously when providing instruction in other academic areas.
• Use visual displays and concrete examples to support and enhance language comprehension, such as outlines, pictures, graphs, and story frames.
• Prior to assigning a task, demonstrate or model what is expected of the individual.
• Limit the length of oral directions and instructions.
• Provide rich language experiences (e.g., read aloud or have conversations with the individual).
• When asking a question, provide additional time for the individual to respond or speak.
• Prior to beginning a unit or new topic, preteach the important vocabulary words related to the content.
• Pair the individual with a peer who will encourage and facilitate verbal communication.
• Provide opportunities for the individual to use modalities other than language to communicate understanding (e.g., making a model rather than an oral book report).
• Exempt the student from foreign language requirements or choose a language that is more visual in nature (e.g., American Sign Language).
• Provide positive reinforcement regarding the person's unique nonlinguistic strengths (e.g., artistic ability, athletic ability, mathematical ability).

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Oral Language and Broad Oral Language

Two broad oral language clusters exist: Oral Language and Broad Oral Language. The first cluster is composed of two tests: Picture Vocabulary and Oral Comprehension. The Broad Oral Language cluster is composed of three tests: the two in Oral Language plus Understanding Directions. These clusters provide estimates of the individual's verbal ability. The two parallel Spanish clusters are Lenguaje oral and Amplio lenguaje oral. Broad Oral Language or Amplio lenguaje oral can be used as the predictor in the oral language/achievement comparison procedure.

Oral Expression

This cluster is composed of two tests: Picture Vocabulary and Sentence Repetition. It measures vocabulary knowledge and memory span. A significant difference between the two tests of this cluster may indicate a specific strength or weakness in vocabulary or memory.

Listening Comprehension

This cluster is composed of two tests: Oral Comprehension and Understanding Directions, which are measures of listening ability and verbal comprehension. Both of these tasks involve receptive language as well as memory span and working memory. The parallel Spanish cluster is Comprensión auditiva.

Phonetic Coding

This cluster has two tests: Segmentation and Sound Blending, both of which are aspects of phonetic coding and auditory processing. Segmentation involves the ability to break apart the sounds in words, which is a fundamental skill underlying spelling. Sound Blending involves pushing together sounds to form words, which underlies the application of phonics.

Speed of Lexical Access

This cluster consists of Rapid Picture Naming and Retrieval Fluency, both of which are timed measures of word retrieval. A difference between these two tests may occur because of the type of task. Rapid Picture Naming is a confrontational naming task in which the person must label specific pictures, whereas Retrieval Fluency is a measure of ideational fluency and the person must produce words that belong to a specific category.

Vocabulary and Auditory Memory Span

You can obtain two additional cluster scores by administering two tests from the WJ IV COG: Test 1: Oral Vocabulary and Test 18: Memory for Words. The Vocabulary cluster includes two expressive vocabulary measures. In some cases, a difference may exist between Picture Vocabulary and Oral Vocabulary, as the latter involves more reasoning. The Auditory Memory Span cluster includes two measures of memory. A difference may exist in a person's performance on these two tests as well. Sentence Repetition has more linguistic context than Memory for Words, which just requires repeating a string of unrelated words.

Intra-Oral Language Variation Procedure

The intra-oral language variation procedure is a norm-based method for evaluating the presence of significant strengths or weaknesses among an individual's linguistic abilities. To calculate this variation procedure, you must administer a minimum of four tests (Tests 1 through 4). The individual's performance on one test is then compared to his or her predicted performance based on the average performance on the other three tests. For example, when evaluating a person's performance on Test 1: Picture Vocabulary, the average of the other three tests (Test 2: Oral Comprehension, Test 3: Segmentation, and Test 4: Rapid Picture Naming) is used to obtain the predicted score. The actual score is then compared to the predicted score. If the actual score is higher than predicted, a positive difference is obtained. If the actual score is lower than predicted, a negative difference is obtained. Depending on the magnitude of the positive (or negative) difference, the person may have a significant strength (or weakness) in a specific area. If, for example, Picture Vocabulary is significantly higher than predicted, the person exhibits a relative strength in vocabulary knowledge. If the person's actual Picture Vocabulary score is significantly lower than predicted, he or she exhibits a relative weakness in vocabulary knowledge. This type of information is valuable when documenting a pattern of strengths and weaknesses or determining a specific area of weakness rather than generalized low performance. In addition, Tests 5 through 8 can be included in the variation procedure along with any cluster that results from the tests that are administered. As an option, three tests from the WJ IV COG (Test 1: Oral Vocabulary, Test 5: Phonological Processing, and Test 12: Nonword Repetition) and the Vocabulary and Auditory Processing clusters also can be entered into the oral-language variation procedure. Whenever additional tests or clusters are included in the variation procedure, it is called the “Extended” variation. Table 5.2 illustrates the results of an intra-oral language (Extended) variation for Josh, a third grader. When Josh's oral language abilities are evaluated for strengths and weaknesses, he demonstrates a significant strength in Vocabulary and the two tests that constitute that cluster: Picture Vocabulary and Oral Vocabulary. However, these strengths are relative to his other oral language abilities rather than normative strengths because the cluster and the tests have standard scores falling in the average range. In addition, he has a significant weakness in Understanding Directions and Retrieval Fluency. While these weaknesses are significant relative to his other oral language abilities, they are also normative weaknesses with standard scores of 73 and 74, respectively, which are in the low range.

