Here are some suggestions for readers wishing to delve further into the topics covered in this book.
Fine lengthier general histories of medicine include:
Lawrence Conrad, Michael Neve, Vivian Nutton, Roy Porter and
Andrew Wear, The Western Medical Tradition: 800BC to AD1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) [takes the story up to 1800]
Jacalyn Duffin, History of Medicine: A Scandalously Short History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999) [this is actually 430 pages long!]
Nancy Duin and Jenny Sutcliffe, A History of Medicine: From Prehistory to the Year 2020 (London and New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992) [Well written and illustrated]
Mirko D. Grmek (ed.), Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to the Middle Ages (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998)
Thomas S. Hall, History of General Physiology 600 B.C. to A.D. 1900, 2 vols (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975)
Robert P. Hudson, Disease and its Control: The Shaping of Modern Thought (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983)
Irvine Loudon (ed.), Western Medicine: An Illustrated History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997)
Lois N. Magner, A History of Medicine (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1992)
—, A History of the Life Sciences, 2nd ed. (New York: M. Dekker, 1994)
Roy Porter (ed.), The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
I have drawn in this book upon materials discussed at greater length in my ‘The Greatest Benefit to Mankind’: A Medical History of Humanity (London: HarperCollins, 1997), which may be consulted for further details and bibliography. A recent attempt to set out my thinking on the social meaning of sickness and medicine is Bodies Politic: Disease, Death and the Doctors in Britain: 1650–1914 (London: Reaktion Books, 2001).
WORKS OF REFERENCE
Jessica and Elmer Bendiner, Biographical Dictionary of Medicine (New York: Facts on File, 1990)
Colin Blakemore and Sheila Jennett (eds.), The Oxford Companion to the Body (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine, 2 vols (London: Routledge, 1993)
Stephen Lock, John Last and George Dunea (eds.), The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001)
Roderick E. McGrew, Encyclopedia of Medical History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985)
Leslie T. Morton, A Medical Bibliography (Garrison and Morton): An Annotated Check-list of Texts Illustrating the History of Medicine, 4th ed. (Aldershot, Hants: Gower, 1983)
Leslie T. Morton and Robert J. Moore, A Bibliography of Medical and Biomedical Biography (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1989)
Enjoyable anthologies include:
D. J. Enright (ed.), The Faber Book of Fevers and Frets (London: Faber, 1989)
Richard Gordon, The Literary Companion to Medicine: An Anthology of Prose and Poetry (London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1993)
I have deliberately avoided in this book involving myself in historio-graphical controversies as to the best approaches to the history of medicine. For a lively and up-to-date introduction, see Ludmilla Jordanova, ‘The Social Construction of Medical Knowledge’, Social History of Medicine, viii (1995), 361–82.
PREFACE
For the subjective side of disease, death and medicine, see:
Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death (London: Allen Lane, 1981) Sander L. Gilman, Health and Illness: Images of Difference (London: Reaktion Books, 1995)
C. Helman, Culture, Health and Illness: An Introduction for Health Professionals (Bristol: Wright, 1984) [insights by a medical anthropologist]
David B. Morris, Illness and Culture in the Postmodern Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998)
Roselyne Rey, History of Pain, tr. by Elliott Wallace and J. A. and S. W. Cadden (Paris: Éditions la Découverte, 1993)
Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1978; London: Allen Lane, 1979)
—, AIDS and its Metaphors (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, 1989)
For non-Western attitudes, see:
John Hinnells and Roy Porter (eds.), Religion, Health and Suffering (London: Kegan Paul, 1999)
A. Kleinman, Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980)
CHAPTER ONE: Disease
Encyclopedic is:
Kenneth F. Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)
Fine general surveys are offered in:
Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986)
Laurie Garrett, The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1994)
Arno Karlen, Man and Microbes (New York: Putnam, 1996)
W. H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Oxford: Anchor Press, 1976)
For more specific diseases, see:
Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange, Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972)
Thomas Dormandy, The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis (London: Hambledon Press, 1999)
M. Durey, The Return of the Plague: British Society and the Cholera 1831–2 (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1979)
Richard J. Evans, Death in Hamburg: Society and Politics in the Cholera Years 1830–1910 (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 1987)
Robert S. Gottfried, The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (New York: The Free Press, 1983)
Mirko D. Grmek, History of AIDS: Emergence and Origin of a Modern Pandemic, tr. by Russell C. Maultiz and Jacalyn Duffin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994)
D. Hopkins, Princes and Peasants: Smallpox in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983)
Gina Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus that Caused it (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1999)
