Notes
1. Introduction
1. Author’s calculations from “Food Dollar Application,” Database, United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, March 14, 2018.
2. For my analysis of the food price crisis, see Timothy A. Wise and Sophia Murphy, “Resolving the Food Crisis: Assessing Global Policy Reforms Since 2007,” Global Development and Environment Institute and Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, January 2012.
3. High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, “Investing in Smallholder Agriculture for Food Security,” HLPE Report 6 (Rome, Italy: Committee on World Food Security, June 2013).
4. For a more thorough discussion of these problems, see chapters 2 and 3 of Frances Moore Lappé and Joseph Collins, World Hunger: 10 Myths (New York: Grove Press, 2015).
5. GRAIN and Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, “Emissions Impossible: How Big Meat and Dairy Are Heating Up the Planet” (Minneapolis, MN, July 2018).
6. FAO researchers projected that agricultural production (not just food production) needed to grow 60 percent by 2050. For a full review, see: Timothy A. Wise, “Can We Feed the World in 2050? A Scoping Paper to Assess the Evidence,” Working Paper No. 13-04 (Global Development and Environment Institute, September 2013).
7. Doug Boucher, “The World’s Population Hasn’t Grown Exponentially for at Least Half a Century,” Union of Concerned Scientists (blog), April 9, 2018.
8. Lappé and Collins, World Hunger.
9. Timothy A. Wise, “Feeding the World: The Ultimate First-World Conceit,” Triple Crisis Blog (blog), October 7, 2014.
10. “Who Will Feed Us? The Peasant Food Web vs. the Industrial Food Chain,” 3rd Edition (ETC Group, 2017).
11. Steve Wiggins and Keats Sharada, “Rural Wages in Asia” (Overseas Development Institute, October 2014).
12. Timothy A. Wise, “Are High Agricultural Prices Good or Bad for Poverty?” GDAE Globalization Commentaries, from Triple Crisis Blog (blog), November 19, 2010.
Part I: Into Africa: The New Colonialism
1. See Stefano Liberti, Land Grabbing: Journeys in the New Colonialism, 2013.
2. Wise and Murphy, “Resolving the Food Crisis: Assessing Global Policy Reforms Since 2007.”
3. Sigrid Schmalzer, Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China (Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 2.
4. For a sober assessment of India’s green revolution, see chapter 4 of Joel K. Bourne, The End of Plenty: The Race to Feed a Crowded World (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2016); or Vandana Shiva, Who Really Feeds the World? The Failures of Agribusiness and the Promise of Agroecology (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 2016).
5. “Enabling the Business of Agriculture 2017” (Washington, DC: World Bank Group, n.d.).
6. “The New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition,” Global Justice Now, accessed May 21, 2018.
7. “How Does the Gates Foundation Spend Its Money to Feed the World?,” Against the Grain (Barcelona, Spain: GRAIN, November 2014).
8. AGRA Board of Directors, “2016 Financials,” AGRA, April 7, 2017.
9. Kapil Subramanian, “Revisiting the Green Revolution: Irrigation and Food Production in Twentieth-Century India” (University of London, King’s College, United Kingdom, 2015).
2. The Malawi Miracle and the Limits of Africa’s Green Revolution
1. Thomas S. Jayne et al., “Review: Taking Stock of Africa’s Second-Generation Agricultural Input Subsidy Programs,” Food Policy 75 (February 1, 2018): 1–14, doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.01.003.
2. Glenn Denning and Jeffrey Sachs, “The Rich World Can Help Africa,” Financial Times, May 29, 2007.
3. Charity Chimungu Phiri, “Malawi’s Drought Leaves Millions High and Dry,” Inter Press Service, May 27, 2016.
4. Ephraim Chirwa et al., “Evaluation of the 2014/15 Farm Input Subsidy Programme, Malawi” (Wadonda Consult Limited and School of Oriental and African Studies, October 2015), 51–52, 58.
5. Christopher Chibwana et al., “Measuring the Impacts of Malawi’s Farm Input Subsidy Programme,” African Journal of Agriculture and Resource Economics 9, no. 2 (2010): 132–47.
6. Roshni Menon, “Famine in Malawi: Causes and Consequences,” Human Development Report 2007/2008: Fighting Climate Change: Human Solidarity in a Divided World (United Nations Development Programme, August 2007); Malawi maize production data downloaded from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, May 16, 2018.
7. Bill Corcoran, “Five Million Face Death as Famine Grips Malawi,” The Guardian, October 1, 2005, sec. World news.
8. “Malawi Corn Production by Year,” Index Mundi, accessed May 16, 2018.
9. Jayne et al., “Review.”
10. Chirwa et al., “Evaluation of the 2014/15 Farm Input Subsidy Programme, Malawi,” 51.
11. Ibid., 56–57.
12. Stein Holden and Julius Mangisoni, “Input Subsidies and Improved Maize Varieties in Malawi: What Can We Learn from the Impacts in a Drought Year?,” Working Paper (Centre for Land Tenure Studies, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, 2013).
13. “Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi” (Melville, South Africa: African Centre for Biodiversity, September 2014).
14. “Soils, Food, and Healthy Communities,” n.d.
15. Chirwa et al., “Evaluation of the 2014/15 Farm Input Subsidy Programme, Malawi,” 57.
16. Murayama Daiki et al., “Superiority of Malawian Orange Local Maize Variety in Nutrients, Cookability, and Storability,” African Journal of Agricultural Research 12, no. 19 (May 11, 2017): 1618–28, doi:10.5897/AJAR2017.12138.
17. Ibid.
18. Blessings Chinsinga, “Seeds and Subsidies: The Political Economy of Input Programmes in Malawi,” Working Paper (Future Agricultures Consortium, August 2010), 19–20.
19. Ephraim W. Chirwa and A. Dorward, Agricultural Input Subsidies: The Recent Malawi Experience, first edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).
20. Ibid., 124–42, 196–218.
21. Chirwa et al., “Evaluation of the 2014/15 Farm Input Subsidy Programme, Malawi,” 53, 61–62.
22. Ephraim Chirwa and Andrew Dorward, “Private Sector Participation in the Farm Input Subsidy Programme in Malawi, 2006-07-2011/12,” Policy Brief, June 2012, 2–4.
23. See the recent book by Nina Munk, The Idealist: Jeffrey Sachs and the Quest to End Poverty, First Anchor Books edition (New York: Anchor Books, 2014).
24. Chirwa and Dorward, Agricultural Input Subsidies, 90.
25. “Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi,” xiv.
26. FAO, ed., Meeting the 2015 International Hunger Targets: Taking Stock of Uneven Progress, The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2015 (Rome: FAO, 2015), 44.
27. Data downloaded from FAO, “Food Security Indicators,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, February 9, 2016.
28. S. Alkire and U. Kanagaratnam, “Multidimensional Poverty Index Winter 2017–18: Brief Methodological Note and Results,” OPHI Methodological Notes 45 (University of Oxford: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, 2018); World Bank Global Poverty Working Group, “Rural Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines (percent of Rural Population) Data,” World Bank Data, accessed August 6, 2016.
29. Rachel Bezner Kerr, “Seed Struggles and Food Sovereignty in Northern Malawi,” Journal of Peasant Studies 40, no. 5 (September 2013): 887, doi: 10.1080/03066150.2013.848428.
30. Olumuyiwa Adedeji and Manuk Ghazanchyan, “IMF Survey: IMF Lends Malawi $156 Million to Help Boost Foreign Reserves,” International Monetary Fund, August 9, 2012.
31. Data downloaded in July 2017 from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, n.d.; and “DataBank,” Database, the World Bank.
32. “New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition: Part 1,” ONE, December 10, 2012.
33. Agnes Towera Nkhoma, “Factors Affecting Sustainability of Agricultural Cooperatives: Lessons from Malawi” (Massey University, 2011), 63.
34. “Malawi Corn Production by Year”; estimated yields from “Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Water Development,” Republic of Malawi, n.d.
35. Innocent Helema, “Malawi Fertiliser Imports Double,” The Nation Online, October 14, 2014.
36. Ephraim Chirwa, Personal Communication, “Hybrid Adoption Rates in Malawi,” September 4, 2016, based on 2015–16 FISP Evaluation.
37. “The Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa Initiative,” CIMMYT, n.d.; P. S. Setimela et al., “Evaluation of Regional On-Farm Variety Trials in Eastern and Southern Africa 2011” (CIMMYT, 2012).
38. Gareth Jones, “Profiting from the Climate Crisis, Undermining Resilience in Africa: Gates and Monsanto’s Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) Project” (Johannesburg, South Africa: African Centre for Biodiversity, April 2015).
39. IFPRI Malawi, “Launching Key Facts Series: Key Facts Sheet on Agriculture and Food Security,” IFPRI Key Facts Series (Lilongwe, Malawi: IFPRI, February 2018).