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Caution

Intra-ability variations show patterns of strengths and weaknesses among an individual's abilities, so these are relative strengths and weaknesses. Even though a variation may show statistical significance, the evaluator must determine practical significance.

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Table 5.2 Josh's Intra-Oral Language (Extended) Variation

Variations Intra-Oral Language (Extended)	Standard Scores			Discrepancy		Interpretation at ± 1.50 SD (SEE)
	Actual	Predicted	Difference	PR	SD
Oral Expression	98	88	10	81	+0.86	—
Listening Comprehension	81	93	−12	14	−1.08	—
Phonetic Coding	90	97	−7	32	−0.46	—
Speed of Lexical Access	78	97	−19	7	−1.48	—
Vocabulary+	110	88	22	97	+1.94	Strength
Auditory Processing*	79	97	−18	9	−1.35	—
Picture Vocabulary^	109	89	20	95	+1.87	Strength
Oral Comprehension^	92	93	−1	43	−0.17	—
Segmentation^	86	98	−12	20	−0.84	—
Rapid Picture Naming^	84	98	−14	16	−1.01	—
Sentence Repetition	92	90	2	55	+0.12	—
Oral Vocabulary*	109	88	21	96	+1.76	Strength
Understanding Directions	73	94	−21	5	−1.63	Weakness
Sound Blending	100	97	3	57	+0.17	—
Retrieval Fluency	74	97	−23	4	−1.77	Weakness
Phonological Processing*	84	97	−13	16	−0.98	—
Nonword Repetition*	81	97	−16	12	−1.15	—
+Cluster obtained, in part, from WJ IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities
*Cluster or test obtained from the WJ IV Tests of Cognitive Abilities
^Core test for calculation of intra-oral language variations

Oral Language Ability/Achievement Comparisons

The WJ IV OL provides an option to use oral language as a predictor score in the ability/achievement comparison calculation. The Broad Oral Language cluster may be used to predict levels of achievement based upon the individual's level of oral language development.

If testing is completed in Spanish, the Amplio lenguaje oral cluster may be used as the predictor. This allows the individual's Spanish oral language ability to predict his or her ability to perform academically in English.

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Don't Forget

The Amplio lenguaje oral cluster (composed of three Spanish oral language tests) may be used to predict English achievement.

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Within this comparison procedure, the standard score from the Broad Oral Language cluster, composed of three tests, may be used to predict achievement on any of the achievement clusters. Individuals with a significant negative discrepancy (≥ −1.50) between oral language ability and achievement exhibit relative strengths in oral language with weaknesses in one or more achievement areas. A discrepancy of this size will occur about six out of 100 times. Table 5.3 illustrates an example of the oral language ability/achievement comparison calculations based on the achievement clusters in the Standard Battery for Rebecca, a fifth-grade girl. Rebecca obtained a standard score of 133 on the Broad Oral Language cluster, so many of her achievement scores, especially in the reading and writing areas, are significantly lower than her oral language ability. The results in Table 5.3 indicate that Rebecca scored significantly lower than predicted by her oral language ability in Reading, Broad Reading, Basic Reading Skills, Reading Fluency, Written Language, Broad Written Language, and Academic Fluency. As noted previously, an individual with poor reading and writing abilities but adequate oral language may have a reading disability. Furthermore, her score on Mathematics (SS = 146) is significantly higher than predicted, which indicates she does not have a flat profile that would be associated with generalized low academic performance.