Randolph M. Nesse and George C. Williams, Evolution and Healing. The New Science of Darwinian Medicine (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995)
CHAPTER TWO: Doctors
For general accounts, see:
Sherwin Nuland, Doctors: The Biography of Medicine (New York: Knopf, 1988)
Edward Shorter, Doctors and their Patients: A Social History (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1991)
John Cule, A Doctor for the People: 2000 Years of General Practice in Britain (London: Update, 1980)
More specific accounts in chronological order of subject:
J. Worth Estes, The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt (Canton, MA: Science History Publications, 1989)
Carole Reeves, Egyptian Medicine (Princes Risborough, Bucks: Shire Publications, 1991)
James N. Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993)
E. D. Phillips, Greek Medicine (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973)
V. Nutton, ‘What’s in an Oath?’, Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of London, xxix (1995), 518–24
Helen King, Hippocrates’ Woman: Reading the Female Body in Ancient Greece (London: Routledge, 1998)
Ralph Jackson, Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1988)
David Gentilcore, Healers and Healing in Early Modern Italy (Manchester: University of Manchester Press, 1998)
Mary Lindemann, Medicine and Society in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Andrew Wear, Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine 1550–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
Lucinda McCray Beier, Sufferers and Healers: The Experience of Illness in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987)
Laurence Brockliss and Colin Jones, The Medical World of Early Modern France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997)
Christopher Lawrence, Medicine in the Making of Modern Britain, 1700–1920 (London and New York: Routledge, 1994)
Roy and Dorothy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience 1650–1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988)
Dorothy and Roy Porter, Patient’s Progress: Doctors and Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989)
Irvine Loudon, Medical Care and the General Practitioner 1750–1850 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986)
Thomas Neville Bonner, Becoming a Physician: Medical Education in Britain, France, Germany and the United States, 1750–1945 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)
John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986)
Anne Digby, Making a Medical Living: Doctors and their Patients in the English Market for Medicine, 1720–1911 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Anne Digby, The Evolution of British General Practice 1850–1948 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)
Quack and fringe medicine are covered in:
Norman Gevitz, Other Healers: Unorthodox Medicine in America (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988)
Phillip A. Nicholls, Homoeopathy and the Medical Profession (London and New York: Croom Helm, 1988)
Roy Porter, Quacks: Fakers and Charlatans in English Medicine (Stroud: Tempus, 2000)
Mike Saks (ed.), Alternative Medicine in Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991)
James Harvey Young, The Medical Messiahs: A Social History of Health Quackery in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967)
For women and medicine, see:
Thomas Neville Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth: Women’s Search for Education in Medicine (Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1992)
Rosemary Pringle, Sex and Medicine: Gender, Power and Authority in the Medical Profession (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
CHAPTER THREE: The Body
For broad cultural attitudes, see:
M. Feher (ed.), Fragments for a History of the Human Body, 3 vols (New York: Zone, 1989)
Martin Kemp and Marina Wallace, Spectacular Bodies: The Art and Science of the Human Body, from Leonardo to Now (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000)
For early medical thinking, see:
Luis Garcia Ballester, Roger French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham, Practical Medicine from Salerno to the Black Death (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Faye Marie Getz, Medicine in the English Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, c. 1998)
V. Nutton, ‘Humoralism’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 281–91
Nancy G. Siraisi, Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to Knowledge and Practice (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 1990)
For anatomy and physiology, see:
Andrea Carlino, Books of the Body: Anatomical Ritual and Renaissance Learning, trans. by John Tedeschi and Anne C. Tedeschi (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000)
Allen G. Debus, The Chemical Philosophy: Paracelsian Science and Medicine in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (New York: Science History Publications, 1977)
Robert G. Frank, Harvey and the Oxford Physiologists: Scientific Ideas and Social Interaction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980)
Roger French, ‘The Anatomical Tradition’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 81–101
—, William Harvey’s Natural Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Lester S. King, The Medical World of the Eighteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958)
—, The Philosophy of Medicine: The Early Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978)
C. D. O’Malley, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels 1514–1564 (California: University of California Press, 1964)
Ruth Richardson, Death, Dissection and the Destitute (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987)
