10
Freehand Drawing

Despite rapid and continuing advances in digital imaging technology, drawing with a free hand holding a pen or pencil remains the most intuitive means we have for graphically recording observations, thoughts, and experiences. The tactile, kinesthetic nature of freehand drawing in direct response to sensory phenomena sharpens our awareness in the present and enables us to collect visual memories of the past. Freehand drawing also empowers us to initiate and freely work through ideas of a possible future that we imagine in the mind's eye. During the design process itself, the freehand drawing of diagrams allows us to further explore these ideas and develop them into workable concepts.

Drawing from Observation

Drawing from observation sharpens our awareness of environmental settings, fosters our ability to see and understand architectural elements and relationships, and enhances our ability to build and retain visual memories. It is through drawing that we are able to perceive our environment in a fresh way and appreciate the uniqueness of a place.

We draw from observation to notice, to understand, and to remember.

To Notice

We often walk, bike, or drive by places daily without noticing them. Drawing from direct observation, on location, helps us become more aware of where we live, work, and play—the architectural landscape, the urban spaces the architecture creates, and the life these spaces nourish and sustain.

To Understand

Drawing from observation fosters careful seeing, not only of the details that catch the eye but also how they fit into a larger framework of structure, patterns, and shapes. Moreover, beyond interpreting the optical image taken in by our visual system, the drawing process involves visual thinking that can stimulate the imagination and help us consider the two-dimensional patterns and three-dimensional relationships that comprise the built environment.

To Remember

The act of drawing not only stimulates our seeing; the process also creates a graphic record of places and events we have seen and experienced. Revisiting the resulting drawings at a later time can help us recall past memories and bring them forward to the present to be relished once again.

Drawing from observation requires simple equipment: a pen or pencil and a pad of paper or sketchbook suitable for both dry and wet media.

You may want to experiment with the feel and capabilities of other media, such as charcoal pencils and markers. Try to determine the limits of expression of which each is capable and how its characteristics affect the nature of a drawing. For example, you should find that a fine-tipped pen or pencil encourages you to focus on minute details. Because it takes innumerable fine lines to cover a given area, many line drawings end up smaller than intended or, if large in size, weak in intensity. On the other hand, sketching with a broad-tipped pencil or marker fosters a broader view and the omission of details.

Freehand sketches may consist purely of lines or be a combination of lines and tones. The line, however, remains the single most essential drawing element, one that is capable of a wide range of expression. It can define shape and form and even imply a sense of depth and space. A line can portray hard as well as soft materials; it can be light or heavy, limp or taut, bold or tentative.

Drawing Subjects

Drawing from observation is most meaningful and rewarding when you draw what interests you. Even when assigned a subject to draw, consider what aspect or quality of the subject attracts your attention.

Possible subjects for drawing from observation may vary in scale from fragments of buildings to landscapes.

The Life of the City

Other worthwhile explorations include studies of proportion, scale, light, and color; how materials meet in construction assemblies; and other sensible qualities that contribute to the character of a place.

Drawing Composition

As our visual system takes in a scene, we normally focus on what is of interest to us. Since our perception is discriminating, we should also be selective in what we draw. How we frame and compose a view, and what we emphasize with our drawing technique, will tell others what attracted our attention and what visual qualities we focused on. In this way, our drawings will naturally communicate our perceptions with an economy of means.

Composing a perspective view of a scene involves positioning ourselves at an advantageous point in space and deciding how to frame what we see.

Composing a View

Pay attention to the proportions of a chosen scene. Some scenes may suggest a vertical orientation for the composition while others are more horizontal in nature. The proportions of others may depend on what one chooses to emphasize in the scene.

When portraying a specific aspect of an object or scene, a closer viewpoint may be necessary so that the size of the drawing can accommodate the rendering of tonal value, texture, and light.

To convey the sense that the viewer is within a space or scene rather than on the outside looking in, we should establish three pictorial regions: a foreground, a middle ground, and a background. All three should not have equal emphasis; one should dominate to heighten the pictorial space of the drawing.

