1 Norman Mailer, The Fight (1975; London: Penguin Books, 1991); George Plimpton, Shadow Box: An Amateur in the Ring (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977); Budd Schulberg, “Journey to Zaire,” Newsday, October 1974, reprinted in Sparring with Hemingway (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 169–81; When We Were Kings, produced and directed by Leon Gast (DAS Films, David Sonenberg Productions, Polygram Filmed Entertainment, 1997), DVD, 89 mins.
2 Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an American Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 154–55. Other accounts of the bout that emphasize Ali’s personal redemption are Muhammad Ali, with Richard Durham, The Greatest, My Own Story (1975; New York: Ballantine Books, 1977); The Greatest, produced by John Marshall, directed by Tom Gries and Monte Hellman (Columbia Pictures, 1977), 101 mins.; Ali, produced and directed by Michael Mann (Columbia Pictures, 2001), 157 mins.
3 For Ali as a 1960s hero, see Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999); and Budd Schulberg, Loser and Still Champion: Muhammad Ali (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1972). See also Leigh Monteville, Sting Like a Bee: Muhammad Ali vs. the USA, 1966–1971 (New York: Random House, 2017); and David Remnick, King of the World: Muhammad Ali and the Rise of an American Hero (New York: Random House, 1998). For the first comprehensive biography of Ali, see Jonathan Eig, Ali: A Life (New York: Houghton, Mifflin, Harcourt, 2017). For the general athletic revolt expressed in the 1968 Olympics, see Amy Bass, Not the Triumph but the Struggle: The 1968 Olympics and the Making of the Black Athlete (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002); Harry Edwards, The Revolt of the Black Athlete (New York: Free Press, 1969); Douglas Hartmann, Race, Culture and the Revolt of the Black Athlete: The 1968 Olympic Protests and Their Aftermath (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); and Othello Harris, “Muhammad Ali and the Revolt of the Black Athlete,” in Muhammad Ali, The People’s Champ, ed. Elliott Gorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 54–69. For breadwinner liberalism, see Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy since the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), 17–46.
4 William L. Van Deburg, Black Camelot: African-American Culture Heroes in Their Times, 1960–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). For the debate about the meaning of black manhood, see various letters to the editor in Jet during the late 1960s and 1970s.
5 For an overview of the boycott movement against South Africa, see Douglas Booth, “Hitting Apartheid for Six? The Politics of the South African Sports Boycott,” Journal of Contemporary History 38, no. 3 (2003): 477–93.
6 Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006) analyzes the role of jazz musicians in American policy during the Cold War; Damion L. Thomas, Globetrotting, African American Athletes and Cold War Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), examines the role of sports in the Cold War and has the most detail on State Department–sponsored tours.
7 Richard Hoffer, Bouts of Mania: Ali, Frazier, and Foreman and an America on the Ropes (Boston: Da Capo Press, 2014) provides a useful narrative of the global boxing phenomenon of the 1970s.
8 Dave Anderson, “Chant of the Holy War: Ali, Bomaye,” New York Times, 28 October 1974, n.p., in Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York City. The flowering of and the debate about Black Power and black nationalism, both of which played a crucial role in the match, continued its important role into the 1970s. See William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); and Peniel Joseph, Wait ’Til the Midnight Hour: A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2006).
9 Theresa Runstedtler Jack Johnson, Rebel Sojourner: Boxing in the Shadow of the Global Color Line (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012). See also Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Randy Roberts, Papa Jack, Jack Johnson and the Era of the White Hopes (New York: Macmillan, 1983). For more on the white masculine ideal, see John F. Kasson, Houdini, Tarzan, and the Perfect Man: The White Male Body and the Challenge of Modernity in America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2001).
10 Lewis A. Erenberg, The Greatest Fight of Our Generation: Louis vs. Schmeling (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). Brian Bunk, “Harry Wills and the Image of the Black Boxer from Jack Johnson to Joe Louis,” Journal of Sport History 39, no. 1 (Spring 2012), 63–80, argues that black heavyweight Harry Wills prefigured Louis’s respectability strategy to campaign for a title match with Jack Dempsey during the 1920s.
11 On the 1970s as a transformational era, see Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012). Invaluable on the shift since the 1970s as manifested in athletics is Walter LaFeber, Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (1999; New York: W. W. Norton, 2002). Gene Collier, “Mr. Jordan, You’re No Muhammad Ali,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 20 January 1999, n.p., as quoted in LaFeber, Michael Jordan, 188. For other important analyses of the 1970s, see Peter Carroll, It Seemed Like Nothing Happened: The Tragedy and Promise of American Life during the 1970s (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1982); Bruce Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (2001; New York: Da Capo Press, 2002); Beth Bailey and David Farber, eds., America in the Seventies (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004). For more recent works, see Self, All in the Family; and Jefferson Cowie, Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class (New York: New Press, 2010).
12 William Graebner, “America’s Poseidon Adventure: A Nation in Existential Despair,” in Bailey and Farber, America in the Seventies, 157–80.
13 “Foreman Owes It All to Ali,” BBC Europe, http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/3957807.stm#top, 29 October 2004.
1 On breadwinner liberalism and military manhood, see Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy since the 1960s (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), 17–24.
2 Tracy E. K’Meyer, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South: Louisville, Kentucky, 1945–1980 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2009); and author interview with historian John Cumbler, 25 October 2016.
3 Jack Olsen, “Growing Up Scared in Louisville,” Sports Illustrated, 18 April 1966, 95–99.
4 Olsen, “Growing Up Scared,” 97–98. For Martin and the bike, see Houston Horn, “Who Made Me Is Me!” Sports Illustrated, 25 September 1961, 40.
5 For Fred Stoner, see Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 17–18.
6 Nat Fleischer, “Fleischer Talked Harmonica Boy Clay out of Jeopardy at Olympic Games in Rome,” The Ring, August 1967, 6–7, 34, discusses how his fraternization threatened to disrupt his training for the final round. Horn, “Who Made Me Is Me!” Sports Illustrated, 42.
7 Horn, “Who Made Me Is Me!” 42; Thomas Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 28. For Joe Louis and sacrifice, see Lewis A. Erenberg, The Greatest Fight of Our Generation: Louis vs. Schmeling (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 166–98.
8 Muhammad Ali, with Richard Durham, The Greatest, My Own Story (New York: Ballantine Books, 1975), 24, 55–80, 61 (on “mud huts”); “Huge Civic Welcome Awes Olympic Champion,” Louisville Defender, 15 September 1960, 1, 2, 16; Clarence Matthews, “Ambassador Clay” Louisville Defender, 1 September 1960, 13.
9 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 12–17.
10 For boxing investigations and its criminal links, see Steven Riess, “Only the Ring Was Square: Frankie Carbo and the Underworld Control of American Boxing,” International Journal of the History of Sport 5 (May 1988): 29–52; Jeffrey T. Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 130–83. For Liston’s mob ties, see Robert Steen, Sonny Boy: The Life and Strife of Sonny Liston (London: Kingswood Press, 1993); and Nick Tosches, The Devil and Sonny Liston (Boston: Little, Brown, 2000).
11 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 20–26. Details of the contract are in Angelo Dundee, with Bert Randolph Sugar, My View from the Corner: A Life in Boxing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 59.
12 LeRoy Neiman, “Real Clay Is Sincere, Determined,” The Ring, January 1967, 35.
13 For new fighting style and generational drama, see Budd Schulberg, Loser and Still Champion: Muhammad Ali (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1972), 33–36. On masculinity and homosexuality, see Self, All in the Family, 75–100; James Gilbert, Men in the Middle: Searching for Masculinity in the 1950s (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); and Barbara Ehrenreich, Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (New York: Anchor Books, 1983).
14 Ali and Dundee quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 39. Ali, The Greatest, 146–47. For predictions and press, see Houston Horn, “Fast Talk and a Slow Fight,” Sports Illustrated, 31 July 1961, 44; “Elusive Prophet,” Jet, 7 February 1963, 7. For Clay as celebrity, see Dundee, My View, 68, 76 (on boasting and predicting). Andrew Joseph Hale, “How Voice Operates in Popular Culture through the Performance Persona of Muhammad Ali” (MA thesis, San Jose State University, CA, 1994), has an excellent analysis of Ali’s verbal style as the key to his public persona.
15 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 32–33, discusses Gorgeous George’s influence.
16 Angelo Dundee, quoted in Jack Olsen, “All Alone with the Future,” Sports Illustrated, 9 May 1966, 35–36. Ali, quoted in Horn, “Who Made Me Is Me!” 41–42.
17 Dundee, quoted in Olsen, “All Alone,” 53. Ring vets cited in “How Boxing Experts Rank Clay,” Sports Illustrated, 9 May 1966, 53.
18 For Ali as a 1960s symbol, see Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999); Jeffrey T. Sammons, “Rebel with a Cause: Muhammad Ali as Sixties Protest Symbol,” in Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, ed. Elliott Gorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 160–64; Schulberg, Loser and Still Champion, 33–36; Requiem for a Heavyweight, produced by David Susskind, directed by Ralph Nelson (Columbia Pictures, 1962). Cassius Senior is from Horn, “Who Made Me Is Me!”, 40. Clay, quoted on Louis, “‘I Don’t Want Louis’s Tax Problems,’ Says Clay,” Jet, 24 November 1960, 54.
19 For generational revolt, see Dundee, My View, 61.
20 “Clay Pours in Gloves, Fulfills 4th Round Boast,” Jet, 29 November 1962, 54 (for “Youth versus Age and Experience”). For Clay’s prediction and Moore’s appearance, see Dundee, My View, 73. Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 40–53, calls the Moore fight a seminal text and Clay a good-natured bad boy through 1963.
21 On JFK, the NAACP, and liberal views of the two fighters, see Alan H. Levy, Floyd Patterson: A Boxer and a Gentleman (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2008), 140–59. Clay’s role in the revival of boxing is from Dan Daniel, “Who Will Be New Pilot of Expansion Era for Heavies?” The Ring, July 1967, 8–9, 11–13, 33, quote at 8. See also Dundee, My View, 78–79.
22 “Liston-Patterson Match Duplicates; Clay Next?” Jet, 8 August 1963, 60, for Liston’s invincibility. Dundee, My View, 91 (for “old man”). Cake and poem are in “Clay Has His Say about Way He Spends His Day,” Jet, 6 February 1964, 58–59.
23 Dundee, My View, 92–96. Jet’s take is from Bobbie Barbee, “Cassius Clay Follows Prediction,” Jet, 12 March 1964, 57.
24 For the best account of the Liston bout, see David Remnick, King of the World: Muhammad Ali and the Rise of an American Hero (New York: Random House, 1998), 183–204.
25 “165 Million Europeans Watch Fight,” New York Times, 26 February 1964, sec. 3, 2; and “Fight Facts,” Chicago Tribune, 25 February 1964, sec. 3, 3.
26 For Clay’s press conference, see Bobbie Barbee, “Cassius Clay Follows Prediction,” Jet, 12 March 1964, 56–57. See also Barbee, “Will Link with Malcolm X Hurt Cassius Clay’s Boxing Career?” Jet, 26 March 1964, 50–57.
27 Jack Olsen, “Learning Elijah’s Advanced Lessons in Hate,” Sports Illustrated, 2 May 1966, 37–43; Ali, The Greatest, 23–25; Randy Roberts and Johnny Smith, Blood Brothers: The Fatal Friendship between Muhammad Ali and Malcolm X (New York: Basic Books, 2016), xx–xxiv.
28 Ali, The Greatest, 24, 55–80.
29 Gerald Early, “Muhammad Ali as Third World Hero,” Ideas from the National Humanities Center 9, no. 1 (2002): 6. For more on Ali’s racial views and quotes about blackness, see Olsen, “Learning Elijah’s Advanced Lessons,” 38.
30 “Clay Has His Say about How He Spends His Day,” 58–59. For similar sentiments, see “‘What’s So Bad about Black Muslims?’ Clay Asks,” Jet, 24 October 1963, 57; and Bobbie E. Barbee, “Will Link with Malcolm X Hurt Cassius Clay’s Boxing Career?” Jet, 26 March 1964, 50–57.