40. Taeyoung Hwang et al., “Provitamin A Potential of Landrace Orange Maize Variety (Zea Mays L.) Grown in Different Geographical Locations of Central Malawi,” Food Chemistry 196 (April 2016): 1315–24, doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.10.067.
41. Daiki et al., “Superiority of Malawian Orange Local Maize Variety in Nutrients, Cookability, and Storability,” 1627.
42. Hillary Muheebwa, “ARIPO Reviews Draft Regulations on Implementation of Arusha Protocol on Plant Varieties,” Intellectual Property Watch, June 24, 2016.
43. “ARIPO PVP Regulations: Ferocious Campaign Against Seed Saving Farmers in Africa and State Sovereignty,” Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa, June 13, 2016.
44. FAO, “Farmers’ Rights,” International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, n.d.
45. Jayne et al., “Review.”
46. Vandana Shiva, Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology (London, UK: Zed Books; Third World Network, 1993).
3. The Rise and Fall of the Largest Land Grab in Africa
1. “Formulation of Agricultural Development Master Plan in the Nacala Corridor: Concept Note” (ProSAVANA-PD, September 2013).
2. Timothy A. Wise, “Food Price Volatility: Market Fundamentals and Commodity Speculation,” Triple Crisis Blog (blog), January 27, 2011.
3. 24/7 Wall Street, “Memo to Congress: ‘Buy Land, They Ain’t Making Any More of It,’” Time, January 28, 2009.
4. This data, and the information in the next paragraph (except where noted), come from “Land Matrix Newsletter—October 2014” (Land Matrix, October 2014).
5. Kerstin Nolte, Wytske Chamberlain, and Markus Giger, “International Land Deals for Agriculture: Fresh Insights from the Land Matrix: Analytical Report II” (Bern, Montpellier, Hamburg, Pretoria: Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern; Centre de coopération internationale en recherche agronomique pour le développement; German Institute of Global and Area Studies; University of Pretoria; Bern Open Publishing, 2016).
6. Song Jung-A, Christian Oliver, and Tom Burgis, “Daewoo to Cultivate Madagascar Land for Free,” Financial Times, November 19, 2008.
7. Stefano Liberti, Land Grabbing: Journeys in the New Colonialism (London: Verso, 2013), 81.
8. Joseph Hanlon, ed., “Land Moves up the Political Agenda,” Mozambique Political Process Bulletin, no. 48 (February 2011): 1–18.
9. Anna Locke, “Mozambique Land Policy Development Case Study,” Evidence on Demand: Climate & Environment Infrastructure Livelihoods (Overseas Development Institute, March 2014), doi:10.12774/eod_hd.march2014.locke.
10. Filipe Di Matteo and George Christoffel Schoneveld, Agricultural Investments in Mozambique: An Analysis of Investment Trends, Business Models, and Social and Environmental Conduct (Center for International Forestry Research [CIFOR], 2016).
11. For more information on Tanzania, see Timothy A. Wise, “Picking Up the Pieces from a Failed Land Grab Project in Tanzania,” Public Radio International (blog), June 27, 2014.
12. Teresa Smart and Joseph Hanlon, “Chickens and Beer: A Recipe for Agricultural Growth in Mozambique” (Maputo, Mozambique: Kapicua, 2014).
13. “The Land Grabbers of the Nacala Corridor: A New Era of Struggle Against Colonial Plantations in Northern Mozambique” (UNAC and GRAIN, February 2015).
14. “Land Matrix Newsletter—October 2014.”
15. Ward Anseeuw et al., Transnational Land Deals for Agriculture in the Global South: Analytical Report Based on the Land Matrix Database (Bern/Montpellier/Hamburg: The Land Matrix Partnership, 2012); and Land Matrix database for Mozambique.
16. “ProSAVANA’s Communication Strategy and Its Impact: An Analysis of JICA’s Disclosed and Leaked Documents” (No! to Land Grab, Japan, August 22, 2016).
17. “Mozambique Offers Brazilian Farmers 6 Million Hectares to Develop Agriculture,” MercoPress, South Atlantic News Agency, August 16, 2011.
18. Timothy A. Wise, “What Happened to the Biggest Land Grab in Africa? Searching for ProSavana in Mozambique,” Food Tank (blog), December 20, 2014; Frederico Pavia et al., “Nacala Corridor Fund,” FGV Projetos, n.d.; “ProSAVANA’s Communication Strategy and Its Impact.”
19. Sergio Schlesinger, “Brazilian Cooperation and Investment in Africa: The Case of ProSavana in Mozambique,” TEMTI Series of Economic Perspectives on Global Sustainability (TEMTI-CEESP/IUCN, 2014).
20. “Open Letter from Mozambican Civil Society Organisations and Movements to the Presidents of Mozambique and Brazil and the Prime Minister of Japan,” farmlandgrab.org, May 28, 2013.
21. “No to ProSavana! Launch of National Campaign,” n.d.; Pavia et al., “Nacala Corridor Fund.”
22. Locke, “Mozambique Land Policy Development Case Study.”
23. Ibid.
24. Data downloaded in February 2017 from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; data downloaded in April 2018 from “DataBank: World Development Indicators,” the World Bank.
25. Rogier J. E. Van den Brink, “Land Reform in Mozambique,” Agriculture & Rural Development Notes: Land Policy and Administration (Washington, DC: World Bank, December 2008).
26. Pavia et al., “Nacala Corridor Fund”; for more on the Kanakwe conflict, watch “Daqui a Nada,” a short video documentary by ActionAid on the land grabbing in the Nacala Corridor, Daqui a Nada (ActionAid Brazil, You-Tube, 2015).
27. Smart and Hanlon, “Chickens and Beer.”
28 “ProSAVANA’s Communication Strategy and Its Impact.”
29. I covered this issue in more detail at the time in Timothy A. Wise, “History Repeats as Farce: Giving Away Land Without Consultation in Mozambique,” Food Tank (blog), May 19, 2015.
30. Ibid.
31. GRAIN & ADECRU, “Mozambique’s Council of Ministers Must Say ‘No’ to Resettlement of 100,000 in the Nacala Corridor,” May 11, 2015.
32. Ibid.
33. “Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems” (Committee on World Food Security, October 2014); “Nairobi Action Plan to Promote Land-Based Investments That Benefit Africa,” African Development Bank Group, July 10, 2011.
34. Archdiocesan Commission for Justice and Peace of Nampula and ADECRU, “Exigimos a Suspensão e Invalidação Imediata Da ‘Auscultação Pública Do Plano Director Do ProSavana’/We Demand the Suspension and Invalidation of Immediate ‘Public Consultation Plan Director ProSavana,’” ADECRU (blog), May 11, 2015.
35. I wrote about this in more detail at the time in Timothy A. Wise, “Looking for Food in All the Wrong Places,” Food Tank (blog), June 2016.
36. “Mozambique: Drought Humanitarian Situation Report,” Situation Report (UNICEF, April 29, 2016).
37. “Running to Stand Still: Small-Scale Farmers and the Green Revolution in Malawi” (Melville, South Africa: African Centre for Biodiversity, September 2014).
38. New Alliance for Food Security, “Cooperation Framework to Support the New Alliance for Food Security & Nutrition in Mozambique,” Partner Countries (G8 New Alliance for Food Security, n.d.).
39. AFSA, “ARIPO PVP Regulations: Ferocious Campaign Against Seed Saving Farmers in Africa and State Sovereignty,” Alliance for Food Sovereignty in Africa, June 13, 2016.
40. “The GM Maize Onslaught in Mozambique: Undermining Biosafety and Smallholder Farmers” (Johannesburg, South Africa: African Centre for Biodiversity, April 2017).
41. I described this in more detail in Timothy A. Wise, “Seeds of Climate Resilience in Mozambique,” Food Tank (blog), April 2017.
42. “El Niño in Southern Africa,” United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, accessed January 5, 2018.
43. Saleemul Huq, “Getting Climate Finance to Where It Is Needed Most,” The Daily Star, March 9, 2017.
44. Marek Soanes et al., “Delivering Real Change: Getting International Climate Finance to the Local Level,” Working Paper (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, March 2017).
45. “Mapping Farmer Seed Varieties in Manica, Mozambique: Report on Initial Investigations into Agricultural Biodiversity,” Field Work Report (African Centre for Biodiversity, September 2016).
46. Sérgio Chichava, “Xai-Xai Chinese Rice Farm and Mozambican Internal Political Dynamics: A Complex Relation,” Occasional Paper 2 (LSE IDEAS Africa Programme, July 2013); Sérgio Chichava, “Chinese Agricultural Investment in Mozambique: The Case of the Wanbao Rice Farm,” in The SAIS China Africa Research Initiative at Johns Hopkins University (Agricultural Investment in Africa: “Land Grabs” or “Friendship Farms”?, Washington, DC, 2014).