Positioning ourselves in proximity to a foreground element, such as a table, a column, or the trunk of a tree can help establish the relationship between viewer and what is viewed.

Placing the Composition

Once we have mentally composed the view we wish to draw, there are certain steps we should take to ensure that the intended view will fit properly on the page.

Visualizing Extents

Before touching pen or pencil to paper, we should first visualize the horizontal and vertical extents of the view.

Rule of Thirds

Some compositions tend to be symmetrical in nature, such as street scenes and the naves of churches. Most scenes, however, are asymmetrical, having a focus or point of interest that is off-center. To position these views, we can rely on the rule of thirds for guidance.

Sizing to Fit

The first line or shape that we draw on a page becomes a reference for all succeeding lines and shapes. Properly positioning and sizing this element can help ensure that the entire composition will fit the page.

Contour Drawing

Contour drawing is one approach to drawing from observation. Its primary purpose is to develop visual acuity and sensitivity to qualities of surface and form. The process of contour drawing suppresses the symbolic abstraction we normally use to represent things. Instead, it compels us to pay close attention, look carefully, and experience a subject with both our visual and tactile senses.

  • Contour drawing is best done with either a soft, well-sharpened pencil or a fine-tipped pen that is capable of producing a single incisive line. This fosters a feeling of precision that corresponds to the acuity of vision that contour drawing requires.
  • Imagine the pencil or pen is in actual contact with the subject as you draw.
  • As the eye carefully traces the contours of a subject, the hand moves the drawing instrument at the same slow and deliberate pace, and responds to every indentation and undulation of form.
  • Avoid the temptation to move the hand faster than the eye can see; examine the shape of each contour you see in the subject without considering or worrying about its identity.

We are conditioned to see the shapes of things rather than the shapes of the spaces between them. While we normally perceive spatial voids as having no substance, they share the same edges as the objects they separate or envelop. The positive shapes of figures and the shapeless spaces of backgrounds share the same boundaries and combine to form an inseparable whole—a unity of opposites.

In drawing, also, negative shapes share the contour lines that define the edges of positive shapes. The format and composition of a drawing consists of positive and negative shapes that fit together like the interlocking pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. In both seeing and drawing, we should raise the shapes of negative spaces to the same level of importance as the positive shapes of figures and see them as equal partners in the relationship. Since negative shapes do not always have the easily recognizable qualities of positive shapes, they can be seen only if we make the effort.

  • As we draw the edges of positive shapes, we should also be aware of the negative shapes we are creating.
  • Focusing on the shapes of these negative spaces prevents us from thinking consciously about what the positive shapes represent, and we are free to draw them purely as two-dimensional figures.

Analytical Drawing

In drawing analytically, we seek to merge two approaches—describing the outer configuration of surfaces of an object and explaining its inner structural nature and the way its parts are arranged and joined in space. Unlike contour drawing, in which we proceed from part to part, analytical drawing proceeds from the whole to the subordinate parts and finally the details. Subordinating parts and details to the structure of the overall form prevents a piecemeal approach that can result in faulty proportional relationships and a lack of unity.

  • These exploratory lines are diagrammatic in nature, serving to establish and explain the underlying geometry and structure of the subject.
  • These initial traces are also called regulating lines because they can be used to locate points, measure size and distance, find centers, express perpendicular and tangential relationships, and establish alignments and offsets.
  • Regulating lines represent visual judgments to be confirmed or adjusted. Do not erase any previously drawn lines. If necessary, restate a line—correcting basic shapes and checking the relative proportions between the parts.
  • Always strive for incremental improvement over the last line drawn.
  • Through a continual process of elimination and intensification, gradually build up the density and weight of the final object lines, especially at critical points of intersection, connection, and transition.
  • Having all lines remain visible in the final drawing intensifies the depth of the image and reveals the constructive process by which it was generated and developed.
  • The closest analogy to analytical drawing is the wireframe model produced by 3D CAD and modeling software.
  • Before actually drawing a line, practice the eye-mind-hand movement by marking the beginning and end of the intended line with dots. Avoid scratching in lines with short, feeble strokes. Instead, draw lines as smoothly and continuously as possible.
  • For short strokes or when applying considerable pressure, swing the hand at the wrist or let the fingers perform the necessary motions.
  • For longer strokes, swing the entire forearm and hand freely from the elbow, with a minimum of wrist and finger movement. Only as you approach the end of the stroke should you bring the wrist and fingers into motion to control where the line ends.