31 Ali quoted in Olsen, “Learning Elijah’s Advanced Lessons,” 43; Barbee, “Will Link with Malcolm X Hurt?” 51.
32 On name controversy, see Robert Lipsyte, “The Champion Looks Down at His Title,” New York Times, 24 March 1964, 4; first Cannon quote from Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 102; second Cannon quote from Jimmy Cannon, column, NY Journal American, 26 January 1965; Greene quote from Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 104; “I Don’t Steal,” Amsterdam News, 28 March 1964, 28.
33 Charles P. Howard Sr., “Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay) Serious Young Man in Ghana,” Baltimore Afro-American, 6 June 1964, 20, in Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York; and “Alas, Poor Cassius!” Ebony, July 1965, 144, Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
34 “Alas, Poor Cassius!” Ebony, July 1965, 144, Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
35 Malcolm X, with Alex Haley, Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1964), 306–8. David K. Wiggins, “Victory for Allah,” in Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, ed. Elliott Gorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 94–95. “I’m champion of the whole world” quote from Marqusee, Redemption Song, 82–83, 102–23 (Black Atlantic). “My people’s background” quote from Barbee, “Will Link with Malcolm X Hurt,” 56. For Ali’s role in the conflict between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad, see Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Viking Press, 2011); and Roberts and Smith, Blood Brothers.
36 Early, “Muhammad Ali as Third World Hero,” Ideas 9, no. 1 (2002): 6. For an example of his bragging going over well in Ghana, see “Report Clay Revives ‘Lip,’” Jet, 4 June 1964, 54–55.
37 Howard, “Muhammad Ali (Cassius) Serious Young Man in Ghana,” Baltimore Afro-American, 6 June 1964 (first quote); “Muhammad Ali in Africa,” Sports Illustrated, 1 June 1964, 20 (second quote). Ali quote about meeting Nkrumah is cited in Early, “Muhammad Ali as Third World Hero,” 13, probably from Evening News, 20 May 1964.
38 “M. Ali (Clay) Says Imperialism Defaces Your Country’s Image,” Republic (Cairo), 5 June 1964, 9; and “Muhammad Ali’s Personality,” Republic (Cairo), 7 June 1964, 9.
39 Traveling companion from Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 12. For more on the trip, see Marqusee, Redemption Song, 124–29. Thomas R. Hietala, in “Ali and the Age of Bare-Knuckle Politics,” in Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, ed. Elliott Gorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 133, draws similar conclusions.
40 For Fleischer’s view, see “Champ Ali Named Ring’s Fighter of Month,” Jet, 1 July 1965, 53.
41 Floyd Patterson, “I Want to Destroy Clay,” Sports Illustrated, 19 October 1964, 42–61; Floyd Patterson, “Cassius Clay Must Be Beaten,” Sports Illustrated, 11 October 1965, 79–98; and Muhammad Ali, Playboy interview, 1965, cited in Dundee, My View, 115–16, 116 (for importance of name).
42 A good description of the match is in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 139–42.
43 For the role of Main Bout, see Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 93–118. Ali’s announcement in H. J. McFall, “Cassius Clay Tells Plan to Form a Negro Company,” Louisville Defender, 13 January 1966, 1. For more details, see “Jim Brown, Muhammad Ali Plan Ring Organization,” Jet, 27 January 1966, 57; and Dan Daniel, “Army? Terrell? Where Is Clay Headed?” The Ring, March 1966, 7–8, 63.
44 On the draft, see Jeffrey T. Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 200–217; Suzanne Freedman, Clay v. United States: Muhammad Ali Objects to War (Springfield, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1997). Mendel Rivers quoted in “Rivers May Seek Change in Draft,” New York Times, 26 August 1966, 3; Ali quoted in Robert Boyle, “Champ in the Jug?” Sports Illustrated, 10 April 1967, 30. The role of the Justice Department and the FBI, which it oversaw, raises suspicions of a conspiracy to negate Ali’s dangerous influence by drafting or jailing him. For the FBI’s COINTELPRO program designed to disrupt black organizations and undermine black organizations, see Roberts and Smith, Blood Brothers, 162, 171. Self, All in the Family, 52–56, argues that expanding the draft pool to include formerly unqualified black, Chicano, and poor white men was part of the War on Poverty’s attempt to use the military to provide them with the proper discipline and employment skills for them to assume their roles as breadwinners. This policy led to higher casualty rates for these populations.
45 Ali quoted by Robert Lipsyte in Hauser, Muhammad Al, 144–45; Red Smith, New York Herald Tribune, 23 February 1966.
46 Tunney is quoted in Ali, The Greatest, 163. For Ali’s depiction of his critics, see Tex Maule, “Showdown with a Punching Bag,” Sports Illustrated, 28 March 1966, 36.
47 On Ali’s global support and “colored immigrants,” see Nat Fleischer, “Nat Fleischer Speaks Out!!!” The Ring, August 1966, 5. For the “silent majority,” see Rick Pearlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008).
48 For Johnson, see Al Buck, “Clay-Johnson Parallels Warn Cassius Beware,” The Ring, June 1966, 12. Ali religion quote and Fleischer on military are in Fleischer, “Nat Fleischer Speaks Out!!!” 5. “Freak” in Dan Daniel, “Clay Tops List with Many Claims to Top Rating among Oddities,” The Ring, August 1966, 31–32. On flag, see Dan Daniel, “Mildenberger May be Next Opponent for Clay,” The Ring, August 1966, 10–11, 38.
49 Louis and Daniel quoted in Dan Daniel, “Ring Champion Should Be Set for Army If Called—Louis,” The Ring, June 1966, 17. Robert Earl, “The Case for Muhammad,” letter to editor, The Ring, October 1966, 32; Frank Allerdice, “He Wants to Forget Clay,” letter to editor, The Ring, September 1967, 28. For “Growing American Boy,” see Dan Daniel, “Ring Readers Back Bypass of Clay for 1966 Citation,” The Ring, April 1967, 28. For more black GI opinion, see “What GI’s Think about Ali’s Draft Dispute,” Jet, 15 June 1967, 44–46. Lewis Erenberg, The Greatest Fight of Our Generation: Louis vs. Schmeling (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 166–98, and Lauren Sklaroff, Black Culture and the New Deal: The Quest for Civil Rights in the Roosevelt Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 123–57, discuss the role of the NAACP in Louis’s army service.
50 “Martyr” and “laws of Allah,” are from Tex Maule, “Champ in the Jug?” Sports Illustrated, 10 April 1967, 30; “Warrior” in Tex Maule, “Showdown with a Punching Bag,” ibid, 28 March 1966, 36.
51 Editorial, “Muhammad Ali—The Measure of a Man,” Freedomways, Spring 1967, 101–2. For the new definition of black manhood, see Self, All in the Family, 53–54.
52 King sermon quoted in Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 124. Jackie Robinson, “In Defense of Clay,” Pittsburgh Courier, 18 March 1967, in The Muhammad Ali Reader, ed. Gerald Early (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), 72. For growing respect for Ali as a civil rights leader, see Mike Marqusee, Redemption Song: Muhammad Ali and the Spirit of the Sixties (London: Verso, 1999), 167–75, 196–205.
53 Bill Russell with Tex Maule, “I Am Not Worried about Ali,” Sports Illustrated, 19 June 1967, 18–21.
54 Ali’s Louisville speech quoted in Marqusee, Redemption Song, 213–14. At the Congress of Racial Equality’s annual convention in 1967, attended by Ali and representatives of the SNCC and the Black Panthers, President Floyd McKissick presented the champion with the CORE award “for being the greatest heavyweight champion of all time and bringing honor, glory and truth to millions by his willingness not to fight against other nonwhite people in the immoral and unjust war in Vietnam.” See Bill Nunn, “Change of Pace,” Pittsburgh Courier, 13 May 1967, 14. For the growing view of internal colonialism, see Self, All in the Family, 54.
1 Gilbert Rogin, “George Has the Rhyme, Pappy the Reason,” Sports Illustrated, 7 October 1968, 74.
2 Harry Edwards, The Revolt of the Black Athlete (New York: Free Press, 1969).
3 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 4–5. Mother’s background in George Foreman, with Ken Abraham, God in My Corner: A Spiritual Memoir (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2007), 5.
4 On the neighborhood, see Vic Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top,” New York Post, 27 January 1973, n.p., Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture; Foreman, God in My Corner, 4–5 for hunger.
5 Foreman, By George, 8–9.
6 Dime anecdote in Tim Tyler, “George Foreman: The Great White Hope,” Sport, July 1973, 80.
7 Bob Waters, “The George Foreman Transformation,” Newsday, 29 March 1978, back page, George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
8 “Vicious” teenager from Foreman, God in My Corner, 7–8. “I was a delinquent,” Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top,” New York Post, 27 January 1973. “You had to learn to fight,” from “Total Failure: How George Foreman’s Losses Showed Him the Way,” National Public Radio, 24 May 2017. Foreman, By George, 16–21, for all other quotes.
9 Richard Hoffer, Something in the Air: The Story of American Passion and Defiance in the 1968 Mexico City Olympics (New York: Free Press, 2009), 1–5.
10 Job Corps ad in Hoffer, Something in the Air, 115; Tyler, “Great White Hope,” 81–82; Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top,” New York Post, 27 January 1973, n.p., says Foreman saw the ad in the local pool hall.
11 Robert O. Self, All in the Family: The Realignment of American Democracy Since the 1960s (New York: Macmillan, 2012), 17–46.
12 Idyllic Grants Pass in Foreman, By George, 25–26. Teaching and building in Tyler, “Great White Hope,” 82.
13 Foreman, God in My Corner, 10.
14 Kibble, in Foreman, By George, 29–31.
15 Broadus quote about size, martial arts, and “fearless” from Tyler, “Great White Hope,” 82–83; Broadus quoted about counselor and being responsible for Foreman in Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.”
16 Briggs in Nat Loubet, “Foreman, 19, Aspires to Success as Pro Champ,” The Ring, February 1969, 12. Broadus quote and tennis shoes in Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.” Broadus on basics and “right from wrong” in Twombly, “Champ,” New York Times Magazine, 24 March 1974, n.p., Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg.
17 Amateur record in Loubet, “Foreman, 19,” 12; Broadus quote in Tyler, “Great White Hope,” 83. “I was somebody,” quoted in Twombly, “Champ,” New York Times Magazine, 24 March 1974, n.p., Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg.
18 On “poster boy,” “humanitarian,” and Broadus offer, see Foreman, By George, 42–44. Drugs in Tim Tyler, “George Foreman: The Great White Hope,” Sport, July 1973, 83.
19 Broadus quoted in Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.” On Broadus’s role and boxing as “my best opportunity,” see Foreman, By George, 46–47. Medal quote from Tyler, “Great White Hope,” 83.
20 On Olympic qualification bouts, see Loubet, “Foreman, 19,” 36. Broadus quoted in Hoffer, Something in the Air, 121.
21 For cocoon, see Foreman, By George, 55–56. I owe my understanding of the massacre to Eric Zolov, Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 120–31; and Zach McKiernan, “The 1968 Mexico City Olympics and the American Press,” undergraduate student seminar paper, Loyola University Chicago, in author’s possession.
22 Edwards, Revolt of the Black Athlete, 89–90, xxvii–xxviii.
23 Edwards, Revolt of the Black Athlete, xxvii–xxviii. See also Randy Roberts, “The Black Rebellion in American Sports,” in Winning Is the Only Thing, Sports in America since 1945 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989), 163–87.
24 For the politics of sport and the 1968 Olympics, see Damion L. Thomas, Globetrotting, African American Athletes and Cold War Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012). Smith quoted in Edwards, Revolt of the Black Athlete, 104. For more on the gesture, see Amy Bass, Not the Triumph but the Struggle: The 1968 Olympics and the Making of the Black Athlete (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002); Douglas Hartmann, Race, Culture, and the Revolt of the Black Athlete: The 1968 Olympic Protests and Their Aftermath (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003); Kevin Witherspoon, Before the Eyes of the World: Mexico and the 1968 Olympic Games (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008); Tommie Smith, with David Steele, Silent Gesture: The Autobiography of Tommie Smith (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007).
25 Ali quoted in “Boycott Comments Divided,” San Jose Mercury News, 25 November 1967, 68. For “hobo” and college guys, see Foreman, By George, 54–58; and Dave Zerin, What’s My Name, Fool? Sports and Resistance in the United States (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 94–96.