47. Chichava, “Chinese Agricultural Investment in Mozambique.”
48. Kojo S. Amanor and Sérgio Chichava, “South–South Cooperation, Agribusiness, and African Agricultural Development: Brazil and China in Ghana and Mozambique,” World Development, China and Brazil in African Agriculture, 81 (May 1, 2016): 13–23, doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.11.021.
49. For more information see Zhang Chuanhong et al., “Interpreting China–Africa Agricultural Encounters: Rhetoric and Reality in a Large Scale Rice Project in Mozambique,” Working Paper 126, China and Brazil in African Agriculture (CBAA) Project (Future Agricultures Consortium, August 2015).
50. For more on the myths and realities of land grabbing, see Timothy A. Wise, “Land Grab Update: Mozambique, Africa Still in the Crosshairs,” Food Tank (blog), October 2016; Deborah Brautigam, Will Africa Feed China? (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
51. Eléusio Filipe and Simon Norfolk, “Understanding Changing Land Issues for the Rural Poor in Mozambique” (London: IIED, 2017).
52. Smart and Hanlon, “Chickens and Beer.”
53. Chichava, “Chinese Agricultural Investment in Mozambique.”
54. Gizela Zunguze, “At the Lower Limpopo Irrigated Area” (Justiça Ambiental—Friends of the Earth Mozambique, 2016).
55. Wanbao also pursued a concession in the nearby Chókwè irrigation district on 15,000 acres. Sérgio Chichava, “Mozambican Elite in a Chinese Rice ‘Friendship’: An Ethnographic Study of the Xai-Xai Irrigation Scheme,” Future Agricultures, Working Paper no. 111 (February 2015): 1–10.
56. Chichava, “Xai-Xai Chinese Rice Farm.”
57. Chuanhong et al., “Interpreting China–Africa Agricultural Encounters.”
58. Jing Gu et al., “Chinese State Capitalism? Rethinking the Role of the State and Business in Chinese Development Cooperation in Africa,” World Development 81 (May 2016): 24–34, doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.01.001.
59. Ibid.
60. Chichava, “Chinese Agricultural Investment in Mozambique.”
4. Land-Poor Farmers in a Land-Rich Country: Zambia’s Maize Paradox
1. Official government categories treat farmers with up to 125 acres as “smallholders,” but most consider farms under 2 hectares—5 acres—to be small farms.
2. Hilal Elver, “Preliminary Observations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Hilal Elver, on Her Mission to Zambia 3–12 May 2017” (Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, May 12, 2017).
3. Thomas S. Jayne et al., “Is the Scramble for Land in Africa Foreclosing a Smallholder Agricultural Expansion Strategy?,” Journal of International Affairs 67, no. 2 (Spring 2014): 35–53.
4. Ha-Joon Chang, “Rethinking Public Policy in Agriculture: Lessons from Distant and Recent History,” Policy Assistance Series (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2009).
5. Refiloe Joala et al., Changing Agro-Food Systems: The Impact of Big Agro-Investors on Food Rights (Institute for Poverty, Land, and Agrarian Studies, 2016).
6. Ibid.
7. Munguzwe Hichaambwa and T. S. Jayne, “Poverty Reduction Potential of Increasing Smallholder Access to Land,” Working Paper (Lusaka, Zambia: Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute [IAPRI], March 2014).
8. Jordan Chamberlin, T. S. Jayne, and D. Headey, “Scarcity Amidst Abundance? Reassessing the Potential for Cropland Expansion in Africa,” Food Policy 48 (October 2014): 51–65, doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.05.002.
9. “People’s Manual on the Guidelines on Governance of Land, Fisheries, and Forests: A Guide for Promotion, Implementation, Monitoring, and Evaluation” (International Planning Committee for Food Sovereignty, 2016); “Principles for Responsible Investment in Agriculture and Food Systems” (Committee on World Food Security, n.d.); “Guiding Principles on Large Scale Land Based Investments in Africa” (Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2014); Carlo Bolzoni, “Approaching a United Nations Declaration on Peasant Rights,” Sustainable Food Trust (blog), August 31, 2017.
10. The following story draws on my piece published in Food Tank: Timothy A. Wise, “Securing Land Rights in Zambia,” Food Tank (blog), April 3, 2017.
11. Admos Chimhowu and Phil Woodhouse, “Customary vs. Private Property Rights? Dynamics and Trajectories of Vernacular Land Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa,” Journal of Agrarian Change 6, no. 3 (July 2006): 346–71, doi:10.1111/j.1471-0366.2006.00125.x.
12. “Responsible Land Governance: Towards an Evidence Based Approach: Annual World Bank Conference on Land and Poverty,” March 2017.
13. Nicholas J. Sitko and Jordan Chamberlin, “The Geography of Zambia’s Customary Land: Assessing the Prospects for Smallholder Development,” Land Use Policy 55 (September 2016): 50–55, doi: 10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.03.026.
14. Hichaambwa and Jayne, “Poverty Reduction Potential of Increasing Smallholder Access to Land.”
15. Antony Chapoto and Nicholas J. Sitko, Agriculture in Zambia: Past, Present, and Future (Lusaka, Zambia: Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute, 2015), 36.
16. Hichaambwa and Jayne, “Poverty Reduction Potential of Increasing Smallholder Access to Land.”
17. “New Alliance for Food Security and Nutrition: Part 1,” ONE, December 10, 2012.
18. Monsanto, “Notice of Annual Meeting of Shareowners and 2015 Proxy Statement” (Monsanto, December 10, 2015), 55.
19. Claire Provost, Liz Ford, and Mark Tran, “G8 New Alliance Condemned as New Wave of Colonialism in Africa,” The Guardian, February 18, 2014, sec. Global development.
20. Olivier De Schutter, “Farmers Must Not Be Disempowered Labourers on Their Own Land,” Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, October 24, 2011; Olivier De Schutter, “The Right to Food” (UN General Assembly, August 2011).
21. Ward Anseeuw et al., Transnational Land Deals for Agriculture in the Global South.
22. Timothy A. Wise, “Picking Up the Pieces from a Failed Land Grab Project in Tanzania,” GlobalPost, June 27, 2014, sec. Conflict & Justice.
23. “Government to Look for Partner in Nansanga Farming Block,” Lusaka Voice (blog), August 1, 2014.
24. Human Rights Watch, “‘Forced to Leave’: Commercial Farming and Displacement in Zambia” (New York: Human Rights Watch, October 25, 2017).
25. Ibid.
26. Ibid.
27. Antony Chapoto and Brian Chisanga, “Zambia: Agriculture Status Report 2016” (Lusaka, Zambia: Indaba Agricultural Policy Research Institute, 2016), 15–16, 20.
28. Nicholas J. Sitko et al., “A Comparative Political Economic Analysis of Maize Sector Policies in Eastern and Southern Africa,” Food Policy 69 (May 2017): 246, doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2017.04.010.
29. Nicholas J. Sitko and T. S. Jayne, “Structural Transformation or Elite Land Capture? The Growth of ‘Emergent’ Farmers in Zambia,” Food Policy 48 (2014): 194–202, doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.05.006.
30. Author’s calculations using data downloaded in February 2017 from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
31. Sitko et al., “A Comparative Political Economic Analysis.”
32. William J. Burke et al., “Understanding Fertilizer Effectiveness and Adoption on Maize in Zambia,” Working Paper, MSU International Development Working Papers (East Lansing: MSU Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, October 2016), iv.
33. Chapoto and Chisanga, “Zambia: Agriculture Status Report 2016,” 17–18.
34. Hambulo Ngoma, “E-Vouchers Bring Welcome Choice to Zambian Farmers,” AgriLinks (blog), January 3, 2018.
35. “Push-Pull Technology for the Control of Stemborers and Striga Weed,” International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, n.d.
36. Elver, “Preliminary Observations”; Hilal Elver, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food on Her Mission to Zambia” (Human Rights Council, United Nations General Assembly, March 26, 2018).
37. Government of the Republic of Zambia, “Second National Agricultural Policy 2016” (Lusaka, Zambia: Government of the Republic of Zambia, February 2016).
Part II: The Roots of Our Problems
1. This section draws on the excellent biographical sketch in Charles C. Mann, The Wizard and the Prophet: Two Remarkable Scientists and Their Dueling Visions to Shape Tomorrow’s World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2018).
2. “World Food Prize Receives $5 Million Pledge from Monsanto to Honor Norman Borlaug,” News Releases, Monsanto, February 15, 2008.
3. “Ethanol Plants,” Iowa Corn, n.d.
5. Iowa and the Cornification of the United States
1. Timothy A. Wise and Kristin Sundell, “Rising to the Challenge: Changing Course to Feed the World in 2050” (Washington, DC: ActionAid USA, October 2013).