Table 5.3 Rebecca's Oral Language/Achievement Comparisons

Comparison Oral Language/Achievement	Standard Scores			Discrepancy		Significant at ± 1.50 SD (SEE)
	Actual	Predicted	Difference	PR	SD
Reading	83	121	−38	<0.1	−3.18	Yes (−)
Broad Reading	70	119	−49	<0.1	−4.03	Yes (−)
Basic Reading Skills	82	120	−38	0.1	−3.00	Yes (−)
Reading Fluency	64	116	−52	<0.1	−3.88	Yes (−)
Mathematics	146	115	31	99	+2.47	Yes (+)
Broad Mathematics	133	114	19	93	+1.46	No
Math Calculation Skills	128	112	16	88	+1.18	No
Written Language	89	117	−28	2	−2.07	Yes (−)
Broad Written Language	93	117	−24	5	−1.68	Yes (−)
Written Expression	99	113	−14	17	−0.94	No
Academic Skills	103	119	−16	11	−1.24	No
Academic Fluency	84	112	−28	2	−2.12	Yes (−)
Academic Applications	106	119	−13	14	−1.09	No
Note: This procedure compares the WJ IV Broad Oral Language cluster score to selected achievement clusters.

As noted by Stanovich (1991a, 1991b), use of an oral language measure to predict reading and writing is often preferable to use of a general intelligence score because it is more in line with the concept of “potential” and “unexpected” failure. He further explains that using oral language ability as the aptitude measure moves us closer to a more principled definition of reading disability because it provides a more accurate estimate of what the person could achieve if the reading problem were entirely resolved. Essentially, what distinguishes the individual with a reading disability from other poor readers is that listening comprehension ability is higher than ability to decode words (Rack, Snowling, & Olson, 1992), and thus the difficulty is “unpredicted.” An individual with a learning disability may or may not exhibit an oral language ability/achievement discrepancy. For example, an older student with reading difficulties may have depressed performance in oral language because of his or her limited experiences with text. This lack of exposure to print contributes to reduced knowledge and vocabulary.

In some cases, the discrepancy between oral and written language abilities is obvious. Figure 5.4 presents a sentence written by Mark, a fourth-grade student, which illustrates a discrepancy between his oral language and written language abilities. His sentence was written in response to Item 7 on Form B of the WJ IV ACH Writing Samples test. The instructions read: “This woman is a queen. Write a sentence that tells what this man is.” If you were to just read the sentence, you would think that Mark did not understand the task or was very limited intellectually. However, this is what he said as he was trying to come up with a sentence: “The man is a king. Uh-oh. Hard words. I don't know how to spell those words. The man is rich. Another hard word. I don't know how to spell rich. What do I know how to spell? I can spell mom and dad. The mom is a queen. Oh I don't know how to spell queen. What do I know how to spell? Thin, oh I can spell thin.” After that, he wrote: “The mom is thin.”

Figure 5.4 Sentence by Mark, a Fourth Grader, Illustrating a Discrepancy Between Oral Language and Writing Ability

Clearly, this illustrates a large discrepancy between Mark's oral language and reasoning abilities and his ability to record his thoughts on paper.

In the field of reading disabilities, one commonly proposed discrepancy model is to compare oral language abilities to specific domains of academic performance. Often individuals with “specific” reading and writing impairments, such as Mark, are described as having a discrepancy between oral and reading and written language abilities. The disability is called “specific” because it primarily affects the development of literacy. The person may struggle with reading, but have no trouble understanding oral discourse or mathematical concepts. The oral language ability/achievement comparison procedure has particular relevance for helping distinguish between individuals who have adequate oral language capabilities but poor reading and writing abilities (i.e., specific reading disabilities) and individuals whose oral language abilities are commensurate with their reading and writing performance. In the first case, intervention would focus on reading and writing development; in the second case, intervention would be directed toward all aspects of language development.