26 For Gault’s background, see Hoffer, Something in the Air, 201. Gault quoted in New York Times, 23 October, 1968; Hartmann, Race, Culture and the Revolt, 298n89; and Rogin, “George Has the Rhyme,” Sports Illustrated, 7 October 1968, 74.
27 Smith quoted in Edwards, Revolt of the Black Athlete, 104.
28 For the aftermath of the protest, see Smith, Silent Gesture, 179–93.
29 On Foreman’s Olympic boxing matches, see Tyler, “Great White Hope,” Sport, July 1973, 83; Dan Daniel, “Is George Foreman the Next Champ?” The Ring, July 1971, 39; Foreman, By George, 58–59.
30 For Foreman’s anger after the expulsion, see Foreman, By George, 56–57.
31 Girsch’s flag quote in George Girsch, “Foreman a Gentle Giant,” The Ring, May 1973, 42. Foreman quoted in By George, 59.
32 For flag kissing before final bout, see Loubet, “Foreman, 19,” 11. “This mark of confidence” and following quote are from The Ring, July 1971, cover story, 7. Marc Leepson, Flag, an American Biography (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 205), 227–36, 240–44, details the bitter symbolic battles over the American flag during the Vietnam War.
33 Ali quoted in Mark Kram, Ghosts of Manila (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 162–63. For three flags, see Zerin, What’s My Name, Fool?, 94–96. “Fighting Corpsman,” in Rogin, “George Has the Rhyme,” Sports Illustrated, 7 October 1968, 74.
34 Quote by Nixon’s rep in Foreman, By George, 53, 60 (Nixon speech).
35 For Humphrey’s speech and the interest of both campaigns, see R. W. Apple Jr., “Olympic Boxing Champion Is Used as Symbol by Both Major Candidates,” New York Times, 3 November 1968, 84. For Foreman’s choice of Humphrey, the celebrities, and meeting with LBJ, see Foreman, By George, 60–61. The picture of Foreman, flag, and Humphrey is from, Jet, 21 November 1968, 31.
36 Job Corps award from Loubet, “Foreman, 19,” 10.
37 “Pressure Mounting for George Foreman,” Chicago Defender, 15 November 1968, 34. Reagan quote in Vic Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.”
38 Hartmann, Race, Culture, and the Revolt, 159–60; Sports Illustrated, 28 October 1968, 160, 27; “10 Biggest Sports Stories of the Year,” Chicago Tribune, 29 December 1968, sec. B, 4.
39 Flag in Larry Borstein, “The Olympic Story, Foreman and Harris Champs,” The Ring, January 1969, 20. More flags in Jersey Jones, “Frazier-Foreman Predicted,” The Ring, November 1970, 30; Dan Daniel, “Here Comes Foreman,” The Ring, November 1970, 6; Wells Twombly, “Champ,” New York Times Magazine, 24 March 1974, n.p., “Foreman” Vertical Fire, Schomburg Center; Lombardi, in Foreman, By George, 61, 64 (Oakland parade).
40 Panthers, salesgirl, and friend in Foreman, By George, 61–62. Reverend Martin quoted in Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.”
41 “Outcast,” in Foreman, By George, 62. Uncle Toms in Tyler, “George Foreman: The Great White Hope,” Sport, July 1973, 83. Robinson quoted in Amy Bass, Not the Triumph, 285.
42 For his choices, see Foreman, By George, 64–65. For more details, see Foreman, God in My Corner, 13–14; Loubet, “Foreman, 19,” 11.
43 Sadler quoted in Tyler, “George Foreman,” Sport, July 1973, 83–84. Dan Daniel, “Here Comes Foreman,” The Ring, November 1970, 7, expressed the doubts of Foreman’s readiness.
44 Muller quoted in Tyler, “George Foreman,” Sport, July 1973, 83–84.
45 On training with Liston, see Foreman, God in My Corner, 14; Foreman, By George, 65–69, 72–79 (for sex), 72 (“boxing was my wife,” and Frazier and Brown).
46 For “whirlwind,” see Ziegel, “From the Bottom to the Top.” Futch’s dismay is in Ronald K. Fried, Corner Men: Great Boxing Trainers (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 1991), 335–36. Upset and description of bout in Nat Loubet, “Foreman’s Kayo of Frazier One of Top Feats in Boxing History,” The Ring, April 1973, 6–9.
47 Arthur Mercante, “Second Knockdown Was Turning Point Says Ref Mercante,” The Ring, May 1973, 7, 36. For Frazier’s take on the fight, see Joe Frazier, with Phil Berger, Smokin’ Joe (New York: Macmillan, 1996), 130–35.
48 “LBJ’s Death, Foreman’s Title Win Called Ironic,” Jet, 8 February 1973, 59.
49 George Girsch, “Foreman a Gentle Giant,” The Ring, May 1973, 8. For flag and no Black Power, see Larry Borstein, “The Olympic Story, Foreman and Harris Champs,” The Ring, January 1969, 20; Shirley Norman, “With Foreman, It’s U.S.A. All the Way,” The Ring, October 1973, 6, 34.
50 Tyler, George Foreman, Sport, July 1973, 79–80, 86; Twombly, “Champ,” n.p.
51 Tyler, “George Foreman,” Sport, July 1973, 79–80, 86. Twombly, in “Champ,” describes Foreman’s meeting with the students.
1 Elombe Brath, “Ali-Foreman Fight Shaping Up as Battle of Armageddon,” New York Amsterdam News, 26 September 1974, sec. A, 1.
2 Public opinion shift is discussed in Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 149–50.
3 Ali quoted in Mark Kram, Ghosts of Manila: The Fateful Blood Feud between Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 102, 99–104 (for more on the Quarry bout); “Ali Does It: Stages 8-Round Bout in Atlanta,” Jet, 17 September 1970, 56.
4 The list is from “Mrs. Ali Misses Who’s Who Celebrity Guests,” Jet, 12 November 1970, 14. For Nixon persecution of black militants equated with Ali’s sentence, see John H. Britton, “Black Militants Face Showdown in Struggle to Avoid Prison,” Jet, 16 January 1969, 14–20.
5 Ronald Kisner, “Ali Quells Quarry on Maddox ‘Day of Mourning’ Before Capacity Crowd,” Jet, 12 November 1970, 51–56.
6 Kisner, “Ali Quells Quarry.’” For the bomb threat, see “Ali’s Spouse Flees Bomb Threats,” Jet, 12 November 1970, 14. Abernathy quoted in “Purse for Bout above Estimate,” New York Times, 28 October 1970, 37, as in Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 150. Ali quoted in “The Black Scholar Interviews Muhammad Ali,” June 1970, reprinted in Gerald Early, ed., The Muhammad Ali Reader (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), 89. For Mrs. King, see Robert Lipsyte, “‘I Don’t Have to Be What You Want Me to Be,’ Says Muhammad Ali,” New York Times Magazine, 7 March 1971, reprinted in Muhammad Ali Reader, 97.
7 Cordell S. Thompson, “Muhammad Ali’s Purse Put at $600,000; Looks to Frazier,” Jet, 24 December 1970, 52–54; Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 150–151.
8 “Disgrace” and “Russia,” in “Frazier Calls Muhammad Ali ‘Loud Mouth’,” Milwaukee Star, 21 June 1969, 16. For “fists,” “Rizzo,” and “Tom,” see Lacy J. Banks, “Can Anybody Beat This Man?” Jet, 18 February 1971, 52–56.
9 Budd Schulberg, Loser and Still Champion: Muhammad Ali (Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1972), 106–7, 128. Gumbel quoted in Thomas Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 223–24.
10 For a description of the Ali-Frazier match, see Kram, Ghosts of Manila, 141–47. “And This One, Too,” letter to editor, The Ring, July 1971, 32; Franklin Crandall, “How about This?” The Ring, July 1971, 32.
11 Gumbel in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 224–25. Ali on Gaddafi and the Islamic world in Ali, The Greatest, 249–51. For black nationalist quotes, see Ambalavaner Sivanandan, “On the Passing of the King,” April 1971, reprinted in A Different Hunger: Writings on the Black Resistance (London: Pluto Press, 1982), 69. For an example of his resentment, see Joe Frazier, “Cassius Who?” Ebony, May 1972, 68–76.
12 For the Supreme Court decision, see Suzanne Freedman, Clay v. United States: Muhammad Ali Objects to War (Springfield, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1997), 65–78. See also Samuel Regalado, “Clay aka Ali v. United States, 1971: Muhammad Ali, Precedent, and the Burger Court,” Journal of Sport History 34, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 169–82. For Frazier’s bitterness, see Joe Frazier, with Phil Berger, Smokin’ Joe: The Autobiography (New York: Macmillan, 1996), 95–99, 130.
13 For his attitude as champion, “surly and angry,” see George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 85–101.
14 Foreman quoted in Foreman, By George, 94. Koyama quoted in Leonard Gardner, “Stopover in Caracas,” Esquire, October 1974, 304. Koizumi’s account of the Roman fight is in Joe Y. Koizumi, “Foreman’s Two-Minute Kayo of Roman Brings Fruitless Hassle,” The Ring, November 1973, 6–7.
15 Clark and Foreman on his anger in Wells Twombly, “Champ,” New York Times Magazine, 24 March 1974, n.p., Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
16 For Foreman’s meanness, see Gardner, “Stopover in Caracas,” 185–86. Foreman describes bout in Foreman, By George, 100–101. For a comparison of Norton and Foreman, see Dan Levin, “His Fight Plan Is a Planter’s Punch,” Sports Illustrated, 25 March 1974, 34–36. For more on the bout, see Tex Maule, “Buenas Noches, Señor,” Sports Illustrated, 8 April 1974, 21–23.
17 Ali quotes in Gardner, “Stopover in Caracas,” 306. Foreman’s response is in Foreman, By George, 101.
18 King quoted in “George Foreman vs. Muhammad Ali,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 11.
19 Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012). For more on the rise of Third World boxing, see Jeffrey T. Sammons, Beyond the Ring: The Role of Boxing in American Society (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 221.
20 Muhammad Ali, with Richard Durham, The Greatest, My Own Story (New York: Ballantine, 1976), viii. See Danyel Tobias Reiche, “Why Developing Countries Are Just Spectators in the ‘Gold War’: The Case of Lebanon at the Olympic Games,” Third World Quarterly (2016): 1–16, http://dx.coi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.11774; and Jiyeon Kang, Jae-On Kim, and Yan Wang, “Salvaging National Pride: The 2010 Taekwondo Controversy and Taiwan’s Quest for Global Recognition,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport 50, no. 1 (2015): 98–114, for the desire to use sports to boost a state’s stature.
21 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 154–155. For the international nature of the promotion, see “The Cash,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 10. For governmental ability to sponsor global matches, see “Playboy Interview: Don King,” Playboy, May 1988, 65.
22 “As Nat Loubet Sees It,” The Ring, August 1974, 5; Borstelmann, The 1970s, 139 (for early satellites); Schwartz, From the Corners, xv, 5.
23 Hank Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring to the Corners of the Earth: The Adventure behind the Champions (Valley Stream, NY: CIVCOM, 2009–2010), 120. Eric Porter, “Affirming and Disaffirming Actions: Remaking Race in the 1970s,” America in the Seventies, ed. Beth Bailey and David Farber (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 50–74, notes that in the early 1970s race became a positive asset for blacks.
24 Schwartz, From the Corners, 21–80; David Berman, “Foreman-Ali Promoters Predict Record Viewing of Closed Circuit TV,” The Ring, September 1974, 19–34.
25 Schwartz, From the Corner, 62, 91–102.
26 Schwartz, From the Corners, 11–17.
27 King atom bomb quote in “The Amazing Saga of the New King of Boxing,” Sepia, October 1975, 26. “Where the power lies” quoted in “The Promoters,” Black Enterprise, July 1976, 22. See also Mark Kram, “The Fight’s Lone Arranger,” Sports Illustrated, 2 September 1974, 32. For a positive view of King, see Sammons, Beyond the Ring, 219–25.
28 Howard B. Woods, “Big Fight Black Blast,” Chicago Defender, 14 September 1974, 8. Shabazz quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 260.