K. B. Roberts and J. D. W. Tomlinson, The Fabric of the Body: European Traditions of Anatomical Illustration (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992)
B. Schultz, Art and Anatomy in Renaissance Italy (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1985)
Pathology is handled in:
Saul Jarcho (trans. and ed.), The Clinical Consultations of Giambattista Morgagni (Boston: Countway Library of Medicine, 1984)
Russell C. Maulitz, Morbid Appearances: The Anatomy of Pathology in the Early Nineteenth Century (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987)
CHAPTER FOUR: The Laboratory
For hospital medicine, see:
Erwin H. Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967)
M. Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic, tr. by A. M. Sheridan Smith (London: Tavistock, 1973)
Nineteenth-century experimental medicine is covered in:
Thomas D. Brock, Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology (Madison, WI: Science Tech Publishers, 1988)
—, Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997)
W. F. Bynum, Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Gerald L. Geison, The Private Science of Louis Pasteur (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995)
Frederic L. Holmes, Claude Bernard and Animal Chemistry: The Emergence of a Scientist (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974)
Wesley W. Spink, Infectious Diseases: Prevention and Treatment in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Folkestone: Dawson, 1978)
For the twentieth century, consult:
Michael Bliss, The Discovery of Insulin (Edinburgh: Paul Harris, 1983) K. J. Carpenter, ‘Nutritional Diseases’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 463–82
Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (eds.), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Harwood, 2000)
Horace Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979)
Daniel J. Kevles and Leroy Hood (eds.), The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1992)
Gina Kolata, Clone: The Road to Dolly and the Path Ahead (London: Allen Lane, 1997)
Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
J. C. Medvei, A History of Clinical Endocrinology (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982)
Tom Wilkie, Perilous Knowledge: The Human Genome Project and its Implications (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993)
Good on tropical diseases are:
W. D. Foster, A History of Parasitology (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone, 1965)
Gordon A. Harrison, Mosquitoes, Malaria, and Man: A History of the Hostilities since 1880 (New York: Dutton, 1978)
Sheldon Watts, Epidemics and History: Disease, Power and Imperialism (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997)
Christopher Wills, Yellow Fever, Black Goddess: The Coevolution of People and Plagues (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub., 1996)
M. Worboys, ‘Tropical Diseases’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 511–60
CHAPTER FIVE: Therapies
General studies:
E. H. Ackerknecht, Therapeutics from the Primitives to the 20th Century (New York: Hafner, 1973)
C. D. Leake, An Historical Account of Pharmacology to the 20th Century (Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, 1975)
Miles Weatherall, ‘Drug Therapies’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 911–34
Specific topics in chronological order of subject:
John M. Riddle, Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1985)
J. Worth Estes, Dictionary of Protopharmacology: Therapeutic Practices, 1700–1850 (Canton, MA: Science History Publications/Watson Publishing International, 1990)
Leslie G. Matthews, History of Pharmacy in Britain (Edinburgh and London: E. & S. Livingstone, 1962)
M. Weatherall, In Search of a Cure: A History of Pharmaceutical Discovery (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1990)
John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective. Medical Practice, Knowledge and Identity in America, 1820–1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986)
Nancy Tomes, The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998)
J. Liebenau, Medical Science and Medical Industry: The Formation of the American Pharmaceutical Industry (London: Macmillan, 1987)
Ronald Hare, The Birth of Penicillin and the Disarming of the Microbe (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1970)
Arabella Melville and Colin Johnson, Cured to Death: The Effects of Prescription Drugs (London: Secker and Warburg, 1982)
Lara Marks, Sexual Chemistry: A History of the Contraceptive Pill (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2001)
Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry. From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997) [strong on psychopharmacology]
Useful on drug innovations is:
James Lefanu, The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (London: Little, Brown, 1999)
CHAPTER SIX: Surgery
Robert Bud, The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994)
Renée C. Fox and Judith P. Swazey, The Courage to Fail: A Social View of Organ Transplants and Dialysis, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978)
Knut Haeger, The Illustrated History of Surgery (New York: Bell, 1988)
Ghislaine Lawrence, ‘Surgery (Traditional)’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 957–79
Mark M. Ravitch, A Century of Surgery: 1880–1980, 2 vols (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1982)
Ira M. Rutkow, Surgery: An Illustrated History (St Louis: Mosby-Year Book Inc., in collaboration with Norman Pub., 1993)
Ulrich Tröhler, ‘Surgery (Modern)’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 980–1023.