2. “Farm Drainage in the United States: History, Status, and Prospects,” Miscellaneous Publication (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, December 1987), 18.
3. MacKenzie Elmer, “Water Works Plans $15 Million for Expanded Nitrate Facility,” Des Moines Register, May 24, 2017.
4. Deanna Conners, “2014 Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone Has Grown to 5,052 Square Miles,” EarthSky, August 18, 2014, sec. Earth.
5. Wallace would plant two carefully selected “inbred” varieties in alternating rows, “de-tassel” one of them to remove the pollen so that the remaining “female” plants would be pollinated by the other inbred’s tassels, the male parent, and harvest the resulting “single-cross” hybrid for seed. Only a few seed varieties performed better than their parents, but those that did were selected as single-cross hybrids. Unfortunately, they did not produce much seed. When Wallace began using the “double-cross” method, crossing two single-cross hybrids, he could get larger quantities of productive seed.
6. Jean-Pierre Berlan and Richard C. Lewontin, “The Political Economy of Hybrid Corn,” Monthly Review 38, no. 3 (July 5, 1986), doi:10.14452/MR-038-03-1986-07_5; the preceding paragraph also draws from this article.
7. For more on Henry A. Wallace see John C. Culver and John Hyde, American Dreamer: The Life and Times of Henry A. Wallace (New York: Norton, 2001).
8. Harold Lee, Roswell Garst: A Biography, first edition, the Henry A. Wallace Series on Agricultural History and Rural Studies (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1984).
9. Richard Sutch, “The Impact of the 1936 Corn Belt Drought on American Farmers’ Adoption of Hybrid Corn,” in The Economics of Climate Change: Adaptations Past and Present, ed. Gary D. Libecap and Richard H. Steckel, National Bureau of Economic Research Conference Report (Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 195–223; “1941 Annual Crop Summary: Acreage, Yield, and Production of Principal Crops” (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service, December 1941), 44.
10. Berlan and Lewontin, “The Political Economy of Hybrid Corn.”
11. Frank Kutka, “Open-Pollinated vs. Hybrid Maize Cultivars,” Sustainability 3 (2011): 1531–54, doi:10.3390/su3091531.
12. Sutch, “The Impact of the 1936 Corn Belt Drought,” 204, 214–17.
13. Daniel P. Bigelow and Borchers Allison, “Major Uses of Land in the United States, 2012,” Economic Information Bulletin (United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, August 2017), 13.
14. Willard W. Cochrane, The Curse of American Agricultural Abundance: A Sustainable Solution, Our Sustainable Future, vol. 16 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
15. Historical Iowa corn yield data downloaded from “Quick Stats” (United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service), on May 15, 2018.
16. Sutch, “The Impact of the 1936 Corn Belt Drought,” 199, 202, 208–9.
17. Donald N. Duvick, “The Contribution of Breeding to Yield Advances in Maize (Zea Mays L.),” in Advances in Agronomy, vol. 86 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2005), 83–145, doi:10.1016/S0065-2113(05)86002-X; Stephen Smith et al., “Maize,” in CSSA Special Publications (American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Crop Science Society of America, Inc., and Soil Science Society of America, Inc., 2014), doi:10.2135/cssaspecpub33.c6.
18. Lee, Roswell Garst, ix.
19. “Stop Factory Farms,” Iowa Citizens for Community Improvement, n.d.
20. For further explanation and examples of the effects of fertilizer runoff on watersheds, see A. N. Sharpley and Seppo Rekolainen, “Phosphorus in Agriculture and Its Environmental Implications,” in Phosphorus Loss from Soil to Water (Center for Agriculture and Bioscience International, 1997); and J. L. Hatfield, L. D. McMullen, and C. S. Jones, “Nitrate-Nitrogen Patterns in the Raccoon River Basin Related to Agricultural Practices,” Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 64, no. 3 (May 1, 2009): 190–99, doi: 10.2489/jswc.64.3.190.
21. “Corn Facts,” Iowa Corn, n.d.
22. “CRP Enrollment and Rental Payments by State, 1986–2017” (Conservation Reserve Program Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture, Farm Service Agency, May 2018).
23. Charles M. Benbrook, “Trends in Glyphosate Herbicide Use in the United States and Globally,” Environmental Sciences Europe 28, no. 1 (December 2016), doi:10.1186/s12302-016-0070-0.
24. Carey Gillam, Whitewash: The Story of a Weed Killer, Cancer, and the Corruption of Science (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2017).
25. Sarah P. Saunders et al., “Local and Cross-Seasonal Associations of Climate and Land Use with Abundance of Monarch Butterflies Danaus Plexippus,” Ecography 41, no. 2 (February 2018): 278–90, doi:10.1111/ecog.02719.
26. Maps are available with such detail from E. Brandes et al., “Subfield Profitability Analysis Reveals an Economic Case for Cropland Diversification,” Environmental Research Letters 11, no. 1 (January 20, 2016).
27. “Fertilizer Use and Price: All Fertilizer Use and Price Tables in a Single Workbook” (United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, February 21, 2018).
28. “2012 Census Highlights: Farm Demographics—U.S. Farmers by Gender, Age, Race, Ethnicity, and More,” United States Department of Agriculture, Census of Agriculture, May 2014.
29. For more on speculative investment in U.S. farmland, including by investors like TIAA-CREF, see Lukas Ross, “Down on the Farm: Wall Street: America’s New Farmer” (Oakland Institute, 2014), 19–20 for TIAA.
30. I pulled my permission for them to use me in the film, Food Evolution, and several notables—Michael Pollan, Marion Nestle—objected when they saw their views so misrepresented in what was a far more propagandistic film than Naylor and I suspected at the time. For more, read Stacy Malkan, “Food Evolution GMO Film Showcases Chemical Industry Agenda,” HuffPost, June 26, 2017.
31. Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, “Iowa State Average Corn Prices for October 2012” (Agricultural Marketing Bureau, n.d.); Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, “Iowa State Average Corn Prices for October 2014” (Agricultural Marketing Bureau, n.d.).
32. This section, unless otherwise noted, draws data from “The Economic Cost of Food Monopolies” (Food and Water Watch, November 2012).
33. Timothy A. Wise, “Agribusiness and the Food Crisis: A New Thrust at Anti-Trust,” GDAE Globalization Commentaries (blog), March 22, 2010.
34. “The DRAFT 2016 Iowa List of Clean Water Act Section 303(d) Impaired Waters” (Water Quality Monitoring & Assessment Section, Water Quality Bureau, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, April 2017), 6.
35. More detail in chapter 6.
36. Ms. Kinman now works for the Iowa Association of Water Agencies.
37. Margaret McCasland et al., “Nitrate: Health Effects in Drinking Water,” Cornell University Cooperative Extension, 2012.
38. Ricardo Salvador, “Breaking News: USDA and EPA Clearly Enlist™ to Ignore Science and Protect Industry Profits,” Union of Concerned Scientists (blog), October 17, 2014.
39. Adam S. Davis et al., “Increasing Cropping System Diversity Balances Productivity, Profitability, and Environmental Health,” PLOS ONE 7, no. 10 (October 10, 2012): e47149, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047149.
40. “Rotating Crops, Turning Profits: How Diversified Farming Systems Can Help Farmers While Protecting Soil and Preventing Pollution,” Union of Concerned Scientists, May 2017.
41. Donnelle Eller, “With Water Works’ Lawsuit Dismissed, Water Quality Is the Legislature’s Problem,” Des Moines Register, March 17, 2017.
42. “Gulf of Mexico ‘Dead Zone’ Is the Largest Ever Measured,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Department of Commerce (blog), August 2, 2017.
43. “Garst Seed Company, Inc.” (Encyclopedia.com, 2006); “Hartung Seed Facility Slated to Open in January,” Daily Times Herald, December 4, 2014.
6. Fueling the Food Crisis
1. High Level Panel of Experts, “Biofuels and Food Security” (Rome: Committee on World Food Security, June 2013); Renewable Fuel Standard: Potential Economic and Environmental Effects of U.S. Biofuel Policy (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2011), doi:10.17226/13105.
2. “Committee on World Food Security: Fortieth Session Report” (Rome, Italy, October 7, 2013).
3. Author’s calculations from data downloaded on April 10, 2018, from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, n.d.
4. High Level Panel of Experts, “Biofuels and Food Security,” 50.
5. Kirsten Appendini, “Reconstructing the Maize Market in Rural Mexico,” Journal of Agrarian Change 14, no. 1 (March 25, 2013): 1–25, doi: 10.1111/joac.12013.