29 Mark Ribowsky, “Killer to King,” Sepia, October 1975, 31–32.
30 Jack Newfield, The Life and Crimes of Don King: The Shame of Boxing in America (London: Virgin, 1996; reprint, Sag Harbor, NY: Harbor Electronic Publishers, 2003), 13–26; Kram, “The Fight’s Lone Arranger,” 30–34.
31 Milton Viorst, “Deal of the Century: The Ali-Foreman Fight,” New York Magazine, 5 August 1974, n.p., Don King Vertical File, Schomburg Center, on King’s use of jail. Ribowsky, “Killer to King,” 32 for “toothpick.” For “a number,” see Edward Kiersh, “The Man Who Would Be King Takes a Fall,” pt. 1, Crawdaddy, 4 August 1977, 37. For more on King, see “Interview: Don King,” Playboy, May 1988, 51–68.
32 All quotes from James Borders, “The King of Pugilistica,” Black Collegian, February–March 1981, 55–56.
33 Newfield, Life and Crimes, 30–42.
34 Newfield, Life and Crimes, 43, 52–53. Elbaum quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 262–63. Dan Daniel laments the decline of New York’s control of boxing in “New York Boxing in Jeopardy as Greatest Title Fight in History Set in Africa,” The Ring, September 1974, 6–7, 59.
35 Schwartz, From the Corners, 103. King quoted in Viorst, “Deal of the Century,” New York Magazine, 5 August, 1974, n.p., Don King Vertical File, Schomburg Center; and Thomas Hauser, The Black Lights (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986), 75.
36 For international promotion, see “The Cash,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 10; Kram, “The Fight’s Lone Arranger,” 32.
37 For the Caracas bout, and King’s and Schwartz’s quotes, see Schwartz, From the Corners, 123–26. For information on Panama’s late twentieth-century role in offshore capitalism, see Alan Rusbridger, “Panama: The Hidden Trillions,” New York Review of Books, 27 October 2016, 33–35.
38 For Arum as antiblack and the appeal to black pride, see Newfield, Life and Crimes, 57–59. Use of Elijah Muhammad’s words in Ribowsky, “Killer to King,” Sepia, October 1975, 32. After a one-year suspension by Elijah Muhammad, Ali was accepted back into the fold in an arrangement that put off his becoming a minister until he left boxing.
39 For King’s appeal to George, see Ribowsky, “Killer to King,” 32. “I told Foreman” from Don King, “Foreman OK’d Fight in Frisco Parking Lot,” The Ring, October 1974, 66; “Until you beat Muhammad Ali,” in Ali, The Greatest, 456.
40 Foreman’s dissatisfaction in Jack Welsh, “For Foreman, Zaire Is Already Money in the Bank,” Boxing Illustrated, July 1974, 9, and Schwartz, From the Corners, 211–12.
41 For details, see Alan Hubbard, “Ali’s African Sunset,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 10; Newfield, Life and Crimes, 62–64; Schwartz, From the Corners, 160–173; author’s interview with Bill Caplan, Foreman’s publicist, 3 November 2017.
42 Newfield, Life and Crimes, 64–67; Weymar quoted by Schwartz, From the Corners, 75.
43 King quoted in Kram, “The Fight’s Lone Arranger,” 34. Percentages and David Frost’s participation and 75 percent of revenue are from Alan Hubbard, “Ali’s African Sunset,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 10. See also Milton Viorst, “Deal of the Century: The Ali-Foreman Fight,” New York Magazine, 5 August 1974, n.p., Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
44 Jack Welsh, “1 Billion People Will See It on Giant Screens,” Boxing Illustrated Special Commemorative Issue, [September or October] 1974, 40, Special Collections, Notre Dame University. Estimated profits from Hubbard, “Ali’s African Sunset,” 10. Similar estimates in Michael Thompson-Noel, “Ali Fight Likely to Gross $18m,” Financial Times of London, 30 October 1974. King quoted in Welsh, “For Foreman Ali, Zaire,” 11.
45 For airplane and globalization, see Borstelmann, The 1970s, 172–73. Mobutu’s DC-10 in Jim Mann, “Zaire—Country of Curious Changes,” Chicago Tribune, 26 August 1974, C3. For Schwartz and King’s jet lag, see Schwartz, From the Corners, 161, 184; for Hercules, see 186.
46 Alan Hubbard, “The Country,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 11–12.
47 Aloys Kabanda, Ali/Foreman: Le combat du siècle a Kinshasa 29–30 October 1974 [Ali/Foreman: The fight of the century] (Sherbrooke, QC: Naaman, 1977), 27–31, for the conversation in Abu Dhabi. “Violent Coronation in Kinshasa,” Time, 23 September 1974, 101, confirms that the two met, but has it in February 1974 in Kuwait. For sport as American monopoly, see Sammons, Beyond the Ring, 221.
48 “Gladiators” from “$10 Million Bet,” New York Times, 27 October 1974, 227. Mandungu Bula quoted in Stan Hochman, “Two Attitudes Clash in Fight Promotion,” New York Times, 29 July 1974, n.p., Ali-Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center. For the theme of exile and return as narrative of Ali’s autobiography, see Gerald Early, “Some Preposterous Propositions from the Heroic Life of Muhammad Ali: A Reading of The Greatest: My Own Story,” in Muhammad Ali: The People’s Champ, ed. Elliott Gorn (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 83–84.
49 Mann, “Zaire,” C3. For Mandunga Bula on stability, see “Fight to Benefit African Nation,” Chicago Defender, 20 July 1974, 20.
50 Michela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu’s Congo (New York: Perennial, HarperCollins, 2001), 70–74.
51 Wrong, In the Footsteps, 74–84. For more on the CIA, see Sean Kelly, America’s Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1993). This is the optimistic “boom period” described in the novel by V. S. Naipul, A Bend in the River (1979; New York: Vintage International Books, 1989), 85–182.
52 Mobutu quoted in Wrong, In the Footsteps, 91, 94.
53 Kevin C. Dunn, Imagining the Congo: The International Relations of Identity (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 22–23, 26–28 (for background on Stanley, Leopold, and images of the Congo). For brutality and genocide, see Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost: A Story of Greed, Terror and Heroism in Colonial Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998). Stanley and primitive Africa is from Marianna Torgovnick, Gone Primitive: Savage Intellects, Modern Lives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 9–34. Henry Morton Stanley, The Congo and the Founding of Its Free State (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1885), 1:59–60, as in Dunn, Imagining the Congo, 26–28. Critical is Patrick Brantlinger, “Victorians and Africans: The Genealogy of the Myth of the Dark Continent,” in “Race,” Writing and Difference, ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 185–222.
54 For the earlier images of Africa, see Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 170–232; Theodore Roosevelt, African Game Trails: An Account of the Western Wanderings of an American Hunter Naturalist (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910); Edgar Rice Burroughs, Tarzan of the Apes (1912; New York: Ballantine, 1983). Dunn, Imagining the Congo, 61–103, explores the colonial books and films.
55 For aspects of authenticity, see Ghislain Kabwit, “Zaire: The Roots of the Continuing Crisis,” Journal of Modern African Studies 17, no. 3 (September 1979): 381–407; Kenneth Lee Adelman, “The Recourse to Authenticity and Negritude in Zaire,” Journal of Modern African Studies 13, no. 1 (March 1975): 135. Wrong, In the Footsteps, 95.
56 For more on dress, see Kabwit, “Zaire,” 390; Adelman, “Recourse to Authenticity,” 135. As the embodiment of the nation, see also Kabwit, “Zaire,” 387–91.
57 Dunn, Imagining the Congo, 116–24.
58 Stephen R. Weissman, “Fisticuffs for Mobutu,” The Nation, 30 November 1974, 559; Adelman, “Recourse to Authenticity,” 136–37; Dunn, Imagining the Congo, 125–26; Zaire reaction to fight in Wrong, In the Footsteps, 95.
59 Mann, “Zaire,” C3; Henry S. Hayward, “Zaire, Land of Foreman and Ali,” Christian Science Monitor, 25 October 1974, n. p., Ali-Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
60 Mandungu Bula quoted in Stan Hochman, “Two Attitudes Clash in Fight Promotion,” New York Times, 29 July 1974, n.p., Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
61 King in Gardner, “Stopover in Caracas,” 310; “new life” in Alan Hubbard, “The Country,” Sportsworld, September 1974, 11.
62 For Schwartz and Rainbow Room, see Schwartz, From the Corners, 221–22. Griffin Booker, “Black Pride at Stake in Big Fight in Zaire,” New York Amsterdam News, 27 July, 1974, A1–A3, in Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
63 For billboards, see, “$10 Million Bet,” New York Times, 27 October 1974, 227.
64 King in Hubbard, “The Country,” 11.
65 Schwartz in Newfield, Life and Crimes, 69–70; and Schwartz, From the Corners, 217.
66 On the symbolic import of the stadium, see Mavomo Nzuzi Zola, “Enfin un Nouveau Stade du 20-Mai!” [Finally a new 20th of May stadium!], Salongo, 23 September 1974, 8. Schwartz in Newfield, Life and Crimes, 69–70. For more on infrastructure work, see Thomas A. Johnson, “Zaire Prepares with Pride for Foreman-Ali Fight,” New York Times, 2 July 1974, 44; and Kimpoza Mayala, “Le Stade du 20-Mai Fait Peau Neuve” [The 20th of May stadium has a new look], Elima, 16 August 1974, 12.
67 Solomons in, Hubbard, “The Country,” 11, 12 (Edwards’ doubts).
68 Schwartz, From the Corners, 239–40.
69 Schwartz, From the Corners, 240; and Angelo Dundee, with Bert Randolph Sugar, My View from the Corner, A Life in Boxing (New York: McGraw Hill, 2008), 174, including Pacheco quote. Ali as an African and Foreman’s face a mask are in “Fighters Show Signs of Plans,” Chicago Defender, 24 October 1974, 41.
70 Dundee, My View, 174. Schwartz, Four Corners, 245–46.
71 Dundee, My View, 174–75; “less than” and “these people hate dogs,” in Rick Talley, “A Stitch in Time Would’ve Helped,” Chicago Tribune, 21 September 1974, C3; author’s interview with Caplan, 3 November 2017.
72 American Embassy to Secretary of State, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA07909, Film No. D740260–0080, 17 September 1974, Electronic Telegrams 1/1/1974–12/31/1974, Central Policy Files, Records Group (RG) 59, 7/1/1973–12/31/1976, US National Archives. “Foreman was bleeding” and “promoters,” are in Dundee, My View, 176–77.
73 Dundee, My View from the Corner, 177, quotes Ali’s plea; American Embassy to Secretary of State, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA07909, Film No. D740260–0080, 17 September 1974.
74 American Embassy to Secretary of State, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA07909, Film No. D740260–0080, 17 September 1974.
75 American Embassy to Secretary of State, 18 September 1974, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA07959, Film No. D740261-1191, Electronic Telegrams, RG 59, US National Archives. Bula’s quotes appeared in “How Zaire Displayed Footwork,” New York Times,” 14 November 1974, 63, 66. For Schwartz’s role, see his From the Corners, 250–52. The flap with the press and the vagueness of the date are in “How Zaire Displayed Footwork,” 66.
1 Stewart Levine in interview with author, 1 June 2017; his discussion of the Jewish New Year is quoted in Soul Power, produced by David Sonenberg and Leon Gast, directed by Jeffrey Levy-Hite (Sony Picture Classics, 2010), special commentary, 93 mins.; and in Rob Woollard “Zaire 74 Legendary Music Festival,” The Telegraph, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/72221001/Zaire-74’legendary-African-music. On the cut, see Ronald E. Kisner, “Zaire Show Goes on Despite Delay of Fight,” Jet, 3 October 1974, 8–10.
2 Jack Newfield, The Life and Crimes of Don King: The Shame of Boxing in America (London: Virgin, 1996; reprint, Sag Harbor, NY: Harbor Electronic Publishers, 2003), 70, 78–80.
3 For the African musicians at the festival, see Zaire 74: The African Artists, produced by Hugh Masekela and Stewart Levine (Chisa Records, 2017), 2 CDs.
4 Lukundu Sampu quoted in T. M. W. “Special Festival,” Elima, 30 September 1974, 13. For Ali on Zaire 74, see Budd Schulberg, “Journey to Zaire,” originally in Newsday, October 1974, reprinted in Sparring with Hemingway (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 172.