Anthony F. Wallace, The Progress of Plastic Surgery: An Introductory History (Oxford: William A. Meeuws, 1982)
Owen H. and Sarah D. Wangensteen, The Rise of Surgery: From Empiric Craft to Scientific Discipline (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1978; Folkestone, Kent: Dawson, 1978)
The problem of sepsis is the subject of:
Irvine Loudon, Death in Childbirth: An International Study of Maternal Care and Maternal Mortality 1800–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992)
For childbirth and obstetrics, see:
Jacques Gélis, History of Childbirth: Fertility, Pregnancy and Birth in Early Modern Europe (Oxford: Polity Press, 1991)
Michael J. O’Dowd and Elliot E. Philipp, The History of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (New York and London: The Parthenon Publishing Group, 1994)
Adrian Wilson, The Making of Man-Midwifery: Childbirth in England 1660–1770 (London: University College Press, 1995)
CHAPTER SEVEN: The Hospital
Broad surveys:
Lindsay Granshaw and Roy Porter (eds.), The Hospital in History (London and New York: Routledge, 1989).
Guenter Risse, Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000)
J. D. Thompson and G. Goldin, The Hospital: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1975)
Specific studies in chronological order of subject:
T. S. Miller, The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985)
Nicholas Orme and Margaret Webster, The English Hospital, 1070–1570 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995)
Colin Jones, The Charitable Imperative: Hospitals and Nursing in Ancien Régime and Revolutionary France (London and New York: Routledge, 1990)
Christine Stevenson, Medicine and Magnificence: British Hospital and Asylum Architecture 1660–1815 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2000)
J. Woodward, To Do the Sick No Harm. A Study of the British Voluntary Hospital System to 1875 (London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974)
Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1988)
Rosemary Stevens, In Sickness and in Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century (New York: Basic Books, 1989)
Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995)
Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981)
For clinical science, see:
Christopher Booth, ‘Clinical Research’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 205–29
A. McGehee Harvey, Science at the Bedside: Clinical Research in American Medicine 1905–1945 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
David Weatherall, Science and the Quiet Art: Medical Research and Patient Care (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)
On nursing, see:
Monica E. Baly, Florence Nightingale and the Nursing Legacy (London: Routledge, 1988)
Susan M. Reverby, Ordered to Care: The Dilemma of American Nursing 1850–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987)
The mental hospital is briefly covered, with reading suggestions, in Roy Porter, Madness: A Brief History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
CHAPTER EIGHT: Medicine in Modern Society
For the critique of modern medicine, see:
Ivan Illich, Limits to Medicine: Medical Nemesis: The Expropriation of Health (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977)
Lynn Payer, Disease-Mongers: How Doctors, Drug Companies, and Insurers are Making You Feel Sick (New York, et al.: John Wiley & Sons, 1992)
For public health and state medicine, see:
Peter Baldwin, Contagion and the State in Europe 1830–1930 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
Carlo Cipolla, Public Health and the Medical Profession in the Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976)
John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1990)
Anne Hardy, The Epidemic Streets: Infectious Disease and the Rise of Preventive Medicine, 1856–1900 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)
Dorothy Porter, Health, Civilization and the State (London: Routledge, 1999)
George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York: M.D. Publications, 1958; new edition, ed. by Elizabeth Fee, with updated bibliography by Edward T. Morman, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993)
The medical profession is analysed in:
Jeffrey L. Berlant, Profession and Monopoly: A Study of Medicine in the United States and Great Britain (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975)
P. Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982)
For modern medicine and medical policy, see:
David Armstrong, Political Anatomy of the Body: Medical Knowledge in Britain in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983)
Roger Cooter and John Pickstone (eds.), Medicine in the Twentieth Century (Amsterdam: Harwood, 2000)
Daniel M. Fox, Health Policies, Health Politics: British and American Experience 1911–1965 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986)
Daniel M. Fox, ‘The Medical Institutions and the State’, in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 1196–222
Derek Fraser, The Evolution of the British Welfare State: The History of Social Policy Since the Industrial Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1973)
Anne Hardy, Health and Medicine in Britain since 1860 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001)
Helen Jones, Health and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain (London and New York: Longman, 1994)
Charles Webster, The National Health Service: A Political History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988)
Totalitarian abuse of medicine forms the subject of:
Benno Müller-Hill, Murderous Science: Elimination by Scientific Selection of Jews, Gypsies and Others in Germany 1933–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988)
Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1988)
For medicine’s present and future problems, see:
Laurie Garrett, Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health (New York: Hyperion, 2000)
William L. Kissick, Medicine’s Dilemmas: Infinite Needs versus Finite Resources (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994)
James Lefanu, The Rise and Fall of Modern Medicine (London: Little, Brown, 1999)
T. McKeown, The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979)
Page references in italic indicate illustrations; those given in bold indicate a definition or an explanation.