In the analytical process of drawing, we build on geometry. If we are able to break down what we see into regular geometric volumes or a geometric arrangement of parts, we can more easily draw them. We can reorganize the forms in an additive manner or transform them in a subtractive manner. The resulting structure can then serve as a framework for the development and refinement of the forms and intervening spaces.

  • The cube is a convenient three-dimensional unit with which to begin.
  • From the cube, we can use geometric principles to derive other basic geometric volumes, such as the pyramid, cylinder, and cone. Mastery of drawing these simple forms is a prerequisite for drawing a variety of derivative compositions.
  • We can extend a cube horizontally, vertically, as well as into the depth of a drawing. A number of cubic volumes or derivative forms can link, extend, or grow into centralized, linear, symmetrical, or clustered compositions.
  • Working from a cubic form, we can selectively remove
    or carve out portions to generate a new form. In this subtractive process, we use the solid-void relationship between form and space to guide us as we draw the proportion and development of the parts.

In drawing complex forms, keep the following points in mind:

Building a Drawing

Every drawing evolves over time. Knowing where to begin, how to proceed, and when to stop are crucial to the process of drawing. Building up a drawing in a systematic way is an important concept. We should advance by progressive stages and construct a drawing from the ground up. Each successive iteration or cycle through the drawing process should first resolve the relationships between the major parts, then resolve the relationships within each part, and finally readjust the relationships between the major parts once again.

Tediously finishing one part of a drawing before going on to the next can easily result in distorting the relationships between each part and the rest of the composition. Maintaining a consistent level of completeness or incompleteness across the entire surface of a drawing is important to preserving a unified, balanced, and focused image.

The following procedure prescribes a way of seeing as well as drawing. It involves building up a drawing in the following stages:

Establishing Structure

Without a cohesive structure to hold it together, the composition of a drawing collapses. Once the composition for a view is established, we use the analytical process of drawing to establish its structural framework.

In drawing an environmental setting—an outdoor space or an interior room—we view the scene from a fixed position in space. The structure must therefore be regulated by the principles of linear perspective. We are concerned here principally with the pictorial effects of linear perspective—the convergence of parallel lines and the diminishing size of objects with depth. Our mind interprets what we see and presents an objective reality based on what we know of an object. In drawing a perspective view, we attempt to illustrate an optical reality. These two are often at odds, and the mind usually wins out.

To help us gauge the relative lengths and angles of lines, we can use the shaft of the pencil or pen with which we are drawing.

Layering Tonal Values

In composing and establishing the structure of a drawing, we create a framework of lines. To this scaffolding, we add tonal values to represent light and dark areas of the scene, define planes in space, model their form, describe surface color and texture, and convey spatial depth.

  • Begin by laying out large areas of the lightest tonal value.
  • Then layer the smaller shapes of tonal value over the preceding areas of value. Working in this manner helps to unify rather than fragment a drawing.
  • Shaded surfaces and shadows should be applied as transparent tones. They are neither opaque nor uniform in value.
  • The boundaries of cast shadows are distinct in brilliant light, but softer in diffuse light. In either case, we can define the outer edges of shadows with a contrast in value, never with a drawn line.
  • If an area is too light, we can always darken it. But once an area has been darkened too much and becomes muddy, it is difficult to correct. The freshness and vitality of a drawing is fragile and easily lost.

Adding Details

The final stage in the building of a drawing is the addition of those details that help us identify the various elements of an object or scene. It is through these details that we sense and communicate the inherent qualities of a subject or uniqueness of a place. The smaller parts and details of a drawing must join in a way that further explains the whole.