5 Levine quoted in Woollard, “Zaire 74 Legendary Music Festival.” This was confirmed in Levine’s interview with author, 1 June 2017. Lloyd Price quoted in Soul Power. Etta James and David Ritz, Rage to Survive (New York: Villard Books, 1995), 216. For interest in the black arts, see Larry Neal, “Any Day Now: Black Art and Black Liberation,” Ebony, February 1969, 54–58, 62.
6 Quotes from Hugh Masekela and D. Michael Cheers, Still Grazing: The Musical Journey of Hugh Masekela (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004), 274–77; “Twelfth year of exile,” from Zaire 74: The African Artists; Levine, interview, 1 June 2017.
7 For Bell, see Michael Kelly, “Wattstax: Part I,” Waxpoetics 11 (2005): 54. Domenico Ferri, “Funk My Soul: The Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the Birth of Funk Culture” (PhD diss., Loyola University Chicago, 2013), 162. See also Rob Bowman, Soulsville, U.S.A.: The Story of Stax Records (New York: Schirmer Trade Books, 1998), 267–71; and Pat Thomas, Listen, Whitey! The Sights and Sounds of Black Power 1965–1975 (Seattle: Fantagraphics Books, 2012), 143–47. Shaw and radio stations in Bowman, Soulsville, 268.
8 Levine, interview; Masekela, Still Grazing, 154–74.
9 Masekela, Still Grazing, 4–79; big bands, 9, 59–60, 69–70.
10 Masekela, Still Grazing, for Apollo; 130–54, 164 for Belafonte, Makeba, and roots of hybrid jazz.
11 For Belafonte’s role in generating world music and promoting music as a form of protest and resistance, see Judith E. Smith, Becoming Belafonte, Black Artist, Public Radical (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014).
12 Levine quoted in Woollard, “Zaire 74 Legendary Music Festival.” Masekela, Still Grazing, 278–80. Fela’s inability to leave Nigeria is discussed by Levine in the special commentary of Soul Power.
13 Price quoted in Thomas A. Johnson, “Music Fete in Zaire Has Poor Box Office But Makes a Big Hit,” New York Times, 25 September 1974, 10; Masekela, Still Grazing, 280–84. For more on Gast, see Russ Slater, “It Was Our Thing, a Latin Thing: An Interview with Leon Gast,” 24 November 2011, http://www.soundsandcolours.com/subjects/film/it-was-our-thing-our-latin-thing-an-interview-with-leon-gast/. On Monk and McManus, see special commentary in Soul Power.
14 Levine, interview; Masekela, Still Grazing, 283–86.
15 For “mood was electric,” and all-night parties, see Masekela, Still Grazing, 283–84; Fred Wesley Jr., Hit Me, Fred: Recollections of a Side Man (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002); Johnson, “Music Fete in Zaire,” 10, says that thirty-two groups appeared, but then says that seventeen were from Zaire and fourteen from abroad. Levine quoted in Woollard, “Zaire 74 Legendary Music Festival.” For lack of tourists, high prices, and disappointing attendance, see David B. Ottaway’s “Zaire’s Cultural Festival Draws Blacks of Three Continents,” Washington Post, 22 September 1974, A13, and “Zaire Festival, a Comedy of Errors,” Washington Post, 25 September 1974, D1, D8.
16 Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993); and George Lipsitz, Dangerous Crossroads, Popular Music, Postmodernism and the Poetics of Place (New York: Verso, 1994).
17 For “home,” see “Good to My Ear,” Time, 1 February 1960, n.p., Makeba Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Miriam Makeba, with Jim Hall, Makeba: My Story (New York: New American Library, 1987), 1, 15, 17–18, 22, 44–51; 58–62, 65 (for early musical experiences).
18 For Rogosin, see Milton Bracker, “Xhosa Songstress,” New York Times Magazine, 28 February 1960, n.p., Makeba file, Schomburg Center; Dave Hepburn, “African Girl Overnight Sensation,” Sepia, June 1960, 14, 16; and Makeba, Makeba, 66–67, 73–74.
19 Makeba, Makeba, 96–104. For more on her quick rise, see Bracker, “Xhosa Songstress.” For the quote about Belafonte, see Hepburn, “African Girl Overnight Sensation,” 16. See also “Makeba . . . A Pure Diamond from South African Mines,” Pittsburgh Courier, 9 June 1962, 21. For Belafonte’s account, see Harry Belafonte, with Michael Shnayerson, My Song: A Memoir (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011).
20 For her return to Africa, see “Miriam Makeba: Back to Africa,” Sepia, April 1963, 39; the quotes are from Makeba, Makeba, 109–10.
21 She also testified against apartheid at the United Nations. See Kathleen Teltsch, “Miriam Makeba, at UN, Scores South African Race ‘Nightmare,’” New York Times, 17 July 1963, n.p., Makeba Vertical File, Schomburg Center; Makeba, Makeba, 113–19, 127–28, 219; and Richard Cabrera, “The Miriam Makeba Story,” Sepia, July 1968, 62–65. See also Jerry Tallmer, “Singing Envoy,’” New York Post, 30 July 1963, n.p., Makeba File, Schomburg Center.
22 Makeba, Makeba, 154–66, for her marriage to Carmichael and its consequences. See also Cabrera, “The Miriam Makeba Story, Sepia, July 1968, 65. “Angrily militant” is from “Miriam Makeba Says She Is Being Boycotted,” New York Post, 10 December 1968, n.p., Makeba File, Schomburg Center.
23 Her hair style and traditional dress can be seen in Soul Power. For more, see Makeba, Makeba, 90, 135, 182.
24 “Most respected,” “we’re all the same,” and 1971 Africa tour from M. Cordell Thompson, “James Brown Goes through Some New Changes,” Jet, 30 December 1971, 59. The documentary Soul Power shows James Brown on the last night playing to a full house. In fact, he headlined the first night at 3:55 a.m. with only a few thousand people in attendance. For the actual lineup, see “Special Festival,” Elima, 23 September 1974, 16, which says James Brown headlined the first night, while the Fania All-Stars were also on the bill. The latter would be brought back on Monday night. Ottaway, “Zaire Festival, D-1, D-8, attended the concerts and reported that Brown headlined the first night to a small audience, while Miriam Makeba and B. B. King suffered the same fate on the second night. Budd Schulberg, “Journey to Zaire,” in Sparring with Hemingway, 179, reported the same thing. The lineup also confirmed by American Embassy to Secretary of State, R 250945Z Sep 74, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA08159, Film No. D740270-0272, National Archives.
25 For Brown as representative of 1960s and 1970s militant black rage and manhood, see Rickey Vincent, Funk: The Music, the People and the Rhythm of the One (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 7–8; Thompson, “James Brown Goes through Some New Changes,” 55–56. For Watkins’s take on black entertainment, see Mel Watkins, On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying, and Signifying (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994). Marc Eliot, introduction to James Brown, I Feel Good: A Memoir of a Life of Soul (New York: New American Library, 2005), 7. For contemporary articles covering different phases of Brown’s career, see The James Brown Reader: 50 Years of Writing about The Godfather of Soul, ed. Nelson George and Alan Leeds (New York: Plume, 2008).
26 Eliot in Brown, I Feel Good, 8–12.
27 For Brown’s biography, see James Brown and Bruce Tucker, James Brown: The Godfather of Soul (1986; rpt., New York: Thunder’s Mouth, 1990); Cynthia Rose, Living in America: The Soul Saga of James Brown (London: Serpent’s Tail, 1990); and Brown, I Feel Good, Brown quoted at 59, 66–67; Eliot “Cry of Liberation,” 13–15. On soul and funk, see Markus Schmidt, “The One, James Brown’s Rap,” Waxpoetics 21 (February–March 2007): 41. See also Anne Danielson, Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006).
28 William L. Van Deburg, Black Camelot: African-American Culture Heroes in Their Times, 1960–1980 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 231. For his discussion of the “one,” see Brown, I Feel Good, 71–72. Ferri, Funk My Soul, argues that the shift to the one and much of funk itself came as a response to King’s assassination.
29 Brown, I Feel Good, 72–75, 80–81.
30 Brown, I Feel Good, 85–88; John H. Johnson, “The Unity of Blackness: The Secret of Success,” Ebony, November 1975, 132.
31 For more on this theme, see Kelly A. O’Connor, “Male Fashion” (PhD diss., Loyola University Chicago, 2013), 69–70.
32 Brown, I Feel Good, 145–47.
33 Brown, I Feel Good, 154–69 for 1968, his political activities, and the fate of “Say It Loud.”
34 On the new band, see Wesley, Hit Me, Fred, 133–34. On male sexual assertiveness, see Ferri, Funk My Soul, 38–39, 42–44, Vincent quoted at 56. M. Cordell Thompson, “Brown Vows to Support PUSH,” Jet, 6 December 1973, 94; Tony Bolden, The Funk Era and Beyond: New Perspectives on Black Popular Culture (Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 52.
35 Celia Cruz, with Ana Cristina Reymundo, Celia: My Life, trans. José Lucas Badue (New York: Rayo, 2004), 140–41. Pacheco and the All-Stars were covered extensively by the Zaire newspapers. See Tumba Mukamba Wamunda, “Special Festival,” Elima, 23 September 1974, 16; and “Un coup d’envoi sensationnel” [A sensational kickoff], Salongo, 23 September 1974, 9. The documentary Soul Power says the All-Stars performed the second and third nights. An earlier documentary, Celia Cruz and the Fania All-Stars Live in Zaire 74, directed by Leon Gast, produced by David Sonenberg (Gravity Limited, 1989), says they performed the first and third nights, which accords with Zaire press accounts.
36 Christopher Small, Music of the Common Tongue: Survival and Celebration in Afro-American Music (London: Calder; New York: Riverrun Press, 1987), 426–45, discusses the common threads of black music in the Americas and reasons for the differences. See also Sam Floyd, The Power of Black Music: Interpreting Its History from Africa to the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); John Storm Roberts, Black Music of Two Worlds: African, Caribbean, Latin and African American Traditions, 2nd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1998).
37 Celia Cruz and the Fania All-Stars Live in Zaire 74. Unfortunately, the documentary mixes the repertoire of both nights, leaving the viewer to guess which songs were performed on which night.
38 Frances R. Aparicio, Listening to Salsa: Gender, Latin Popular Musics, and Puerto Rican Cultures (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1998), 66–82; César Miguel Rondón, The Book of Salsa: A Chronicle of Urban Music from the Caribbean to New York City, trans. Frances R. Aparicio, with Jackie White (1980; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 1–34, 37–40.
39 Rondón, Book of Salsa, 1–40; Lipsitz, Dangerous Crossroads, 79–83. For more on the hybridization of the music, see Robert Baron, “Syncretism and Ideology: NY Salsa Musicians,” Western Folklore 36, no. 3 (1977): 209–25. Colón quoted in Leonardo Padura Fuentes, “Willie Colón Interview,” in Faces of Salsa: A Spoken History of the Music (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2003), 29–30; “Johnny Pacheco interview,” Faces of Salsa, 59.
40 Nuestra Cosa (Our Latin Thing), directed by Leon Gast, produced by Jerry Masucci (Vampi Soul DVD, 1972), documents the All-Stars jamming at New York’s Cheetah Club in 1971 and the neighborhoods from which the music sprang. Alfredo Lopez, “It Don’t Mean a Thing If It Ain’t Got That Clave,” Village Voice, 7 November 1977, 49. For the political connections, see Felix M. Padilla, “Salsa: Puerto Rican and Latino Music,” Journal of Popular Culture 24 (Summer 1990): 92–94.
41 Padilla, “Salsa,” 94.
42 Pacheco quoted in “Johnny Pacheco interview,” in Padura, Faces of Salsa, 57–58. The intense competition among record companies allowed musicians to experiment and get their product sold. This is a key point for Padilla, “Salsa,” 91. For Fania’s role, see Lopez, “It Don’t Mean a Thing,” 49; and Rondón, Book of Salsa, 37–51. For an earlier portrait of barrio life and the racial dilemmas of Puerto Ricans in New York, see Piri Thomas, Down These Mean Streets (New York: New American Library, 1967); Lipsitz, Dangerous Crossroads, 3–20.