Académie Royal de Chirurgie Paris (1731)
accoucheurs/man-midwives
‘The Aetiology of Traumatic Infectious Diseases’ (Koch, 1879)
agriculture and infectious diseases
AIDS/HIV
Albucasis (936–1013), Altasrif
Allgemeine Krankenhaus (Vienna)
alternative medicine
healers
AMA (American Medical Association)
amputation
anaesthetics
and surgery
anatomico-clinical medicine
Anatomie Universelle du Corps Humain (Paré, 1561)
anatomy
pathological
skeletal
Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett (1836–1917)
animal diseases, transferred to humans
animating/vital force
anthrax
antibiotics
surgical role
drug-resistant bacteria
antibodies
as therapies
antiseptics
surgical role
anti-viral drugs
Antonine plague
appendectomy
Apollo
Asklepios (Aesculapius) (fl. c.1200 BC)
supplanted by saints
aspirin
asylums
Ayurvedic medicine
bacteria/bacteriology
drug resistance
human experimentation
Pasteur challenged
therapeutic potential
bacteriostatic drugs
Baglivi, Giorgio (1668–1707)
Balient, Michael, The Doctor, the Patient and the Illness (1957)
Baillie, Matthew (1761–1823), Morbid Anatomy (1793)
Banting, Frederick (1891–1941)
Barnard, Christiaan (1922–2001)
Bayer
bedside manner see doctor/patient relationship Behring, Emil von (1854–1917)
Beddoes, Thomas (1760–1808)
beriberi
Bernard, Claude (1813–78)
Best, Charles (1899–1978)
Bevan, Aneurin (1897–1960)
Beveridge Report (‘Social Insurance and Allied Services’) (1942)
Bichat, Marie François Xavier (1771–1802), Traité des Membranes (1799)
Billroth, Theodor (1829–94)
biochemistry
biology
Bismarck, Otto von (1815–98)
Black, Joseph (1728–99)
Black Death (1348)
Blackwell, Elizabeth (1821–1910)
blastema
blood
circulation
blood-letting blood serum
blood transfusions
blood vessels, suturing
body
in Christianity
mechanistic view
physiological study
body/soul relationship
Boerhaave, Herman (1668–1738)
Bois-Reymond, Emil du (1818–96)
bonesetting
Bordeu, Théophile de (1722–76)
Borelli, Giovanni (1608–79)
Bovet, Daniel (1907–92)
bovine spongiform encephalitis
Boyle, Robert (1626–91)
Britain
anti-vivisection movement
hospital funding
hospital medicine
hospitals
London medicine
nationalized medicine see NHS nursing
reorganization of medical services
scientific medicine
Broussais, François Victor Joseph (1772–1838)
Brown, John (1735–88)
Brücke, Ernest Wilhelm (1819–92)
BSE/CJD
bubonic plague
Burnet, MacFarlane
Burroughs-Wellcome
caduceus
Cambridge University see also medical education
Canada, socialized medicine
cancer
Cannon, Walter (1871–1945)
carbon dioxide
cardiac surgery
cardio-pulmonary function
Carrel, Alexis (1884–1947)
Carroll, James (1854–1907)
CAT scan (computerized tomograph)
cautery
improved
cell theory
Chain, Ernest (1906–79)
Charité (Berlin)
Chauliac, Guy de (1300–1370), Grande Chirurgie (1363)
chemistry
chemotherapy
Cheselden, William (1688–1752)
childbirth
and anaesthesia
assisted
childcare
chiropractic
cholecystectomy
cholera
Christian Science
Christianity
concept of the body
human dissection
and medicine
nursing tradition
chronic disorders
cinchona
clinical medicine
foundations
clinical trials
Coffin, Albert Isaiah (c.1798–c.1862)
Colebrook, Leonard (1883–1967)
College of Physicians (1518), later Royal
College of Surgeons London (1799), later Royal
Colombo, Matteo Realdo (1516–59)
common cold
Company of Barbers London (1376)
consultants/specialists
Britain
United States
consultations
cortisone
cosmetic surgery
Creutzfeld-Jakob disease
Crimean War (1853–6)
Cruelty to Animals Act (1876)
Cullen, William (1710–90)
cytology
Dale, Henry (1875–1968)
Davy, Humphrey (1778–1829)
Deaconess Institute (1836)
death
Declaration of Helsinki (1964)
deficiency diseases
degenerationism
Descartes/Cartesianism
diagnostic instruments/tools