Comparative Language Index (CLI)

The Comparative Language Index (CLI) is a unique comparison procedure available when any of the three parallel English and Spanish clusters have been administered. The CLI is presented as a ratio of the individual's RPI numerators on the two clusters being compared, one in Spanish and one in English. The CLI is helpful in determining language dominance and proficiency. For example, when an individual is administered Tests 1, 2, and 6 in English and Tests 10 through 12 in Spanish, the Broad Oral Language and Amplio lenguaje oral clusters are obtained. Angela, a ninth-grade student, had an RPI for Broad Oral Language of 40/90 and an RPI for Amplio lenguaje oral of 92/90. The CLI is expressed with the Spanish numerator first and the English numerator second resulting in a CLI of 92/40. This CLI indicates that Angela has 92% proficiency on the Spanish cluster and 40% proficiency on the parallel English cluster. The CLI is available when comparing the following clusters: Oral Language to Lenguaje oral, Broad Oral Language to Amplio lenguaje oral, and Listening Comprehension to Comprensión auditiva.

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Don't Forget

Information about the Relative Proficiency Index (RPI) can be found in Chapter 4.

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Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

Another application of the Relative Proficiency Index is the Cognitive-Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) levels that may be reported. (See Chapter 4 for more information about CALP.) If selected in the scoring program, all administered clusters that yield a CALP score are reported in a separate section of the score report. For the WJ IV OL, CALP levels can be reported for the following clusters: Oral Language, Broad Oral Language, Oral Expression, Listening Comprehension, and the three Spanish language clusters: Lenguaje oral, Amplio lenguaje oral, and Comprensión auditiva. Labels attached to the CALP levels describe the individual's proficiency. For example, a person's proficiency on a task may be described as advanced, fluent, or limited. In all, six levels of CALP are available plus two regions that fall between the levels.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the WJ IV OL

Because the WJ IV OL was only recently published when this book went to press, no published reviews or critiques existed. During the standardization, we reviewed the instrument carefully and from our initial use we have identified what appear to be its major strengths and limitations. Rapid References 5.24 and 5.25 describe the apparent strengths and weaknesses of the WJ IV OL.

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Caution

When a person obtains a low score on a test, consider the reason or reasons for that low score. For example, on Understanding Directions, in one case a low score may be caused by weak memory, whereas in another case, the low score may be caused by inattention.

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Rapid Reference 5.24

Strengths of the WJ IV OL

• Clusters and tests have high reliability.
• It is normed for use on a wide range of ages and grades.
• It is co-normed with the WJ IV COG and WJ IV ACH, providing more information about the interrelationships among an array of cognitive, linguistic, and academic abilities.
• Use of the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities creates a common framework for interpreting results across all three WJ IV batteries.
• It measures several important aspects of oral language that are critical for school and vocational success.
• Broad Oral Language (or Amplio lenguage oral) may be used in an ability/achievement comparison procedure.
• It includes three parallel Spanish tests that can be used in bilingual evaluations.
• It provides enhanced interpretive options including an intra-oral language variation procedure and an oral language/achievement comparison procedure.
• It is scored by the same online scoring program as the WJ IV ACH and the WJ IV COG.

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Rapid Reference 5.25

Weaknesses of the WJ IV OL

• Many of the WJ IV OL tests only require single word responses, thus not providing a rich, in-depth measure of expressive language abilities.
• Several of the oral language tests are factorially complex. For example, the Understanding Directions test measures both Gc and Gwm. Although this makes the test clinically more useful, interpretation of the results may be more difficult.
• Performance on the timed tests may be influenced by cultural differences.
• Several WJ IV OL tests require the use of an audio recording and headphones, increasing the amount of equipment needed for testing.

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Clinical Applications of the WJ IV OL

Oral language abilities are not only the foundation for success in most academic areas but also the primary avenue through which learning occurs. For this reason, consideration of an individual's oral language abilities is an essential component of a comprehensive evaluation. The WJ IV OL helps explore the role of oral language in an individual's achievement performance by providing measures of both receptive and expressive oral language abilities.

Receptive language refers to an individual's ability to understand or comprehend language, including words and gestures. Listening ability is the major skill needed for success in the area of receptive language. Listening requires individuals to receive and correctly interpret the message that is being conveyed. Individuals with poor receptive language have difficulty understanding what has been said and difficulty following directions. They become confused listening to lectures and have difficulty understanding what they read. Although they may decode and spell words accurately, they may have limited knowledge of word meanings and limited experiential knowledge. When children are in school, teachers expect them to be able to follow verbal instructions, lectures, and guidelines. For students who have difficulties in listening, the ability to follow through on a given verbal task can be a challenge. Poor receptive language can result in lower grades, gaps in a knowledge base, and difficulty working effectively with others. It can also affect social interactions due to difficulties listening to and understanding language. As children reach adulthood and become employed, poor receptive language abilities can hinder job performance. If the problem is severe enough, the individual may be classified as having a receptive language impairment.