43 Cruz, Celia, 130–38. For a brief sketches of her career, see Jon Pareles, “Celia Cruz, Petite Powerhouse of Latin Music Dies at 77,” New York Times, 17 July 2003, 89; and Thomas Zaleski, “Celia Cruz,” The Guardian, 17 July 2003, http://www.theguardian.com/news/2003/jul/18/guardianobituaries.arts. See also Juan Moreno Velázquez, liner notes to Celia & Johnny (1974; Fania Records CD, 2006).
44 The list of Zaire bands is from Gary Stewart, Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos (London: Calder; New York: Riverrun Press, 1987), 206–18; “Festival in Zaïre,” Salongo, 26 September 1974, 8; “Festival spécial,” Elima, 23 September 1974, 16; Robin Denselow, liner notes to Zaire 74: The African Artists (Chisa Records, 2017).
45 Christopher Small, Music of the Common Tongue, 426–45. See also Graeme Ewens, Africa O-Ye! A Celebration of African Music (New York: Da Capo, 1992), 26–38. Stewart, Rumba on the River, 15–46, charts the development of Congo rumba.
46 Stewart, Rumba on the River, 76–79; Jesse Samba Wheeler, “Rumba Lingala as Colonial Resistance,” Image [&] Narrative, Online Magazine of the Visual Narrative, March 2005, http://www.imageandnarrative.be/inarchive/worldmusica/jessesambawheeler.htm.
47 Wheeler, “Rumba Lingala.”
48 Stewart, Rumba on the River, 83–100.
49 Stewart, Rumba on the River, 210–17.
50 Franco’s life, music, and status as a folk hero is covered in Graeme Ewens, Congo Colossus: The Life and Legacy of Franco and OK Jazz (Norfolk, England: Buku Press, 1994); Ewens, Africa O-Ye!, 132–37; Stewart, Rumba on the River, 52–73; Ken Braun, liner notes to FRANCOphonic, Africa’s Greatest: A Retrospective, vol. 1, 1953–1980 (Sterns Music, 2008).
51 Stewart, Rumba on the River, 170–74.
52 Braun, liner notes to FRANCOphonic, 30–32; Stewart, Rumba on the River, 194–205.
53 “Festival in Zaïre,” 8.
54 For how the cut affected tourism, see Al Harvin, “For Tourists in Zaire, There’s Still a Music Festival,” New York Times, 18 September 1974, 48. Masekela, Still Grazing, 284–86. Price’s woes are from Newfield, Life and Crimes of Don King, 81. For the house arrest and wrangling over the rights and the profits, see also Levine, interview with author, 1 June 2017.
55 Vincent, Funk, 185; Brown, I Feel Good, 179–88. For more on Brown and disco, see Steve Bloom, untitled clipping, Soho Weekly News, 28 June 1979, 13–16, James Brown Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
1 One hundred thousand in crowd from “Foreman et Ali au Stade du 20-Mai” [Foreman and Ali at the Mai 20 Stadium], Elima, 24 September 1974, 7. For the stadium’s symbolic importance, see “Enfin, un nouveau stade du 20-Mai” [Finally a new Mai 20 stadium], Salongo, 23 September 1974, 8; “Discours du Citoyen Tshimpupu Kaninda” [Speech of Citizen Tshimpumpu Kaninda], Salongo, 23 September 1974.
2 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 108.
3 Bingham quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1991), 270–71. For Ali honed to a fine edge, sparring partner, and waiting Foreman out, see Budd Schulberg, “Journey to Zaire,” October 1974, in Sparring with Hemingway (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 175.
4 Schulberg, “Journey to Zaire,” in Sparring with Hemingway, 176; Angelo Dundee with Bert Randolph Sugar, My View from the Corner: A Life in Boxing (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 179–80; “Mission Impossible compound” from Rick Talley, “‘A Stitch in Time’ Would’ve Helped,” Chicago Tribune, 21 September 1974, C3.
5 Foreman, By George, 107. Caplan quoted in Talley, “‘Stitch in Time.”
6 Quotes about the boxing crowd are from George Plimpton, “They’ll Be Swinging in the Rain,” Sports Illustrated, 30 September 1974, 37, 38. The press journey is from Jerry Izenberg, Through My Eyes: A Sports Writer’s 58-Year Journey (Haworth, NJ: St. Johann Press, 2009), 129–31. See also Dick Schaap, “The Road to Zaire,” Sport, December 1974, 6–7.
7 Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring to the Corners of the Earth (Valley Stream, NY: CIVCOM INC., 2009–2010), 249–54.
8 Rainy season quote from Plimpton, “They’ll Be Swinging,” 38.
9 Schaap, “Road to Zaire,” 8; Norman O. Unger, “Champ Bleeds on Fight Plans,” Chicago Defender, 17 September 1974, 1; Anthony Blackwell, “Ali Plotting Action,” Chicago Defender, 24 September 1974, 24; Rick Talley, “‘Stitch in Time,’” Chicago Tribune, 21 September 1974, C3. After the fight was over, Dan Daniel suggested that the cut may have been a ruse to help a then-overweight Foreman with more time to get in shape. Others may have had similar thoughts before the bout occurred. See Dan Daniel, “Ring Detective Explains Zaire Cut Eye Ploy, the Foreman Need for Delay,” The Ring, February 1975, 8–9.
10 American Embassy to Secretary of State, Doc. No. 1974KINSHA07959, Film No. D740261-1191, 18 September 1974, Electronic Telegrams 1/1/1974–12/31/1974, Central Policy Files, RG 59, 7/1/1973–12/31/1976, National Archives, for “boredom and isolation.” Dundee, My View from the Corner, 178, discusses the pendulum shift and how the delay affected Foreman. Daniel, “Ring Detective,” 8–9. “Razor” poem in Clive Gammon, “Cut ’n Run versus the Big Gun,” Sports Illustrated, 28 October 1974, 39. Ali’s romance with Veronica Porche is discussed in Bill Caplan’s interview with author, 3 November 2017; and Jonathan Eig, Ali: A Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017), 388–89.
11 Ping-pong from Bill Caplan interview, 3 November 2017.
12 “Super Puncher,” from Jack Welsh, “Foreman vs. Ali,” Boxing Illustrated, June 1974, 8; George Girsch, “Foreman All-Time Kayo King among Heavy Champions,” The Ring, January 1974, 10–11, 31.
13 “When I get a get a guy hurt,” in Jack Welsh, “Foreman vs. Ali,” 8. “When a man,” in Dan Shocket, “George Foreman Insists: ‘I’ll Knock Ali Out Early!” World Boxing, November 1974, 34–36. Sadler quoted in, “It Took Only Five Minutes,” International Boxing, August 1974, 37. Dan Shocket, “Why George Foreman Will Whip Muhammad Ali,” International Boxing,” August 1974, 39, 54.
14 Jerry Quarry, “Foreman Will Kayo Ali!” World Boxing, September 1974, 28–31.
15 “Archie Moore: When Foreman Connects, Goodby Jaw,” Sports Illustrated, 28 October 1974, 34.
16 “Archie Moore: When Foreman Connects.” “If this fight had been held three years ago” and related quotes are from Robert Markus, “Likes Ali in Big Fight . . . but . . . ,” Chicago Tribune, 29 October 1974, C3; Randy Neuman, “Ali-Foreman Fight in Africa: Public Relations vs. Pugilism,” New York Times, 18 August 1974, 178.
17 Thomas Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 266 (for “mummy”); Norman Mailer, The Fight (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975), 68 (for “big Black man”).
18 Jack Welsh, “For Foreman Ali, Zaire Is Already Money in the Bank,” Boxing Illustrated, July 1974, 13.
19 “Emotional iceberg” is from Don Majeski, “So It All Boils Down to This,” Boxing Illustrated, [August or September] 1974, 68; “As Nat Loubet Sees It,” The Ring, July 1973, 5.
20 Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring, 277–80.
21 “No run-of the-mill” from Randy Neuman, “Ali-Foreman Fight in Africa,” 178. Donn Bridgy, “This Epic Confrontation,” letter to editor, World Boxing, November 1974, 14. See also William Fauntleroy, “Differing Opinion,” letter to editor, World Boxing, November 1974, 14–15, for Ali righting the miscarriage of justice occasioned by the stripping of his title over Vietnam.
22 Steve Heger, “The Realistic View?” letter to editor, World Boxing, November 1974, 14.
23 “Nixon,” quoted in Schulberg, Sparring with Hemingway, 172.
24 Wells Twombly, “Champ,” New York Times Magazine, 24 March 1974, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center; Elombe Brath, “Ali-Foreman Fight Shaping Up as Battle of Armageddon,” New York Amsterdam News, 26 September 1974, A1–A2.
25 “Guileless good guy” and “prose or doggerel,” from “Violent Coronation in Kinshasa,” Time, 23 September 1974, 100–101; Dan Shocket, “I’ll Knock Ali Out Early,” 36.
26 Time, “Violent Coronation,” 102.
27 “Irked Foreman Rips Ali’s Suit at Dinner,” New York Times, 23 June 1974, 203.
28 Clancy quoted in Izenberg, “Does Ali Have a Chance against Foreman?” Sport, September 1974, 24. “Holy war” in Dave Anderson, “Chant of the Holy War: Ali, Bomaye,” New York Times, 28 October 1974, “Ali” Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, and in “Ali’s Ready for Foreman,” New York Amsterdam News, 7 September 1974, 23. Pride in black Africa from Howard Bingham tape collection, cited in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 265. In a telephone interview on 6 July 2016, Jerry Izenberg said two things beat Foreman: Africa and his boxing stupidity.
29 Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 265 (for “savages”); Foreman, By George, 107–8 (for “goof,” “eyes following,” and “Palookaville”).
30 Kalonji Kabasele Mobayayi, “Muhammad Ali: Je suis le boxeur le plus scientifique, le plus rapide et le plus beau de tous les temps” [Muhammad Ali: “I am the most scientific boxer, the fastest and the greatest of all time], Elima, 29 October 1974, 15; “Portrait: Ali,” Salongo, 30 October, 1974, 11. “Portrait: Foreman,” Salongo, 30 October 1974, 10.
31 “Joe Frazier in Accra,” Ghanaian Times, 29 October 1974, 1. See also “Amarteifio Heavily Tipped to Handle Fight,” Ghanaian Times, 29 October 1974, 11.
32 Gammon, “Cut ’n Run,” 32–34, 39.
33 Anderson, “Chant of the Holy War.”
34 Schwartz, Four Corners, 282–86.
35 Schwartz, Four Corners, 286. The fighters’ clothes and the cane story in Anderson, “Chant of the Holy War.” See also Malonga Bouka, “Foreman: Je suis le plus fort et je garderai mon title” [Foreman: I am the strongest and I will keep my title], Elima, 28 October, 1, 16.
36 Foreman’s remarks are from “Foreman, Ali Surprise Watchers,” Chicago Defender, 28 October 1974, 24. For Foreman’s psychological advantage, “sleek and menacing,” and Ali’s voice, see Alan Hubbard, “Sore Throat Zips Lip,” Pretoria News, 28 October, 36. Black Power salute and quiet dignity from “Foreman Steals the Show,” Ghanaian Times, 28 October 1974, 22. “Victory lap” from “12,000 Excited Fans See Aly-Foreman [sic] Weigh-in Ceremony,” Egyptian Gazette, 28 October 1974, 4.
37 Thomas A. Johnson, “Mobutu Gives a Garden Party,” New York Times, 29 October 1974, 45. See also “Le président-fondateur souhaite bonne chance aux deux boxeurs” [The president-founder wishes both fighters good luck], Elima, 30 October, 1, 8.
38 Johnson, “Mobutu Gives,” 45; “President-Founder Wishes,” 1, 8.
39 Johnson, “Mobutu Gives,” 47. From Our Correspondent, “You Can’t Listen to the Big Fight,” Pretoria News, 29 October 1974, 3.
40 Dundee, My View from the Corner, 181–82. Goodman quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 272–73.
41 Welsh, “For Foreman Ali,” 9.
1 Jack Welsh, “The Ultimate in a Confrontation of Men,” [September or October] 1974, Boxing Illustrated, special edition, editorial page, Special Collections, Notre Dame University.