6. “Mexico’s Poor Seek Relief from Tortilla Shortage,” National Geographic News, June 4, 2008,
7. Marco Lagi, Karla Z. Bertrand, and Yaneer Bar-Yam, “The Food Crises and Political Instability in North Africa and the Middle East” (Cambridge, MA: New England Complex Systems Institute, September 28, 2011), 4; David J. Lynch, “Tensions in Egypt Shows Potency of Food Crisis,” USA Today, April 29, 2008.
8. “Biofueling Hunger: How US Corn Ethanol Policy Drives Up Food Prices in Mexico” (ActionAid International USA, May 2012); “Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007,” H.R.6 § Sec. 202(a)(1), Sec. 202(b)(4), and Sec. 210(a) (2007).
9. Daryll E. Ray, Daniel G. De La Torre Ugarte, and Kelly J. Tiller, “Rethinking US Agricultural Policy: Changing Course to Secure Farmer Livelihoods Worldwide” (Agricultural Policy Analysis Center, 2003).
10. For a more detailed analysis of the rise in corn ethanol and its impacts, see Timothy A. Wise and Marie Brill, “Fueling the Food Crisis: The Cost to Developing Countries of US Corn Ethanol Expansion” (ActionAid International USA, October 2012).
11. “Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE): Overview,” EPA Web Archive, February 20, 2016; “Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether” (US Environmental Protection Agency, January 2000).
12. Mary Farrell-Stieve, “Power Formula: Gas Price Hikes Fuel Drive for Ethanol Production; Farmers Look to Co-ops to Gain Market Share,” USDA Rural Cooperatives, June 2000, 8–9.
13. Ibid., 10–12.
14. Ibid., 10–11.
15. “The 5 Largest Ethanol Producers,” Farm Industry News, March 12, 2012.
16. Bruce A. Babcock, “The Impact of US Biofuel Policies on Agricultural Price Levels and Volatility” (Geneva, Switzerland: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, 2011).
17. High Level Panel of Experts, “Biofuels and Food Security” (appendix A1 has a useful compilation of recent estimates); Renewable Fuel Standard (refers to 20 to 40 percent of the increase in a period when prices approximately doubled).
18. “Directive 2003/30/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 May 2003 on the Promotion of the Use of Biofuels or Other Renewable Fuels for Transport,” Pub. L. No. 32003L0030, OJL 123 42 (2003); “Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources and Amending and Subsequently Repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC,” Pub. L. No. 32009L0028, OJL 140 16 (2009).
19. “EU Parliament Ends Support to Highest-Emitting Palm Oil Biofuel While Freezing All Food-Based Biofuels at Current Levels,” Transport and Environment, January 17, 2018; “Prospects for Agricultural Markets in the EU 2017–2030” (European Union, 2017), 9.
20. F. F. Kesaulija et al., “Oil Palm Estate Development and Its Impact on Forests and Local Communities in West Papua: A Case Study on the Prafi Plain” (Center for International Forestry Research, 2014), doi:10.17528/cifor/005068; “Vegetable Oil Markets and the EU Biofuel Mandate” (International Council on Clean Transportation, February 2013); “Demand for Palm Oil Fuels Land-Grabbing,” IRIN (blog), July 6, 2010.
21. Sarantis Michalopoulos, “EU Parliament Ends Palm Oil and Caps Crop-Based Biofuels at 2017 Levels,” Euractiv.Com (blog), January 17, 2018.
22. Jarrett Renshaw, “EPA Abandons Changes to U.S. Biofuel Program After Lawmaker Pressure,” Reuters, October 20, 2017.
23. “Petroleum & Other Liquids, Data: U.S. Imports by Country of Origin,” Database, U.S. Energy Information Administration, downloaded March 19, 2018; I explain this in more detail in a blog post, Timothy A. Wise, “Running on Empty: US Ethanol Policies Set to Reach Their Illogical Conclusion” (Global Development And Environment Institute, Tufts University, July 23, 2012).
24. High Level Panel of Experts, “Biofuels and Food Security”; Marco Lagi et al., “The Food Crises: A Quantitative Model of Food Prices Including Speculators and Ethanol Conversion,” 2011, 8, 16.
25. “Price Volatility and Food Security” (Committee on World Food Security, High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition, July 2011), 32.
26. Data downloaded on April 11, 2018 from “FAOSTAT.”
27. High Level Panel of Experts, “Biofuels and Food Security,” 71.
28. Wise and Brill, “Fueling the Food Crisis,” 3, 16, 22.
29. Timothy A. Wise, “Two Roads Diverged in the Food Crisis: Global Policy Takes the One More Travelled,” Canadian Food Studies 2, no. 2 (September 2015): 9–16, doi:10.15353/cfs-rcea.v2i2.98.
30. Ibid.
31. Wise and Brill, “Fueling the Food Crisis,” 17–18.
32. Elisabeth Rosenthal, “As Biofuel Demand Grows, So Do Guatemala’s Hunger Pangs,” New York Times, January 5, 2013, sec. Environment.
33. Ibid.
34. According to reports by the Iniciativa de Copenhague para Centro-américa y México, the Comité de Unidad Campesina, and the Guatemala Human Rights Campaign, via ActionAid: Wise and Brill, “Fueling the Food Crisis,” 21.
35. Rosenthal, “As Biofuel Demand Grows, So Do Guatemala’s Hunger Pangs.”
36. Timothy A. Wise, “Food Price Volatility: Market Fundamentals and Commodity Speculation,” Triple Crisis Blog (blog), January 27, 2011; Timothy A. Wise, “Spotlight G20: New Evidence of Speculation in Financialized Commodities Markets,” Triple Crisis Blog (blog), July 14, 2011; Kaufman offers an extensive guided tour of the financialization of food in Frederick Kaufman, Bet the Farm: How Food Stopped Being Food (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012).
37. Robert Pollin and James Heintz, “How Wall Street Speculation Is Driving Up Gasoline Prices Today” (Political Economy Research Institute, University of Massachusetts Amherst, June 2011), 1; Jayati Ghosh, “Global Oil Prices,” International Development Economics Associates, July 13, 2011.
38. Wise, “Food Price Volatility.”
39. Ibid.
40. I summarized these dynamics in more detail at the time in Wise, “Spotlight G20”; and Wise, “Food Price Volatility.”
41. Michael W. Masters and Adam K. White, “The Accidental Hunt Brothers: How Institutional Investors Are Driving Up Food and Energy Prices,” Special Report, July 31, 2008.
42. One of the effects of this “financialization” of commodity markets was to eliminate the rationale for their value as an investment vehicle in the first place. The following short policy brief from UNCTAD showed that commodities stopped being a safe haven when other markets were falling. Instead of moving “countercyclically”—up when the stock market went down—they began to move in parallel. “Don’t Blame the Physical Markets: Financialization Is the Root Cause of Oil and Commodity Price Volatility” (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, September 2012).
43. Lagi et al., “The Food Crises: A Quantitative Model,” 4.
44. Lagi et al., 8–10. The following UNCTAD report confirmed that such speculation can have significant impacts in the short run on prices, consistent with the kinds of spikes NECSI studies. “Price Formation in Financialized Commodity Markets: The Role of Information” (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, June 2011); See also Jayati Ghosh, James Heintz, and Robert Pollin, “Speculation on Commodities Futures Markets and Destabilization of Global Food Prices: Exploring the Connections,” International Journal of Health Services 42, no. 3 (July 2012): 465–83, doi:10.2190/HS.42.3.f. For more on NECSI’s modeling and its findings, see the NECSI website and its additional studies of food price movements.
45. Lagi et al., “The Food Crises: A Quantitative Model,” 1.
46. “Financial Crisis 2: Rise of the Machines” (Robin Hood Tax, n.d.), 2–4.
47. “Don’t Blame the Physical Markets: Financialization Is the Root Cause of Oil and Commodity Price Volatility,” 4.
48. Patrick Barta, “Jatropha Plant Gains Steam in Global Race for Biofuels,” Wall Street Journal, August 24, 2007.
49. For more on the Sun Biofuels story, see Timothy A. Wise, “Picking Up the Pieces from a Failed Land Grab Project in Tanzania,” GlobalPost, June 27, 2014, sec. Conflict & Justice; Josie Cohen, “How a Biofuels Landgrab Has Destroyed the Life of an African Village,” ActionAid (blog), October 31, 2011; Liberti, Land Grabbing, chapter 6.
50. W. Gerbens-Leenes, A. Y. Hoekstra, and T. H. van der Meer, “The Water Footprint of Bioenergy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106, no. 25 (June 23, 2009): 10222, doi:10.1073/pnas.0812619106.
51. Donald L. Kgathi et al., “A Review of the Sustainability of Jatropha Cultivation Projects for Biodiesel Production in Southern Africa: Implications for Energy Policy in Botswana,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 246 (August 2017): 314–24, doi:10.1016/j.agee.2017.06.014.