diagnostics
Dieffenbach, Johann (1792–1847)
Digby, Kenelm (1603–65)
digestion
Dioscorides (c.AD100)
disease/diseases see also theories of disease; under name
changing environment
deficiency; role of nutrition
development
endemic
exported
genetic component
lifestyle
occupational
parasitological model
social product
spread; insect vector
and war
zoonoses (animal-based)
Dix, Dorothea (1802–87)
Djerassi, Carl (b.1923)
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
doctor/patient relationship
expectations
Hippocratic model; discarded
impact of scientific medicine
and therapeutic advances
doctors, image drug-resistant bacteria
drugs see also pharmacology; pharmacopoeia; under name
analgesics, narcotics, sedatives
mass production
psychoactive
side effects
dysentery, tropical
Ebola
Eddy, Mary Baker (1821–1910)
Edinburgh University see also medical education
Edwards, Robert (b.1925)
Ehrlich, Paul (1845–1915)
Eijkman, Christian (1858–1930)
Einthoven, Willem (1860–1927)
electrocardiograph
electrophysiology
Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humanae (Haller, 1759–66)
elephantiasis
endemic diseases
Enders, John (1897–1985)
endocrinology
endoscopes
Enlightenment
epidemics
New World
Eristratus (c4th BC)
eugenics
Eustachio, Bartolommeo (1520–74)
Fabrizio, Girolamo (Fabricius ab Aquapendente) (1537–1619)
Falloppio, Gabriele (1523–63)
family/old-style doctors see also doctor/patient relationship; general practitioners
Fellowship of Surgeons (1368–9)
Finlay, Carlos (1833–1915)
Fleming, Alexander (1881–1955)
Fliedner, Theodor (1800–1864)
Florey, Howard (1895–1968)
Frankenstein (Shelley, 1818)
Fry, Elizabeth, née Gurney (1780–1845)
Fundamenta medicinae (Hoffman, 1695)
Funk, Casimir (1884–1967)
Galen (ad129–c.216)/Galenic medicine
on blood
challenged
dissection
heroism
physiology
gall bladder/stones
Galvani, Luigi (1737–98), De Viribus Electricitatis (1792)
gangrene
Garrett, Elizabeth (1836–1917)
general practitioners see also doctor/patient relationship; family/old-style doctors
Britain
United States
genetics
Germany
laboratories
state medicine
germs see bacteria/bacteriology
Gillies, Harold (1882–1960)
Goldberger, Joseph (1874–1929)
gout Grahamites
Grassi, Giovanni (1854–1925)
Gull, William (1860–90)
Hahnemann, Samuel (1755–1833)
Haller, Albrecht von (1708–77)
Halstead, William S. (1852–1922)
Handbook of Physiology (Muller, 1833–40)
Harvey, William (1578–1657)
De Motu Cordis (1628)
healers
health insurance
United States
heart see also cardio-pulmonary function
disease
pacemaker
transplants
heart/lung machine
Hellenistic medicine
Helmholtz, Hermann (1821–94)
Helmont, Johannes Baptista van (1579–1644)
Hench, Philip Showalter (1896–1965)
Herophilus (c.330–260 BC)
Hertzler, Arthur (1870–1946), The Horse and Buggy Doctor (1938)
Hippocrates (460–377 BC)
Hippocratic medicine
conservatism
human dissection
humoral theory
practice
strengths/weaknesses
wound treatment
Hippocratic oath
histology
Hoffman, Friedrich (1660–1742)
homeopathy
homeostasis
Hooke, Robert (1635–1703)
Hôpital Necker (Paris)
Hopkins, Frederick Gowland (1861–1947)
hormones
hospitals
Christian tradition
funding
increase in numbers
medical research
medicalization
reform
specialist
status improves
Howard, John (1726–90)
Huggins, Charles (b.1901)
human dissection
human experimentation
Human Genome Project
human immunodeficiency virus see AIDS/HIV
humoral medicine
appearance and h balance
replaced
use of drugs
Hunter, John (1728–93)
Hunter, William (1718–83)
Huntington, George (1851–1916)
Huntington’s chorea
hydropathy
Hygeia (health)
iatrochemistry
iatrophysics
immune system/immunities
natural
immunology
beginnings
immuno-suppressant drugs
implant surgery
in vitro fertilization (IVF)
industrial diseases