Some students have adequate receptive language but poor expressive language. They understand what is said to them but have difficulty responding orally. Expressive oral language relates to our abilities to retrieve ideas and vocabulary and express these thoughts in an appropriate manner through speaking. Speaking requires developing an intention to speak and formulating thoughts into words and sentences. Deficiencies in the use of expressive language in preschool children have been found to predict subsequent academic difficulties. Individuals with weaknesses in expressive language have difficulty organizing their thoughts, choosing the right words, and expressing their ideas in a clear and fluent manner. They may understand what they hear but not be able to express what they know. These individuals may have trouble expressing their ideas in speaking as well as in writing. Deficits in rapid automatized naming have been associated with individuals with speech and language and reading disorders (Georgiou & Parrila, 2013; Windsor & Kohnert, 2008), so the Rapid Picture Naming test may provide valuable insights. If the problem is severe enough, the student may be classified as having an expressive language impairment.

Weaknesses in oral language affect performance in many areas, in particular reading comprehension, written expression, and math problem solving. A student with weaknesses in oral language may perform adequately on basic skill tests, such as pronouncing and spelling words, but have difficulty on tasks involving the comprehension and use of language. Tasks such as Sentence Repetition require language and memory, both of which are frequently problematic for individuals with language impairments. In addition, these individuals demonstrate difficulty on Understanding Directions and Oral Comprehension. A developmental trend exists on these tasks: Difficulties increase with age. This may be due in large part to the increased language and memory demands as students progress through school.

An individual who has low performance on oral language tests may require a more comprehensive evaluation from a speech/language therapist. This evaluation will help uncover the intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting language development. In addition, the speech/language therapist will develop a treatment plan. Rapid Reference 5.26 indicates some possible reasons for low performance on receptive or expressive language tasks.

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Rapid Reference 5.26

Factors That Can Affect Oral Language Performance

Possible Reasons for Low Performance in Receptive Language

• Auditory processing deficits
• Attention problems
• Lack of experience and opportunity
• Limited listening skills
• Reduced vocabulary
• Poor understanding of sentence structure
• Difficulty with oral comprehension
• Limits in memory (e.g., working memory capacity, associative memory)

Possible Reasons for Low Performance in Expressive Language

• Poor receptive language
• Difficulty with articulation
• Cultural differences
• Poor word retrieval (inability to recall known words with ease)
• Difficulty with formulation of ideas or organization of thoughts
• Limits in memory (e.g., working memory capacity, associative memory)

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Test Yourself

1. Which test includes only the administered items in the raw score?
   1. Picture Vocabulary
   2. Understanding Directions
   3. Segmentation
   4. Sound Blending
2. For which test do the subtests have to be added together to obtain estimated age and grade equivalents?
   1. Sound Awareness
   2. Oral Comprehension
   3. Picture Vocabulary
   4. Rapid Picture Naming
3. On the Rapid Picture Naming test, if the examinee called a picture of a car an auto you would score it as correct.

   True or False?

4. The oral language ability/achievement comparison procedure requires administration of the WJ IV COG.

   True or False?

5. The oral language ability/achievement comparison procedure compares one area of achievement to the average of the person's other areas of achievement.

   True or false?

6. About how often will an SD discrepancy of −1.50 occur?
   1. Two out of 1,000 times
   2. Two out of 100 times
   3. Six out of 100 times
   4. Five out of 1,000 times
7. Which of the following tests does not have a parallel Spanish version?
   1. Picture Vocabulary
   2. Oral Comprehension
   3. Sentence Repetition
   4. Understanding Directions
8. What is the minimum number of tests needed to calculate an intra-oral language variation procedure?
   1. Three
   2. Four
   3. Five
   4. Six
9. The primary purpose of the oral-language variation procedure is:
   1. To determine if there is a discrepancy between ability and achievement
   2. To determine the individual's overall oral language ability
   3. To determine if the individual requires further evaluation
   4. To determine the individual's pattern of strengths and weaknesses among oral language abilities
10. Which of the following is not indicative of difficulty with receptive language?
    1. Choosing the right words
    2. Comprehending language
    3. Following directions
    4. Understanding a lecture

Answers: 1. b; 2. a; 3. True; 4. False; 5. False; 6. c; 7. c; 8. b; 9. d; 10. a

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