52. Valerie Fernandes, “RE: Request to an Interview/Meeting,” June 3, 2014; her email stated: “With all due respect, surely the villagers do not expect to be consulted on the plans for a farm that belongs to Sun Biofuels? I agree the villages surround the land but do they contribute to the upkeep of the land that they expect to be consulted?”
53. “Diligent Tanzania Ltd,” Trickle Out Africa, n.d.; Finnigan Wa Simbeye, “Tanzania: Dutch Firm Goes Bust Leaving Thousands of Farmers in Limbo,” Tanzania Daily News (Dar Es Salaam), January 6, 2015.
54. Rod Nickel, “Special Report: Drowning in Grain—How Big Ag Sowed Seeds of a Profit-Slashing Glut,” Reuters, September 27, 2017, sec. Business News.
55. Ben Wolfgang, “E15 Ethanol Debate Reaches Tipping Point in Congress,” Washington Times, June 14, 2017; Daniel De La Torre Ugarte, “10-Year Review of Renewable Fuel Standard Impacts to the Environment, the Economy, and Advanced Biofuels Development: An Update,” American Council for Capital Formation Blog, June 2016
56. Timothy A. Wise and Emily Cole, “Mandating Food Insecurity: The Global Impacts of Rising Biofuel Mandates and Targets,” Working Paper (Global Development and Environment Institute, February 2015), 1–4.
7. Monsanto Invades Corn’s Garden of Eden in Mexico
1. “Mexican Judge Throws Out Monsanto Appeal to Confirm GM Maize Ban,” Sustainable Pulse, December 30, 2013.
2. Maiz is the Spanish word for corn, and maize is the English word used internationally to refer to corn. In Mexico, the word corn is seen to refer to U.S. yellow dent corn used for feed, ethanol, and processed foods, distinct from their maize, much of which is consumed directly. Out of deference, for the rest of this chapter I use the terms interchangeably but mainly use the term maize.
3. José Antonio Serratos Hernández, “The Origin and Diversity of Maize in the American Continent” (Greenpeace, January 2009).
4. Daniel Zizumbo-Villarreal and Patricia Colunga-GarcíaMarín, “Origin of Agriculture and Plant Domestication in West Mesoamerica,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 57, no. 6 (August 2010): 813–25, doi:10.1007/s10722-009-9521-4.
5. José Antonio Serratos Hernández, “Bioseguridad y Dispersión de Maíz Transgénico en México” (Ciencias, October 2008).
6. The information in this section, except where noted, is drawn from Maize & Biodiversity: The Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico: Key Findings and Recommendations (Montréal: Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 2004).
7. Hector R. Bourges, “El Maiz: Su Importancia En La Alimentacion de La Poblacion Mexicana,” in El Maíz En Peligro Ante Los Transgénicos?: Un Análisis Integral Sobre El Caso de México., ed. Elena R. Alvarez-Buylla and Alma Pinero Nelson (Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Centro de Investigaciones Interdisciplinarias en Ciencias y Humanidades, 2013), 231–48.
8. Comments on the report Maize & Biodiversity.
9. Donna Tingley, “Joint Public Advisory Committee (JPAC) RE: Maize and Biodiversity Symposium of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation,” April 13, 2004, 2.
10. “Public Comments on Article 13 Report, Comision de Biotecnologia Agroalimentaria” (Consejo Nacional Agropecuario, 2004), 2.
11. “About the IAASTD Report,” Global Agriculture, n.d.
12. “Independent Reports: Maize and Biodiversity: The Effects of Transgenic Maize in Mexico,” Commission for Environmental Cooperation, n.d.
13. Efrén Flores, “México Se Inundó en 30 Años con Transgénicos de Monopolios, y Hoy Sólo 4 Estados Están ‘Libres,’” SinEmbargo, March 5, 2018, sec. Investigaciones.
14. David Sandoval Vázquez, “Treinta Años de Transgénicos en México” (Centro de Estudios para el Cambio en el Campo Mexicano, August 2017), 20; J. A. Serratos, “La Ley de Bioseguridad y los Centros de Origen y Diversificación,” in Origen y Diversificaión del Maíz: Una Revisión Analítica (México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Biología, 2009).
15. T. A. Kato et al., Origen y Diversificaión del Maíz: Una Revisión Analítica (México, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Biología, 2009).
16. Serratos, “La Ley de Bioseguridad y los Centros de Origen y Diversificación.”
17. José Antonio Serratos Hernández, “La Sobrevivencia del Maíz Nativo en la Megalópolis de la Ciudad de México,” La Jornada, June 20, 2012, sec. Sociedad.
18. Michelle Chauvet and Elena Lazos, “El Maíz Transgénico en Sinaloa: ¿Tecnología Inapropiada, Obsoleta o de Vanguardia? Implicaciones Socioeconómicas de la Posible Siembra Comercial,” Sociológica 29, no. 82 (August 2014): 7–44.
19. Lisa Abend, “Mexico’s Chefs Are Fighting a Future of Genetically Modified Corn,” Munchies, October 13, 2015.
20. “Percy Schmeiser’s Battle,” CBS News Online, May 21, 2004, sec. In Depth.
21. Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience and Future Prospects et al., Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2016), 154, doi:10.17226/23395.
22. Andrew Jacobs and Matt Richtel, “A Nasty, Nafta-Related Surprise: Mexico’s Soaring Obesity,” New York Times, December 11, 2017, sec. Health.
23. Vandana Shiva, Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology (London: Zed Books; Third World Network, 1993).
24. A. I. Monterroso Rivas et al., “Assessing Current and Potential Rainfed Maize Suitability Under Climate Change Scenarios in México,” Atmósfera 24, no. 1 (2011): 53–67.
25. Zoe VanGelder, “Agroecological Transition in Mexico: ANEC’s Journey to a Better Farm and Food System” (Asociación Nacional de Empresas Comercializadoras de Productores del Campo and the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, September 2007), 3.
26. E. Schnepf et al., “Bacillus Thuringiensis and Its Pesticidal Crystal Proteins,” Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 62, no. 3 (September 1998): 775–806; Clayton C. Beegle and Takashi Yamamoto, “Invitation Paper: History of Bacillus Thuringiensis,” The Canadian Entomologist 124, no. 04 (August 1992): 587–616, doi:10.4039/Ent124587-4.
27. VanGelder, “Agroecological Transition in Mexico,” 4.
28. Antonio Turrent Fernández, Timothy A. Wise, and Elise Garvey, “Achieving Mexico’s Maize Potential,” Working Paper No. 12-03 (Medford, MA: Global Development and Environment Institute, October 2012).
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, “Investing in Smallholder Agriculture for Food Security,” HLPE Report 6 (Rome, Italy: Committee on World Food Security, June 2013).
32. A documentary film, ViralMx, Sierra Norte por la Vida, tells the story.
33. “Unión de Cooperativas Tosepan,” Producción Social del Hábitat, n.d.
34. Reuters Staff, “Monsanto Says Mexico Revokes Permit to Market GMO Soy in Seven States,” Reuters, n.d., sec. Business News.
35. E. González-Ortega et al., “Pervasive Presence of Transgenes and Glyphosate in Maize-Derived Food in Mexico,” Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems 41, no. 9–10 (November 26, 2017): 1146–61, doi:10.1080/21683565.2017.1372841.
Part III: Trading Away the Right to Food
1. Richie Santosdiaz, “The Future of the 14 Free Trade Agreements America Has Under Trump,” Forbes, December 7, 2016, sec. Opinion.
2. “International Investment Agreements Navigator: United States of America,” Investment Policy Hub, UNCTAD, United Nations, n.d.
3. Paolo D’Odorico et al., “Feeding Humanity Through Global Food Trade: D’ODORICO et al.,” Earth’s Future 2, no. 9 (September 2014): 458–69, doi:10.1002/2014EF000250.
8. NAFTA’s Assault on Mexico’s Family Farmers
1. Timothy A. Wise, “Making Rural Mexico Great Again: Leading Candidate Endorses Farmers’ Reform Program,” Food Tank (blog), April 2018.
2. James McBride and Mohammed Aly Sergie, “NAFTA’s Economic Impact,” Council on Foreign Relations (blog), October 4, 2017.
3. Luis Téllez Kuenzler, La Modernización del Sector Agropecuario y Forestal (Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1994).
4. Ginger Thompson, “Ex-President in Mexico Casts New Light on Rigged 1988 Election,” New York Times, March 9, 2004, sec. World.
5. Victor Suárez Carrera, Rescate del Campo Mexicano: Organización Campesina y Políticas Públicas Posneoliberales (Mexico City: ANEC and ITACA, 2018).
6. Alejandro Nadal, “The Environmental & Social Impacts of Economic Liberalization on Corn Production in Mexico” (Oxfam GB and WWF International, September 2000), 5, 21.
7. Harry Cleaver and Canning House Library (Hispanic & Luso Brazilian Councils), Zapatistas!: Documents of the New Mexican Revolution (New York: Autonomedia, 1994), 72.