infant mortality
infectious diseases, development
influenza
Institute of Chemistry (Giessen)
Institute of Nursing (1840)
insulin
Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (Bernard, 1865)
Islam
human dissection
surgery
and Western medicine
Japan, human experimentation
Jenner, Edward (1749–1823)
Jesuit bark
Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore)
keyhole surgery
al-Kindi (c.800–870), formulary
Kitasato, Shibasaburo (1852–1931)
Koch, H. H. Robert (1843–1910)
Kocher, E. Theodor (1841–1917)
Koch’s Postulates
kymograph
Laënnec, René Théophile Hyacinthe (1781–1826)
Lane, William Arbuthnot (1856–1943)
laser surgery
Lassa fever
lateral cystotomy
‘laudable pus’ Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743–94)
Leeuwenhoek, Anton van (1632–1723)
leprosaria
Liebig, Justus von (1803–73)
life principle
lifestyle diseases
lifestyle drugs
ligatures, vascular
Lind, James (1716–94)
Lister, Joseph (1827–1912)
Liston, Robert (1794–1847)
lithotomy
Lock Hospital (London)
Loewi, Otto (1873–1961)
London
foreign medical students
hospitals
Louis, Pierre (1787–1872), Essay on Clinical Instruction (1834)
Lower, Richard (1631–91)
Ludwig, Karl Friedrich (1816–95)
Lydgate, Dr (Middlemarch)
lying-in (maternity) hospitals
malaria
Malpighi, Marcello (1628–94)
man-midwives/accoucheurs
Manson, Patrick (1844–1922)
Marburg fever
mastectomy
materia medica
becomes pharmacopoeia
New World additions
Mayo Clinic (US)
McDowell, Ephraim (1771–1830)
McIndoe, Archibald Hector (1900–1960)
Mead, Richard (1673–1754)
measles
measuring instruments
mechanical philosophy
Medawar, Peter (1915–87)
medical botany
medical education
anatomy teaching
hospital-based
Middle Ages/Renaissance
medical ethics
medical insurance
medical organization
medical profession
exclusion of women
licensing
mission
public confidence
self-regulating
medical technology
medical texts see also under author; title
recovery/retranslation
medicine
appeal of alternative
becomes medical sciences
consumer confidence
corporatization
experimental
hospital
and the law
propaganda wars
public expectations
reform
social product
state controlled
mental hospitals
mercury
metallic/mineral therapies
Metchnikoff, Elie (1845–1916)
Method of Treating Wounds (Paré, 1545)
microbiology
microscope/microscopy
mid-wifery
Minot, George Richards (1885–1950)
molecular biology
Mondeville, Henri de (1260–1320)
Mondino de’Luzzi (1270–1326), Anatomia mundini (1316)
Monro, Alexander (1697–1767)
Montpellier University (France)
Morgagni, Giovanni Battista (1682–1771)
mosquito eradication
De motu animalium (Borelli, 1680)
MRI scan (magnetic resonance imaging)
Müller, Johannes (1801–58)
Murphy, William Parry (1892–1987)
muscle fibres
National Insurance Act (1911)
National Insurance
Natural History of the Human Teeth (Hunter, 1771)
Nazi medicine
nerves/nervous system
neurophysiology
experiments
foundations
NHS (National Health Service) (1948)
Nightingale, Florence (1820–1910)
nitrous oxide
Nuremberg Code (1947)
nursing
nutrition
Observations on Certain Parts of the Animal Oeconomy (Hunter, 1786)
obstetrics
and anaesthesia
caesarean section
instruments
Obuchov Hospital (St Petersburg)
occupational diseases
On the Sites and Causes of Diseases (Morgagni, 1761)
On Venereal Disease (Hunter, 1786)
operating theatres
ophthomaloscope
organ donation
organ transplants
Origin of Species (Darwin, 1859)
Osler, William (1849–1919)
osteopathy
ovariotomy
oxygen
Palmer, Daniel David (1845–1913)
Panacea (cure-all)
pandemics
Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) (c.1493–1541)
parasites/parasitology
Paré, Ambroise (c.1510–90)
Parkinson’s disease
Pasteur, Louis (1822–95)
pasteurization patent/proprietary medicines
J. Morison’s Vegetable Pills pathogens, die out