2 “Universal Spectacle” from Elombe Brath, “Ali-Foreman Fight Shaping Up as Battle of Armageddon,” New York Amsterdam News, 26 September 1974, A-1. “Fighter’s Heaven” and Ali quote of one last goal discussed in Randy Gordon, “The Muhammad Ali Story,” World Boxing, August 1974, 42–49, 64, 66. “Trainer Angelo Dundee: Ali by a Knockout in Nine or 10,” Sports Illustrated, 28 October 1974, 34. Jerry Izenberg, interview with author, 6 July 2016.
3 Dave Anderson, “$10-Million Bet,” New York Times, 27 October 1974, n.p. “Flamboyant mystique” from Dave Anderson, “Foreman 3–1 over Ali in Zaire Tonight,” New York Times, 29 October 1974, 47.
4 For the fears of Wali Muhammad and Bernie Yuman, see Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 273, 274 (Elijah Muhammad’s message). Mailer’s account of who was in the dressing room and Ali’s response is from Norman Mailer, The Fight (Boston: Little, Brown, 1975), 164–69.
5 For Bundini, the morose atmosphere, and Broadus, see “George Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” Sports Illustrated, 11 November 1974, 25; and Mailer, The Fight, 166–71.
6 For cards and letters and Chicago Tribune headline, see Muhammad Ali, with Richard Durham, The Greatest: My Own Story (1975; New York: Ballantine Books, 1977), 481; Ferdie Pacheco, Fight Doctor (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), 128; Mailer, The Fight, 94.
7 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 109. Sadler quoted in Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 24. For talking in ring and 4 a.m. fights, see Anderson, “Foreman 3–1 over Ali,” 45. Moore’s prayer was told to Norman Mailer by George Plimpton. See Mailer, The Fight, 175–76; Pacheco, Fight Doctor, 135, 137; Dundee, My View from the Corner, 183.
8 “Edge” from Ali, The Greatest, 491. For a description of crowd behavior, see Dundee, My View from the Corner, 184. Ali as hero and his fans, from Nat Loubet, “Ali Outfought, Outlasted and Outwitted Foreman in a Classic Upset,” The Ring, January 1975, 7. Robe described in Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 24, and in Dave Anderson, “Ali Regains Title, Flooring Foreman,” New York Times, 30 October 1974, 93; Pacheco, Fight Doctor, 138.
9 Mailer, The Fight, 176. Foreman’s robe and Ali’s taunting during the anthems is from Anderson, “Ali Regains Title,” New York Times, 30 October 1974, 93. “Fighting Corpsman” comes from internet correspondence between author and Foreman, 5 January 2017. “No testing” and “the bigger,” from Dundee, My View from the Corner, 184. I recollect the crowd gasping at the Armory in Albany, New York, where I saw the fight on 29 October.
10 Foreman, By George, 109–10. Gunfighters in Ali, The Greatest, 492, and insults at 492–93.
11 “Slugfest” from Loubet, “Ali Outfought, Outlasted,” 8. For the fight description, see Foreman, By George, 110–11; Muhammad Ali: The Greatest Collection (Big Fights Inc., 1974; HBO, 2001), DVD; Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 22–28; Mailer, The Fight, 177–82.
12 Moore quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 275.
13 Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 23; Foreman, By George, 110–11.
14 Pacheco, Fight Doctor, 140; Dundee quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 276.
15 On Foreman’s ability to cut off the ring and the rope-a-dope strategy, see “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali,” Playboy (1975), Muhammad Ali Vertical File 1973–1978, Kaiser Incomplete, n.p., Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. See also Ali, The Greatest, 497. Michael Ezra, “How Muhammad Ali’s Rope a Dope Myth Suckered America,” Deadspin, 30 October 2014, https://deadspin.com/how-muhammad-alis-rope-a-dope-myth-suckered-america-1652932623, goes farther than any other analyst in challenging the rope-a-dope as a planned strategy. He also shows that by the end of the seventh round Ali was far ahead on the judges’ cards: 4–2–1, 3–0–4, and 4–1–2. For those watching the fight in that overheated atmosphere, however, it did appear at first that Ali was getting pummeled and was on the verge of defeat.
16 Muhammad Ali: The Greatest Collection (DVD); “Muhammad on the Mountaintop,” Time, 11 November 1974, 84–85; Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26; Mailer, “The Fight,” 185.
17 “Eked out” from Loubet, “Ali Outfought, Outlasted,” 7; Pacheco in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 274, and Shabazz at 274.
18 Foreman, By George, 111; Muhammad Ali (DVD); Ali quoted in Ali, The Greatest, 501–2.
19 Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26; “Muhammad on the Mountaintop,” 84–85; Foreman, By George, 111; Dundee, My View from the Corner, 186.
20 Taunts in Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26; Dundee, My View from the Corner, 187, for both taunts and bombs and chants. Loubet, “Ali Outfought, Outlasted,” 8 (for chants for Ali).
21 Foreman, By George, 111–13.
22 Dundee, My View, 187–88; Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26.
23 Loubet, “Ali Outfought, Outlasted,” 8. “How Clay Knocked Out Foreman—The Knockout King,” Al Ahram, 31 October 1974, 1, 3–4. George’s determination in Foreman, By George, 113. Elijah Muhammad’s message in Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26; Dundee, My View from the Corner, 188; Ali’s thinking in Ali, The Greatest, 504.
24 For the last round, see Muhammad Ali: The Greatest Collection (DVD). Ali’s taunt in Ali, The Greatest, 504. Last punches described by Dundee, My View from the Corner, 188. Foreman’s recollection in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 278, and Foreman, By George, 114.
25 Frost quoted in Muhammad Ali: The Greatest Collection (DVD); and Mailer, The Fight, 210.
26 Foreman on reporters and dressing room in Foreman, By George, 114–15. Plimpton’s coverage of dressing room, in Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 26–27.
27 Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 28.
28 Foreman, By George, 114–17, for postfight recollections.
29 Ali’s remarks are captured in Muhammad Ali: The Greatest Collection (DVD); and Dave Anderson, “Sports of the Times” column, New York Times, 31 October 1974, n.p., Ali-Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
30 Joe Louis quoted in “Words of the Week,” Jet, 2 January 1975, 30. Anderson, “Sports of the Times”; reporter Jerry Izenberg quoted in Dundee, My View from the Corner, 18, confirmed in telephone interview, 6 July 2016.
31 Foreman, By George, 115, for rope-a-dope; for Ali calling him a dope, “supreme,” and “lion,” see “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali,” Playboy, 1975, n.p., Ali Vertical File 1973–1978, Schomburg Center.
32 Foreman, By George, 115–16 for water, and 114 for quick count. For Ali calling him a sore loser, see “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali.”
33 Dan Daniel, “Ring Detective Explains Zaire Cut Eye Ploy, the Foreman Need for Delay,” The Ring, February 1975, 8–9.
34 “Referee Denies ‘Count’ Dispute, Chicago Defender, 4 November 1974, 30.
35 On being doped in Foreman, By George, 116, and on dehydration strategy, 109. On Foreman’s poor condition, see Daniel, “Ring Detective,” 8–9, 34. George Foreman email to author, 14 January 2017. For more on water and excuses for losing, see George Foreman interview with Michael May, “Total Failure: How George Foreman’s Losses Showed Him the Light,” NPR, 24 May 2017, https://www.npr.org/2017/05/24/528995768/total-failure-how-george-foremans-losses-showed-him-the-light.
36 Seeley Hagan, “Blesses Heaven for Muhammad,” letter to editor, The Ring, February 1975, 28. Norton’s remark in John Hall, “Ghost of Liston,” Los Angeles Times, 31 October 1974, E3; Rick Talley, “Ali Knocks Out Foreman in 8th in Zaire,” Chicago Tribune, 30 October 1974, E1.
37 Hall, “Ghost of Liston.”
38 Anderson, “Sport of the Times.”
39 George Plimpton, “Return of the Big Bopper,” Sports Illustrated, 23 December 1974, 101, recounts Ali’s thoughts.
40 Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” 28; Hank Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring to the Corners of the Earth, The Adventure Behind the Champions (Valley Stream, NY: CIVCOM Inc. Publishers, 2009–2010), 294–96.
41 Pacheco, Fight Doctor, 143.
1 Quotes from Dave Anderson, “Sports of the Times,” New York Times, 31 October 1974, n.p., Ali-Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Brown quoted in Muboyayi Mubanga, “Bundini: “Foreman est fort mais peu intelligent” [Bundini: Foreman is strong but not very intelligent], Salongo, 31 October 1974, 11.
2 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Touchstone Books, 2000), 117.
3 Ronald E. Kisner, “Zaire Postscript: Ali Out Duels Foe for Crown,” Jet, 14 November 1974, 52–54; George Plimpton, “Return of the Big Bopper,” Sports Illustrated, 23 December 1974, 86.
4 Dick Schaap, “Death to Disbelievers,” Sport, January 1975, 16–17.
5 For one example of the photos, see the pictures accompanying Rick Talley, “Ali Knocks Out Foreman in 8th in Zaire,” Chicago Tribune, 30 October 1974, E1; Muboyayi Mubanga, “Ali vainqueur par K O et . . . aux points” [Ali winner by knockout . . . and by points!], Salongo, 31 October 1974, 11, discusses the legend.
6 Dan Daniel, “Foreman’s KO by Ali Leaves Heavies without Titanic Punching Hero,” The Ring, January 1975, 9–11. For the impact of the loss on Foreman, see Michael May’s interview with him on “Total Failure: How George Foreman’s Losses Showed Him the Light,” NPR, 24 May 2017, http://www.npr.org/2017/05/24/528995768/total-failure-how-george-foreman-losses-showed-him-the-light.
7 Foreman, By George, “funereal,” 114; “losing stinks” and “what defined me as a man,” at 117.
8 Ali quoted on “the dope,” in “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali,” Playboy, 1975, Ali Vertical File 1973–1978, Kaiser Incomplete, n.p., Schomburg Center. “Shambling ruin” and “shattered” are from “Ali: I’ll Only Fight for $10 Million,” Ghanaian Times, 31 October 1974, 1. “Ridiculous” quoted in “Eye Cut No Factor in Defeat,” Ghanaian Times, 31 October 1974, 1; Dan Daniel, “Foreman’s KO,” 9–11.
9 Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery, trans. Jefferson Chase (2001; New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003). For the culture of defeat after Vietnam in the 1970s, see Rick Pearlstein, The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014). Hatred of Ali in George Foreman, with Ken Abraham, God in My Corner: A Spiritual Memoir (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson), 35–36.
10 “No doubts,” “irregular fashion,” and “counting by referee” quoted in Ntukani Nzuzu Musenda, “La contradiction de George Foreman” [George Foreman’s contradictory comments], Elima, 8 November 1974, 15; Dan Daniel, “Ring Detective Explains Zaire Cut Eye Ploy, the Foreman Need for Delay,” The Ring, February 1975, 8. For a rematch tied to irregularities, see “Foreman Asks for Big Fight Probe,” Daily Nation (Nairobi), 4 November 1974, 22. Clayton quoted in “Referee Denies ‘Count’ Dispute,” Chicago Defender, 4 November 1974, 30. See also “Foreman: ‘I Beat the Count,’” Ghanaian Times, 1 November 1974, 10. For more on the controversy, see chapter 6.
11 Foreman, By George, 110, 115–16, discusses the water issue. For more on the effects of losing, see George Foreman, “George Foreman Speaks in Depth,” The Ring, May 1976, 9–11, 37. For “protective shield” and the firing of Sadler, see Shirley Norman, “Exclusive Informal Interview with George Foreman,” The Ring, May 1976, 12–13, 43.
12 “Robbed of victory” quoted in Foreman, God in My Corner, 16; Foreman, By George, 118–19.
13 Foreman, By George, 119–20.
14 Foreman, By George, 119 (for axis), 126 (ultimate man), 127 (rebuild). Tormented by loss of title, see Foreman, God in My Corner, 72.
