anagogical sense: the spiritual sense of Scripture that has to do with the life to come.
carnal: see flesh, fleshly.
covenant: a solemn agreement between two parties that establishes a special relationship. In the Old Testament, God makes a covenant with Abraham (Gen 15; 17) and later with Israel as a whole on Mount Sinai (Exod 20; 24). In the New Testament, Jesus establishes a new and eternal covenant through his passion, death, and resurrection (Luke 22:14–20). The Greek word for covenant in the †Septuagint is diathēkē, which also means “will” or “testament,” a meaning that Paul employs in Gal 3:15.
doxology, doxological: prayer that ascribes glory or praise to God.
ecclesial: something that pertains to the Church (Greek ekklēsia); for example, ecclesial discipline refers to church discipline.
elemental powers (Greek stoicheia, “elements”): Paul uses this term in Gal 4:3, 9 to refer to what held both Gentiles and Jews in subjection prior to the coming of Christ. Although interpreters debate what exactly Paul means, this commentary takes the term as having its usual meaning in Greek literature of the period—that is, it refers to the four elements (earth, water, air, and fire) that Greek thinkers regarded as composing the physical world. It is Paul’s way of expressing what humanity was subject to—that is, what is merely physical, earthly, and of this age, in contrast to the new possibility in Christ of living as children of God who are led by the Holy Spirit.
eschatological (from Greek eschata, “last things”): all that belongs to the end of human history and the fulfillment of the new age in Christ. The New Testament teaches that the new age began with Jesus’ passion, death, and resurrection and the gift of the Spirit and will reach its fullness when Christ returns (1 Cor 10:11; Eph 1:13–14; Heb 9:26; see commentary on Gal 1:1–4).
faith (Greek pistis): (1) belief, such as belief in Christ, in God, or in the gospel proclamation that justifies a person (Gal 2:16; 3:2; see the sidebar, “What Does Paul Mean by ‘Faith’?,” p. 100); (2) faithfulness in a relationship (see the sidebar, “‘Faith in Christ’ or ‘the Faithfulness of Christ’?,” p. 86); (3) the content of the gospel (Gal 1:23).
flesh, fleshly (Greek sarx): (1) the body (Gal 2:20; 4:13); (2) what is merely human (3:3; 4:23); (3) fallen human nature characterized by sinful inclinations and disordered desires (5:13, 16–21). Elsewhere in the New Testament “flesh” has the anatomical meaning of muscle or soft tissue (Luke 24:39); in John 6:51–56, “my flesh” refers to Christ’s eucharistic body.
Gentile, Gentiles (Greek ethnē, also translated as “nations” in 3:8): people of non-Jewish nationality. In other books of the New Testament, “Gentiles” is sometimes used to refer only to unbelieving Gentiles, who lack relationship with God and who live immorally and unjustly (e.g., Eph 4:17; 1 Pet 2:12; 4:3).
gospel: the message (literally, “good news”) about salvation through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, which calls for a response of faith and repentance. Although there is only one gospel (Gal 1:6–9), Paul acknowledges a difference in how it is presented to Jews and Gentiles (2:2, 7), a difference that is evident in the apostolic preaching in Acts (e.g., 13:14–41; 17:22–31). “Gospel” (capitalized) later came to refer to each of the four canonical narratives of the life of Jesus.
grace (Greek charis): (1) an attitude of favor, generosity, or magnanimity (Gal 1:6, 15); (2) a gift, benefit, or other effect (e.g., blessing, justification) that results from this attitude (1:3; 2:21); (3) the gift of the Spirit acting in or through a person for their benefit or for that of the Church (2:9). The distinguishing character of “grace” is that it is freely given, not earned.
imperative mood: a grammatical term referring to verbs that convey a command or instruction—for example, “Do not get drunk on wine . . . but be filled with the Spirit” (Eph 5:18). Verbs in the imperative mood instruct readers about how they are to live their new identity in Christ (Gal 5:13b, 16b; 6:1–2).
indicative mood: a grammatical term referring to verbs that describe matters of fact—what was, is, or will be. Verbs in the indicative mood often recount what God has done in Christ and the change that it has brought about for believers (Gal 2:16, 20; 3:11).
inheritance: a term in Scripture that often refers to a share in the land that God promised to Abraham and his descendants (see the sidebar, “What Is Abraham’s Inheritance?,” p. 107). As the story of salvation has progressed, the understanding of this inheritance has deepened, so that in the New Testament it often refers to eternal life with God.