8. Eduardo Zepeda, Timothy A. Wise, and Kevin P. Gallagher, “Rethinking Trade Policy for Development: Lessons From Mexico Under NAFTA,” Policy Outlook (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2009), 4.
9. Ibid., 13.
10. Ibid.
11. Nadal, “The Environmental & Social Impacts of Economic Liberalization on Corn Production in Mexico,” 26.
12. This and other figures in this section, except where noted, come from: Timothy A. Wise, “Agricultural Dumping Under NAFTA: Estimating the Costs of U.S. Agricultural Policies to Mexican Producers,” Working Paper (Global Development and Environment Institute, December 2009). For a full assessment of NAFTA at twenty years, see: Steven Zahniser et al., “NAFTA at 20: North America’s Free-Trade Area and Its Impact on Agriculture” (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, February 2015).
13. Kirsten Appendini, “Reconstructing the Maize Market in Rural Mexico,” Journal of Agrarian Change 14, no. 1 (March 25, 2013): 1–25, doi: 10.1111/joac.12013.
14. Alejandro Nadal and Timothy A. Wise, “The Environmental Costs of Agricultural Trade Liberalization: Mexico-U.S. Maize Trade Under NAFTA,” Discussion Paper (Working Group on Development and Environment in the Americas, June 2004), 26.
15. Zepeda, Wise, and Gallagher, “Rethinking Trade Policy for Development,” 15.
16. John Scott, “Agricultural Subsidies in Mexico: Who Gets What?” (Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, n.d.), 76.
17. “Mexico: US-Mexico Trade Facts,” Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d.
18. Zepeda, Wise, and Gallagher, “Rethinking Trade Policy for Development,” 10.
19. Suárez Carrera, Rescate del Campo Mexicano, 413.
20. Timothy A. Wise, “The Cost to Mexico of U.S. Corn Ethanol Expansion,” Working Paper (Global Development and Environment Institute, May 2012), 7.
21. Jacobs and Richtel, “A Nasty, Nafta-Related Surprise.”
22. September 2010 conference Transparencia y Rendición de Cuentas de los Subsidios Agrícolas: Políticas Públicas y Modelos de Desarrollo Rural; for media coverage of the conference, see: Victor Suárez Carrera, “En Defensa de un Procampo Reformado,” La Jornada del Campo, September 18, 2010.
23. Catherine Rampell, “Why Are Mexican Smugglers’ Fees Still Rising?,” New York Times, May 18, 2009, sec. Economix. As of early 2018, the price had reportedly risen to as high as $8,000 due to U.S. president Donald Trump’s anti-immigration policies, “Smugglers Up Prices for Crossing Mexican Border into US,” Mexico News Daily, February 18, 2017.
24. Antonio Turrent Fernández, Timothy A. Wise, and Elise Garvey, “Achieving Mexico’s Maize Potential,” Working Paper No. 12-03 (Medford, MA: Global Development and Environment Institute, October 2012).
25. Timothy A. Wise, “The True Cost of Cheap Food,” Resurgence & Ecologist, April 2010.
26. J. K. Boyce, “The Globalization of Market Failure? International Trade and Sustainable Agriculture” (Political Economy Research Institute, 1999), 18.
27. Conny Almekinders, “Management of Crop Genetic Diversity at Community Level” (Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, January 2001).
28. See T. M. Swanson, D. W. Pearce, and R. Cervigni, “The Appropriation of the Benefits of Plant Genetic Resources for Agriculture: An Economic Analysis of the Alternative Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation,” First Extraordinary Session (Rome, FAO: Commission on Plant Genetic Resources, 1994).
29. “Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity” (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office: Office of Technology Assessment of the U.S. Congress, March 1987), 4, 50.
30. Based on extensive fieldwork, much more is known today about the biological nature of on-farm diversity, the location of key centers of diversity for important food crops, the causes of genetic erosion, and the farmmanagement practices that can promote in situ conservation. Robert Tripp and Wieneke van der Heide, “The Erosion of Crop Genetic Diversity: Challenges, Strategies, and Uncertainties” (Overseas Development Institute, March 1996); Stephen B. Brush, ed., Genes in the Field: On-Farm Conservation of Crop Diversity (Boca Raton, FL: Lewis [u.a.], 2000); Esbern Friis-Hansen and Bhuwon Ratna Sthapit, eds., Participatory Approaches to the Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources (Rome, Italy: International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, 2000); Melinda Smale et al., “Economic Concepts for Designing Policies to Conserve Crop Genetic Resources on Farms,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51, no. 2 (March 2004): 121–35.
31. Miguel A. Altieri, M. Kat Anderson, and Laura C. Merrick, “Peasant Agriculture and the Conservation of Crop and Wild Plant Resources,” Conservation Biology 1, no. 1 (May 1987): 49–58, doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1987.tb00008.x.
32. The data in this section comes from Alejandro Nadal and Hugo García Rañó, “Trade, Poverty, and the Environment: A Case Study in the Sierra De Santa Marta Biosphere Reserve” (World Wildlife Fund, May 2009).
33. Much of the local detail in this section comes from David Bacon, “How US Policies Fueled Mexico’s Great Migration,” The Nation, January 4, 2012.
34. Wise, “Agricultural Dumping Under NAFTA,” 25.
35. Bacon, “How US Policies Fueled Mexico’s Great Migration.”
36. Timothy A. Wise and Betsy Rakocy, “Hogging the Gains from Trade: The Real Winners from U.S. Trade and Agricultural Policies,” Policy Brief (Global Development and Environment Institute, January 2010), 2.
37. Bacon, “How US Policies Fueled Mexico’s Great Migration.”
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Bacon, “How US Policies Fueled Mexico’s Great Migration.” Those raids were captured on video by union organizers powerless to stop the actions, the footage featured in the popular documentary Food Inc.
41. Steven Greenhouse, “After 15 Years, North Carolina Plant Unionizes,” New York Times, December 12, 2008, sec. U.S.
42. Bacon, “How US Policies Fueled Mexico’s Great Migration”; Rufino Domínguez, “Cultural Roots as a Source of Strength: Educating and Organizing a Fragmented Immigrant Community” (Oaxacan Indigenous Binational Front, September 2003); David Bacon, The Right to Stay Home: How US Policy Drives Mexican Migration (Boston, MA: Beacon, 2014).
43. This section draws on my prior reporting, including an article for Mexico’s La Jornada del Campo: Timothy A. Wise, “El Arte de Entregar Los Valores,” La Jornada del Campo, November 16, 2013.
44. Fernández, Wise, and Garvey, “Achieving Mexico’s Maize Potential,” 12, 27.
45. Zahniser et al., “NAFTA at 20,” 88; “Mexico: US-Mexico Trade Facts.”
46. Wise, “Agricultural Dumping Under NAFTA,” table 1; Veronica Nigh, “NAFTA: No U.S. Barley, No (Mexican) Beer,” Farm Bureau (blog), June 30, 2017.
47. David Agren, “Mexico Protesters Fear US-Owned Brewery Will Drain Their Land Dry,” The Guardian, February 4, 2018.
48. Aliza Kellerman, “The Mexican Cerveza You Know Is Actually European,” Vinepair (blog), April 29, 2015; “Cracking Down on Corporate Monopolies and the Abuse of Economic and Political Power” (A Better Deal, n.d.).
49. Redacción, “López Obrador Firma el ‘Plan de Ayala 2.0,’ ” El Financiero, April 10, 2018.
50. “Technical Progress During Seventh NAFTA Round,” Feed & Grain (blog), March 9, 2018; Steve Suppan, “NAFTA 2.0: Doing Harm with Ag Biotech Approval Shortcuts,” Institute for Agriculture & Trade Policy (blog), September 29, 2017.
51. Azam Ahmed, Matt Richtel, and Andrew Jacobs, “In Nafta Talks, U.S. Tries to Limit Junk Food Warning Labels,” New York Times, March 20, 2018, sec. Americas.
9. Trading in Hypocrisy: India vs. World Trade Organization
1. Agriculture Census Division, “Agriculture Census 2010–11: All India Report on Number and Area of Operational Holdings” (New Delhi, India: Department of Agriculture & Co-operation, 2014), 6; World Bank, “Employment in Agriculture (Percent of Total Employment),” World Bank Data, accessed April 8, 2016.
2. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press, 1981).
3. Right to Food Campaign, “The ‘Right to Food’ Case,” n.d.
4. Right to Food Campaign, “The ‘Right to Food’ Case”; Shareen Hertel, “Hungry for Justice: Social Mobilization on the Right to Food in India: Social Mobilization on the Right to Food in India,” Development and Change 46, no. 1 (January 2015): 74, doi:10.1111/dech.12144; Biraj Patnaik, “The Right to Food,” Law Resource India, November 6, 2006.