  • Details must be placed within a structured pattern to make sense. This structure provides a framework for a particular area or feature to be worked on in greater detail and more elaborately.
  • At the same time, a drawing needs contrast with areas of little or no detail. By this contrast, those areas with detail will naturally be given more emphasis.
  • Remember to be selective. We can never include every detail in a drawing. Some editing is necessary as we attempt to communicate particular qualities of form and space, and this often means tolerating a degree of incompleteness.
  • The very incompleteness of a drawn image involves and invites the viewer to participate in its completion. Even our perception of optical reality is usually incomplete, being edited by the knowledge we bring to the act of seeing and our momentary needs and concerns.

Travel Sketching

A key benefit of sketching while traveling to places near and far is that the act of drawing engages the eye, the mind, and the heart in the travel experience, focusing attention on the present and creating vivid visual memories that can be recalled at a later time.

Page Elements

A travel journal can contain more than just drawings. As a record of one's experiences, the journal may consist of the following elements.

Capturing the Moment

Often while traveling, we are constrained by the amount of time we have to stop and draw. We therefore need to be able to practice drawing quickly.

A sound strategy is to first establish the structure of the overall composition and then, depending on the amount of time available, add whatever details we can to develop the necessary focus and capture the spirit of a place.

Balancing the Picturesque and the Analytical

While drawing the optical image—the perspective view before us—is always the most tempting, it can be just as satisfying to draw a simple detail that attracts your attention, or an analytical diagram that attempts to explain the proportions of a pleasing space or the pattern of solids and voids in an attractive urban setting.

Practice drawing in an attempt to understand the two-dimensional plan and sectional relationships as well as the three-dimensional, volumetric qualities of the architecture you experience.

Recalling Memories

Once collected in a bound sketchbook, travel sketches serve to remind us of where we have been and what we have seen and experience. Perusing the pages of a journal can trigger vivid memories of the sights, sounds, and even smells of certain places. These memories can help us recall the humid heat of the day or the cool rainy mist that fell as we drew.

Diagramming

All drawings are, to some degree, abstractions of a perceived reality or an imagined conception. In design drawing, we operate at varying levels of abstraction. At one end of the spectrum lies the presentation drawing, which attempts to simulate as clearly as possible the future reality of a design proposal. At the other end is the diagram, which has the ability to explain something without necessarily representing it in a pictorial way.

  • The hallmark of a diagram is its ability to simplify
    a complex notion into essential elements and relationships by a process of elimination and reduction.
  • The abstract nature of diagramming enables us to analyze and understand the essential nature of design elements, to consider their possible relationships, and to quickly generate a series of viable alternatives to a given design problem.

Digital Diagramming

A distinct advantage of digital technology is its ability to accept and process information in a precise and accurate manner. We should not allow this capacity for precision to induce premature closure when exploring ideas with graphics software in the ambiguous, early stages of the design process.

We may use any of the drawing systems to stimulate our visual thinking and to initiate, clarify, and assess ideas.

  • When a diagram isolates a single issue or set of relationships for study, a two-dimensional format is usually sufficient.
  • However, when we begin to explore the complex spatial and relational attributes of a design, a three-dimensional drawing system may become necessary.
  • Particularly effective vehicles for studying the volumetric massing and spatial dimensions of a design are cutaway, expanded, and phantom views.

Diagramming Elements

Diagrams are visual abstractions that can depict the essence of concepts and things.

Concepts

  • Scale
  • Proportion
  • Boundaries
  • Shelter
  • Outlook
  • Axes
  • Emphasis
  • Hierarchy
  • Entry and path
  • Nodes
  • Similarity
  • Connections
  • Movement
  • Process
  • Forces
  • Zones

Things

  • Structure
  • Enclosure
  • Landscape elements
  • Sun
  • Wind
  • Rain
  • Topography
  • Light
  • Heat

Diagramming Relationships

In addition to describing the essence of design elements, diagrams effectively examine and explain the relationships among these elements. To maintain a manageable level of abstraction in a diagram, we use the grouping principles of size, proximity, and similarity.