Judaizers, Judaizing: people who taught that it was necessary for Gentile Christians to be circumcised and keep the law of Moses.
justify, justification: according to its most basic sense, “to justify” means to judge that a person’s conduct meets God’s standards, which for a Jew meant the law of Moses. Paul, however, on the basis of many Old Testament texts and his encounter with the risen Lord, came to see that no human being will be found truly righteous before God on the basis of conduct (Gal 2:16; Ps 143:2; see Rom 3:9–19). He discovers instead that human beings need to be justified in a more radical sense—namely, to be made righteous by a divine act that not only grants forgiveness of sins but also transforms a person from within by the Holy Spirit. The basis of this justification is Christ’s death on the cross for our sins (Gal 2:20), and the way to receive this gift is through faith in Christ (see the sidebar, “What Does It Mean to Be Justified?,” pp. 82–83).
law (Greek nomos; Hebrew torah): refers to the first five books of the Bible—that is, the Pentateuch or the law of Moses—and, occasionally, the entire Old Testament (e.g., Rom 3:19). Paul usually uses “law” to refer to God’s commandments but sometimes focuses on the law as divine revelation (both senses are found in Rom 3:21b and Gal 4:21). For more, see the sidebars, “What Are ‘Works of the Law’?,” p. 84, and “Paul’s Nuanced View of the Law,” pp. 146–47.
live (Greek peripateō, “walk”): to conduct oneself in a particular manner. In Galatians, Paul uses this word to refer to the Christian way of life (5:16).
Lord (Greek kyrios): (1) in common usage, a term of respectful address (like “Sir”) or the title used for a slave master or for the Roman emperor; (2) in the †Septuagint, a word that translates the divine name YHWH and refers to God; (3) in the New Testament, a title of Jesus that refers to his divinity and royal authority (Phil 2:11). Catholics use this title in the liturgy when they pray, “Kyrie, eleison,” “Lord, have mercy.”
LXX: see Septuagint.
Messiah (from Hebrew mashiah, “anointed one”; in Greek Christos): the descendant of King David promised by God, who Jews of Jesus’ day hoped would come to restore the kingdom to Israel. The early Christians recognized Jesus as the Messiah promised in the Jewish Scriptures, the Christ, whose eternal kingdom includes people of every nation.
nations: see Gentile, Gentiles.
Qumran: an archaeological site northwest of the Dead Sea, thought to be an Essene settlement, near which the Dead Sea Scrolls, a treasure trove of Jewish religious writings, were discovered. The Essenes were a Jewish sect at the time of Jesus and are known from the writings of Philo and Josephus.
rhetoric, rhetorical: (1) the science and art of persuasive oratory developed by Aristotle and his successors (see “Genre” in the introduction, pp. 18–19); (2) persuasive ability in speech or writing. Rhetorical questions do not expect an answer but are intended to make a point.
ritual: (1) as a noun, a (religious) rite or ceremony; (2) as an adjective, referring to regulations of purity or procedure that govern daily life and especially acts of worship. Thomas Aquinas referred to this type of legislation in the law of Moses as the ceremonial law (see the sidebar, “Law in Catholic Tradition,” pp. 196–97).
Septuagint: Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible dating from the third and second centuries BC, commonly abbreviated LXX because of the tradition that it was the work of seventy scholars. As the Bible used by Greek-speaking Jews and Christians, it is often quoted in the New Testament.
Torah (Hebrew for “law” or “instruction”): the first five books of the Bible, attributed to Moses and thus also called the law of Moses, the books of Moses, or the Pentateuch. “Torah” is also used more broadly to refer to all God’s teachings in the Old Testament on how to live an upright life in covenant relationship with him.
tropological sense: the spiritual meaning of Scripture that has to do with Christian conduct; also called the moral sense.
type, typological: describes a person, place, institution, or event in an earlier stage of God’s plan that foreshadows God’s action at a later stage in Christ, the Church, the sacraments, or the future kingdom.