5. Sakshi Balani, “Functioning of the Public Distribution System: An Analytical Report” (PRS Legislative Research, December 2013), 1–2, 7, 14.
6. “Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme,” Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India, n.d.
7. Yamini Jaishankar and Jean Drèze, “Supreme Court Orders on the Right to Food: A Tool for Action” (Right to Food Campaign, October 2005), 18.
8. Ibid., 52.
9. Abhijit Sen Himanshu, “In-Kind Food Transfers—I: Impact on Poverty,” Economic & Political Weekly 48, no. 45–46 (November 16, 2013): 46–54; Abhijit Sen Himanshu, “In-Kind Food Transfers—II: Impact on Nutrition and Implications for Food Security and Its Costs,” Economic and Political Weekly 48, no. 45–46 (November 16, 2013): 61.
10. Jean Dreze, “Democracy and Right to Food,” Economic and Political Weekly 39, no. 17 (April 24, 2004): 1723–31; Jaishankar and Drèze, “Supreme Court Orders on the Right to Food,” 26.
11. Jaishankar and Drèze, “Supreme Court Orders on the Right to Food,” 28.
12. “MGNREGA Public Data Portal,” Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, accessed April 11, 2016. The number who actually received paid work is lower, peaking at 54 million in 2009–2010 according to Jayati Ghosh, “India’s Rural Employment Programme Is Dying a Death of Funding Cuts,” The Guardian, February 5, 2015, sec. Global Development.
13. Mihir Shah, “Report of the Joint Commission of Enquiry: Incidence of Repeated Deaths Due to Malnutrition, Sheopur District, Madhya Pradesh” (Joint Commission of Enquiry, November 2006), 3, 15–19.
14. IIPS and MOHFW, “National Family Health Survey-4 State Fact Sheet: Madhya Pradesh,” State Fact Sheet, NFHS-4 (Mumbai and New Delhi, India: International Institute for Population Sciences and Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, 2016), 2, 4.
15. “CAB Madhya Pradesh Fact Sheet,” Clinical, Anthropometric and Biochemical (CAB), Annual Health Survey (New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2014), 1.
16. IIPS and MOHFW, “National Family Health Survey-4 State Fact Sheet: Madhya Pradesh,” 2.
17. “About Madhya Pradesh,” UNICEF India, accessed January 17, 2016; Government of India, ed., Madhya Pradesh Development Report (New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2011), 259.
18. “About Madhya Pradesh”; Anumeha Yadav, “In Rajasthan, Sahariyas Throw Off Generations of Slavery,” The Hindu, February 25, 2013.
19. ACF International, “Acute Malnutrition: Situational Analysis in the States of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, India” (Action contre la Faim, December 2010), 20.
20. Ghosh, “India’s Rural Employment Programme Is Dying a Death of Funding Cuts.”
21. Author’s calculations, data for India 2005 and 2015 from “Mortality Rate, Under-5 (per 1,000 Live Births)” (World Bank, Data), accessed March 30, 2018.
22. The next two sections draw on the author’s reporting in a two-part series for Food Tank: Timothy A. Wise, “WTO and Food Security: Biting the Hand That Feeds the Poor,” Food Tank (blog), December 2017; Timothy A. Wise, “India’s Public Stockholding: ‘Much More Than a Welfare Program,’ ” Food Tank (blog), December 2017.
23. Himanshu, “In-Kind Food Transfers—II,” 64; Jean Drèze and Reetika Khera, “Rural Poverty and the Public Distribution System,” Working Paper No. 235 (Centre for Development Economics, September 2013).
24. Harsh Mander, “State Food Provisioning as Social Protection: Debating India’s National Food Security Law” (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015), 21; Sachin Kumar Jain, “Children’s Right to Food in the NFS Bill 2011: A Raw Deal for Our Children,” Policy Brief for Parliamentarians (New Delhi: Centre for Legislative Research and Advocacy (CLRA), December 2012), 3; Avinash Kishore, P. K. Joshi, and John Hoddinott, “India’s Right to Food Act: A Novel Approach to Food Security,” in 2013 Global Food Policy Report, ed. Andrew Marble and Heidi Fritschel (Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014), 41.
25. For a detailed review of the debate on NFSA leakage estimates, see Jean Drèze and Reetika Khera, “Understanding Leakages in the Public Distribution System,” Economic & Political Weekly 50, no. 7 (February 14, 2015): 39–42; and Jean Drèze et al., “Clarification on PDS Leakages,” Economic & Political Weekly 50, no. 39 (September 26, 2015).
26. Shweta Saini and Ashok Gulati, “The National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013—Challenges, Buffer Stocking, and the Way Forward,” Working Paper 297 (Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations [ICRIER], March 2015), 3–4.
27. Himanshu, “In-Kind Food Transfers—II,” 68–69; Marta Kozicka et al., “Modelling Indian Wheat and Rice Sector Policies,” Discussion Papers on Development Policy (Bonn, Germany: Center for Development Research [ZEF], March 2015), 76.
28. Abhijit Das, “India’s Public Stockholding of Agricultural Products: Will Exports of Procured Food Grains Cause Trade Distortion?,” India Law News (blog), April 13, 2015.
29. Press Information Bureau, “Initiatives to Ensure Targeted Disbursement of Government Subsidies and Financial Assistance to Actual Beneficiaries,” Government of India Press Information Bureau, February 29, 2016.
30. See Sachin Kumar Sharma, The WTO and Food Security: Implications for Developing Countries (New Delhi: Springer, 2016).
31. “Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation (FSCC) (1933),” The Living New Deal, n.d.
32. Timothy A. Wise, “Agricultural Dumping Under NAFTA: Estimating the Costs of U.S. Agricultural Policies to Mexican Producers,” Mexican Rural Development Research Report No. 7 (Washington DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2010).
33. At the time, I wrote about this hypocrisy in a widely circulated article for the Indian press, Timothy A. Wise, “Ten Signs of US Hypocrisy on India’s Food Security Programme,” FirstPost (blog), December 7, 2013.
34. Timothy A. Wise and Biraj Patnaik, “WTO Takes a Wrong Turn for Development,” Down to Earth, February 23, 2016.
10. Conclusion: The Battle for the Future of Food
1. “Voluntary Guidelines to Support the Progressive Realization of the Right to Adequate Food in the Context of National Food Security,” adopted by the 127th Session of the FAO Council, November 2004 (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005).
2. International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science, and Technology for Development (Project) et al., eds., Agriculture at a Crossroads Synthesis Report: A Synthesis of the Global and Sub-Global IAASTD Reports, Agriculture at a Crossroads (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2009).
3. Ha-Joon Chang, “Rethinking Public Policy in Agriculture: Lessons from Distant and Recent History,” Policy Assistance Series (Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization, 2009).
4. C. Peter Timmer, Food Security and Scarcity: Why Ending Hunger Is So Hard, first edition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015).
5. Author’s calculations from data downloaded in February 2017 from “FAOSTAT,” Database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
6. AfDB, “Abuja Declaration on Fertilizer for the African Green Revolution,” African Development Bank, accessed May 18, 2017.
7. “The Inequalities of Hunger: 2017 Global Hunger Index by Severity,” Global Hunger Index, 2017; Rural poverty headcount data downloaded in May 2018 from “DataBank,” Database, World Bank.
8. Thomas S. Jayne et al., “Review: Taking Stock of Africa’s Second-Generation Agricultural Input Subsidy Programs,” Food Policy 75 (February 1, 2018): 1–14, doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.01.003.
9. Roger Thurow, The Last Hunger Season: A Year in an African Farm Community on the Brink of Change, 2013.
10. Rod Nickel, “Special Report: Drowning in Grain—How Big Ag Sowed Seeds of a Profit-Slashing Glut,” Reuters, September 27, 2017, sec. Business News.
11. “The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Building Resilience for Peace and Food Security” (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2017).
12. Roger Thurow, The First 1,000 Days: A Crucial Time for Mothers and Children—and the World, first edition (New York: PublicAffairs, 2016).
13. IPES-Food, “From Uniformity to Diversity: A Paradigm Shift from Industrial Agriculture to Diversified Agroecological Systems” (International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, 2016).
14. “Family Farmers Must Remain Central to Agroecology Scale-Up,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, April 5, 2018.
15. Jules Pretty, Camilla Toulmin, and Stella Williams, “Sustainable Intensification in African Agriculture,” International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 9, no. 1 (2011).
16. IPES-Food, “From Uniformity to Diversity,” 57.
17. GRAIN and Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, “Emissions Impossible: How Big Meat and Dairy Are Heating Up the Planet” (Minneapolis, MN, July 2018).
18. “Lobbying: Ranked Sectors,” Database, OpenSecrets.org, Center for Responsive Politics, May 2018.