  • Relative size describes quantifiable aspects of each element as well as establishes a hierarchical ranking among a number of elements.
  • Relative proximity indicates the intensity of relationship among entities.
  • Similarity of shape, size, or tonal value establishes visual sets that help reduce the number of elements and maintain a manageable level of abstraction.

To further clarify and emphasize specific types of linkages or the nature of interactions among the entities, we can employ a variety of lines and arrows. And by varying the width, length, continuity, and tonal value of these linking elements, we can also describe varying degrees, levels, and intensities of connection.

Lines

We use the organizing power of lines in diagramming to define the boundaries of fields, denote the interdependencies of elements, and structure formal and spatial relationships. In clarifying the organizational and relational aspects of a diagram, lines make both abstract and pictorial concepts visible and understandable.

Arrows

Arrows are a special type of connecting line. The wedge-shaped ends can signify one- or two-way movement from one element to another, indicate the direction of a force or action, or denote the phase of a process. For clarity, we use different types of arrows to distinguish between the types of relationships as well as varying degrees of intensity or importance.

Diagramming Issues

Diagrams can effectively address a diversity of design issues.

Site diagrams explore how the siting and orientation of a design respond to environmental and contextual forces.

  • Contextual constraints and opportunities
  • Environmental forces of sun, wind, and precipitation
  • Topography, landscape, and water features
  • Approach, access, and paths through a site

Programmatic diagrams investigate how a design organization addresses programmatic requirements.

  • Spatial dimensions required for activities
  • Functional proximities and adjacencies
  • Relationships between served and service spaces
  • Zoning of public and private functions

Circulation diagrams study how patterns of movement influence and are influenced by program elements.

  • Modes of pedestrian, vehicular, and service travel
  • Approach, entry, nodes, and paths of movement
  • Horizontal and vertical paths

Formal diagrams examine the correspondence between structural pattern, spatial volumes, and elements of enclosure.

  • Figure-ground and solid-void relationships
  • Ordering principles, such as symmetry and rhythm
  • Structural elements and patterns
  • Elements and configuration of enclosure
  • Spatial qualities, such as shelter and outlook
  • Hierarchical organization of spaces
  • Formal massing and geometry
  • Proportion and scale

System diagrams study the layout and integration of structural, lighting, and environmental control systems.

Parti

The term “parti” refers to the concept or primary organizing idea for an architectural design. Drawing a concept or parti in diagrammatic form enables a designer to quickly and efficiently investigate the overall nature and organization of a scheme. Instead of concentrating on how a design might appear, the concept diagram focuses on the key structural and relational features of an idea.

A suitable concept should of course be appropriate and relevant to the nature of the design problem. In addition, both a design concept and its graphic portrayal in a diagram should have the following characteristics. A parti diagram should be:

  • Inclusive: capable of addressing the multiple issues of a design problem.
  • Visually descriptive: powerful enough to guide the development of a design.
  • Adaptable: flexible enough to accept change.
  • Sustainable: able to endure manipulations and transformations during the design process without a loss of identity.

Diagramming Principles

In generating, developing, and utilizing diagrams, certain principles can help stimulate our thinking.

  • Keep concept diagrams concise. Drawing small condenses the information to a manageable level.
  • Delete extraneous information as needed to focus on a particular issue and enhance the overall clarity of the diagram.
  • Add relevant information when necessary to take advantage of newly discovered relationships.
  • Use the modifying factors of size, proximity, and similarity to reorganize and prioritize the elements as you search for order.
  • Overlay or juxtapose a series of diagrams to see how certain variables affect the nature of a design, or how the various parts and systems of a design fit together to form a whole.
  • Reverse, rotate, overlap, or distort an element or linkage in order to provide new ways of viewing the diagram and to discover new relationships.

In conclusion, remember that drawing skills allow you to be eloquent, but you must first master the fundamentals. Whether drawing by hand or using digital tools, it takes discipline to construct a drawing properly and to match the message with the medium. It is hoped that this introduction to the basic elements of architectural graphics will provide you with a foundation upon which to build and develop the necessary physical and mental skills to communicate graphically with clarity and honesty.

“Art does not reproduce the visible; it renders visible.”

—Paul Klee