pathological/morbid anatomy
pathology
pathophysiology
pellagra
penicillin
Pepys, Samuel (1633–1703)
Peruvian bark
pesthouses
PET scan (positron emission tomograph)
Petit, Jean-Louis (1674–1750)
phagocytosis
pharmacology
pharmacopoeia
c19th/early c20th
growth in c20th
physical examinations
physicians
early
ideal
and surgeons
physiology see also under name of process; system
in Britain
experimental
mechanisms
the Pill
Pincus, Gregory (1903–67)
plague hospitals
plastic and reconstructive surgery
Pope, Alexander (1688–1744)
population growth
post-mortems
Priessnitz, Vincent (1799–1851)
primary care
Britain
Prontosil (sulphanilamide)
Prozac
psychosurgery
public dissection
public health
inequities
programmes/policies
public science
puerperal fever
quackery/quacks
surgeons
quarantine
Queen Charlotte’s Hospital (London)
rabies
Réamur, René (1683–1757)
Reed, Walter (1851–1902)
reproductive technology
respiration
rhinoplasty
Rockefeller Institute (New York)
Rokitanski, Carl von (1804–78)
Röntgen, William (1845–1923)
Ross, Ronald (1857–1932)
Royal Society of London (1662)
Sabin, Albert (1906–93)
sacred medicine
Salk, Jonas (1914–95)
Salpêtrière Hospital (Paris)
Salvarsan
Sanctorius, Sanctorius (1561–1636)
sanitary movement
Sauvages, François Boissier de (1706–67)
schistosomiasis (‘big belly’)
Schwann, Theodor (1810–82)
scientific materialism
scientific naturalism
scientific medicine
scurvy
Scutari
Sebastopol
secular medicine
De sedibus et causis morborum (Morgagni, 1761)
Semmelweis, Ignaz Phillipp (1818–65)
serum therapy
Servetus, Michael (1511–53)
Seventh Day Adventists
Sharpey-Shäfer, Edward (1850–1935)
shamans
Sherrington, Charles (1857–1952)
Shippen, William (1736–1808)
sickness see disease/diseases
Simpson, James Young (1811–70)
skeleton
small pox
social medicine
Soranos of Ephesos (AD)
soul
spiritual healing
Stahl, Georg Ernst (1660–1734)
Steptoe, Patrick (1913–88)
stethoscope
Still, Andrew Taylor (1828–1917)
Stoerck, Anton (1731–1803)
Stone, Edmund (1702–68)
streptomycin
sulphanilimide (Prontosil)
surgeons
and physicians
professional standing
surgery
advances; impetus
in Hippocratic medicine
infection and antisepsis
pre-anaesthesia
systematized
technological innovation
surgical education
surgical texts see also under author; title
Sydenham, Thomas (1624–89)
syphilis (‘Great Pox’)
imported into Europe
treatments
Szent Györgi, Albert von N. (1893–1986)
teaching hospitals
Thalidomide
Theophrastus (c4th BC)
theories of disease
cell
germ
malfunction
miasmata
microbial
neurophysiological
ontological
therapeutic nihilism
therapeutic trials
thermometer
Thomson, Samuel A. (1769–1843)
Thomsonianism
tissue pathology
transplant surgery
rejection
travel and disease
Treatise on the Blood Inflammation and Gunshot Wounds (Hunter, 1794)
Trembley, Abraham (1700–1784)
trepanning (trephining)
tropical medicine
tuberculosis
typhus
ultrasound
unnecessary surgery
United States healthcare
hospital funding
hospital medicine
hospitals
medicine as business
nursing
scientific medicine
USSR, state controlled medicine
vaccines
vegetarianism
Vesalius, Andreas (1514–64)
De Fabrica Corporis Humani (1543)
Viagra
Vienna, medicine
Virchow, Rudolf (1821–1902)
vitamins
vivisection
protest
Volta, Alessandro (1745–1827), Letters on Animal Electricity (1792)
Waksman, Selman (1888–1973)
war
and disease
and surgical advances
Wasserman, August von (1866–1925)
Welch, William Henry (1850–1934)
Whipple, George (1878–1976)
white blood cells
Willis, Thomas (1621–73)
willow bark
Wiseman, Richard (1622–76), Several Chirurgical Treatises (1676)
Wöhler, Friedrich (1800–1882)
Woodall, John (1556–1643), The Surgeon’s Mate (1617)
wound management
controversy
yellow fever
zoonoses (animal-based diseases)