15 Quincy Troupe, “The Spiritual Victory of Muhammad Ali World, Black World, January 1975, 34–44.
16 Ronald E. Kisner, “Zaire Postscript: Ali Out Duels Foe for Crown,” Jet, 14 November 1974, 52–54. “Sly mouse” is from George Plimpton, “Breaking a Date for the Dance,” Sports Illustrated, 11 November 1974, 23. Anderson, “Ali Regains Title, Flooring Foreman,” New York Times, 30 October 1974, 93 (for “bee” and “brains”). For “human battering ram,” see “Violent Coronation in Kinshasa,” Time, 23 September 1974, 100. “Bull and matador” in “Muhammad on the Mountaintop,” Time, 11 November 1974, 85.
17 Troupe, “Spiritual Victory,” 43.
18 Troupe, “Spiritual Victory,” 43.
19 For the two stories, see “Ali the Magnificent!” Pretoria News, 30 October 1974, 1. Ex-president Richard Nixon was severely ill with phlebitis. Other African newspapers had the same juxtaposition.
20 Ronald E. Kisner, “Zaire Postscript,” 52–54. As reported in New York Amsterdam News, 25 May 1974, A-1, A-3, earlier in the year Ali told Penthouse that when he quit boxing, he would “go back to ministering the Muslim faith, spreading it throughout America.” Bundini Brown in fact told Plimpton that Ali wanted the title back so he would eventually be reinstated in the Nation of Islam and use his title to gain converts to the religion. See George Plimpton, Shadow Box (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), 298–99. Muhammad Speaks continually covered Ali’s doings in the regular feature, “From the Camp of the Champ,” as in 14 May 1965, 21. See also “Champ’s Strength Found in Islam,” Muhammad Speaks, 16 September, 9.
21 For the Arab-African meeting, the Muslim missionary, and Sadler’s quip, see Thomas Johnson, “Student First in Fight Line,” New York Times, 30 October 1974, n.p., in Ali Vertical File, Schomburg Center. “How Clay Knocked Out Foreman—the Knockout King,” Al-Ahram, 31 October 1974, 1. For the shift to black power, see Bruce J. Schulman, The Seventies: The Great Shift in American Culture, Society, and Politics (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002), 53–77.
22 Kisner, “Zaire Postscript,” 52–54. For chastisement and apocalypse, see “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali.”
23 “Playboy Interview.” Ali returned to Zaire on 24 November 1974 at the invitation of President Mobutu to help celebrate the anniversary of the founding of the MPR (the Popular Movement of the Revolution), at which he praised Mobutu and Zaire as models to follow. See “Ali Retour au Zaïre” [Ali back in Zaire], Elima, 2 December 1974, 11.
24 Washington, DC, reaction in Charles Sanders, “Muhammad Ali Challenges Black Men,” Ebony, January 1975, 121–26. For Chicago, Stokely Carmichael, with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for the Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (New York: Scribner, 2003), 710. For the reactions of fans in Harlem, see Sandy Satterwhite, “The People’s Champ,” unidentified periodical, n.p., Vertical File Boxing—Ali-Foreman, 3, 48, Schomburg Center. See also Les Matthews, illegible title, New York Amsterdam News, 2 November 1974, A-1, A-3, Vertical File—Boxing-Ali-Foreman, Schomburg Center.
25 Kisner, “Zaire Postscript,” 53; Beverly Blackman, letter to editor, Jet, 21 November 1974, 4; Seku S. Wattara, letter to editor, Jet, 28 November 1974, 4.
26 “Ali Returns to Morehouse Where Comeback Started,” Jet, 13 January 1975, 30; “Ali Followed His ‘Destiny’ to Victory,” Chicago Defender, 16 November 1974, 19.
27 Charles Sanders, “Muhammad Ali Challenges Black Men,” Ebony, January 1975, 121–26. See also “Ali Welcomed to Louisville Home,” Jet, 28 November 1974, 54–55.
28 Samuel F. Yette, “Black Hero Dynamics and the White Media,” Black World, January 1975, 22–28; Clay Goss, “Ali as Creative Black Man,” Black World, January 1975, 30–33.
29 Troupe, “Spiritual Victory,” 34–37.
30 Troupe, “Spiritual Victory,” 41–43. Ali quoted in Anderson, “Sports of the Times”; Richard Pells, War Babies: The Generation That Changed America (N.p.: Cultural History Press, 2014) argues that Ali belonged to the generation born during World War II that emphasized self-expression and was preoccupied by questions of individual identity.
31 Foreman quoted in “Foreman’s Face Gets Distorted,” Ghanaian Times, 31 October 1974, 1. In the lottery system that replaced the draft, Foreman got a high enough number that he would not have to serve in the military. Foreman email communication with author, 8 February 2017.
32 Vic Ziegel, “A Few Rounds with Muhammad,” New York Post, 10 December 1975, n.p., Ali Vertical File 1973–78, Kaiser Inc., Schomburg Center. For Chicago’s Muhammad Ali Day as opposed to Mayor Daley’s opposition to Ali in 1966, see Ronald E. Kisner, “Ali Looks Ahead after Regaining His Title,” Jet, 21 November 1974, cover story, 52–57.
33 “Hearts and minds,” in Foreman, By George, 113. Foreman “miserable” and Ali having “time of his life” are from Suruba Ibumando Georgette Wechsler, By the Grace of God: A True Story of Love, Family, War and Survival from the Congo (Far Hills, NJ: New Horizon Press, 1999), 197–98.
34 Sanders, “Muhammad Ali Challenges Black Men,” Ebony, January 1975, 121–26.
35 Olu Akaraogun, “The Meaning of Muhammad Ali for the Black World,” Indigo, January 1975, 60–61, 63–64, Ali-Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center.
36 Gherarducci quoted in Mavomo Nzuzi Zola, “Connaisseurs, boxeurs et journalistes donnent leur point de veu” [Experts, boxers and journalists share their comments], Salongo, 2 November 1974, 9.
37 “Ali Returns to Morehouse,” 30. “Ecstatic youth” in Alan Hubbard, “New Era Dawns for Ali in Zaire,” Pretoria News, 31 October 1974, 38; Thomas A. Johnson, “Bout Lifts Morale of Zairians,” New York Times, 31 October 1974, 55.
38 Malonga Suka quoted in Johnson, “Bout Lifts Morale,” 58. Muboyayi Mubanga, “Foreman Battu” [Foreman knocked out], Salongo, 30 October 1974, 9–10, 13–16; Muboyayi Mubanga, “Foreman Battu” [Foreman knocked out in 8th round], Salongo, 31 October 1974, 9–10.
39 For countering Belgian and Western conceptions, see Kevin C. Dunn, Imagining the Congo: The International Relations of Identity (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 105–6. Dunn also argues that the bout was a metaphor for Mobutu’s rule. Both Ali and the president successfully figured out their opponents’ weaknesses, used intelligence to divide and conquer them, and did so with perseverance and lightning speed. Johnson, “Bout Lifts Morale, 55, 58.
40 Moaka Toko, “Le défi du Zaïre et d’Afrique” [The challenge of Zaire and Africa], Elima, 31 October 1974, 1; Wechsler, By the Grace of God, 195–98. For showing world Mobutu’s philosophy, see Bunzi dia Bilongo, “Ambiance extraordinaire autour d’un combat extraordinaire” [Extraordinary atmosphere around an extraordinary fight] Salongo, 31 October 1974, 12–13.
41 The Reuters quote is from “‘I’ll Dance It,’ Says Ali,” The Standard (Nairobi), 29 October 1974, 12. Nairobi audience reaction from “Several TV Owners Get a Free Show,” Daily Nation, 31 October 1974, 22. Abidjan reaction in “Les réactions” [The reactions], Le Soleil, 31 October 1974, 8; “How Ghana Received His Triumph,” Ghanaian Times, 31 October 1974, 15.
42 “Senghor’s Message to Ali,” Ghanaian Times, 1 November 1974, 10; Mailer, The Fight, 227–37. See also Ibrahima M’Bodj, “Ali n’etait pas a Yoff but . . .” [Ali wasn’t in Yoff, but . . .], Le Soleil, 1 November 1974, 1, 5.
43 Mass Diack, “Une victoire des opprimés” [A victory for the oppressed], Le Soleil, 30 October 1974, 8.
44 Muboyayi Mubanga, “M. Hamouda: Foreman un boxeur indigne” [Mr. Hamouda: Foreman: An unworthy boxer] Salongo, 31 October 1974, 10; Toko, “Le défi du Zaïre,” 1.
45 “Une nouvelle victoire du Mobutisme” [A new victory of Mobutism], Elima, 31 October 1974, 1. Nganga quoted in “Le combat Ali-Foreman est un succès populaire indéniable pour le Zaïre” [The Ali-Foreman fight is an undeniable popular success for Zaire], Elima, 2 November 1974, 1.
46 For a discussion of heroes in the popular culture of the 1970s, see William Graebner, “America’s Poseidon Adventure: A Nation in Existential Despair,” in America in the Seventies, ed. Beth Bailey and David Farber (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 157–80.
47 “Harris Poll Legitimizes Ali’s Claim to Greatness,” Jet, 12 June 1975, 45; Maury Allen, New York Post, 31 October 1974, n.p., as in Thomas Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 280–81. See “Ali Named Fighter of the Year, Jet, 2 January 1975, 51, and “New York Beat,” Jet, 6 February 1975, 58.
48 The best description of Muhammad Ali Day in Louisville is in Charles Sanders, “Muhammad Ali Challenges Black Men,” Ebony, January 1975, 120–33. See also “Ali Welcomed to Louisville Home,” Jet, 28 November 1974, 54–55.
49 Vic Ziegel, “A Few Rounds with Muhammad,” New York Post, 10 December 1974, n.p., Schomburg Center,” for Ali’s Day in New York. See Ronald E. Kisner, “Ali Looks Ahead after Regaining His Title,” Jet, 21 November 1974, cover story, 52–57, for Chicago.
50 Ford quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 281–82. For letters of protest, see Simeon Booker, “Ticker Tape U.S.A.,” Jet, 30 January 1975, 11.
51 Kisner, “Ali Looks Ahead,” 52–57.
1 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 115.
2 William Graebner, “America’s Poseidon Adventure: A Nation in Existential Despair,” America in the Seventies, ed. Beth Bailey and David Farber (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas), 157–80.
3 Ronald E. Kisner, “Ali Looks Ahead after Regaining His Title,” Jet, 21 November 1974, cover story, 52–57.
4 Ronald E. Kisner, “Ali’s Bold Plan to Use Fight Money to Aid Needy Blacks,” Jet, 6 March 1975, 36–75, 55–59.
5 Nat Loubet, “Wepner’s Gameness Dominant Factor as He Almost Goes Limit with Still Great Ali,” The Ring, June 1975, 6–9, 50. For Wepner as the inspiration for Rocky, see Richard O’Connor, “From Chump to Champ,” Sport, July 1977, 12, 16.
6 Loubet, “Wepner’s Gameness Dominant,” 7.
7 Nat Loubet, “Round-up 1975,” The Ring, March 1976, 16. For the judges’ scores, see Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 303.
8 For the political background to the fight, see Thomas Quinn, “When ‘Malakas’ Met the Greatest: Marcos’ Philippines and the Thrilla in Manila,” Explorations: A Graduate Journal of South East Asian Studies 9, no. 1 (2009): 79–86; Loubet, “Round-up 1975,” 16. See also Daily Bulletin (Manila), 4 September–5 October 1975.
9 Dick Schaap, “The Manila Maulers,” Sport, December 1975, 61–62.
10 For “score to settle,” and “I apologize,” see Joe Frazier, “I’ll Make Ali Fight for His Life,” The Ring, December 1975, 8–9, 76. Ali’s remarks and Frazier’s reaction, see Mark Kram, Ghosts of Manila: The Fateful Blood Feud between Ali and Joe Frazier (New York: HarperCollins Perennial, 2002), 168–71. For analysis of this type of intrablack race baiting, see Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press), 157–58. For more on Frazier’s being really burned about Ali’s taunts, see Nat Loubet, “6 to 5, Pick ’Em, as Ali and Frazier Prepare for Third Meeting, in Manila,” The Ring, December 1975, 10–11, 81.
11 Nat Loubet, “Ali’s Victory over Frazier in 14, One of All Time Greats,” The Ring, December 1975, 6–8. “Washed up” cited in Schaap, “Manila Maulers,” 67.
12 Descriptions of the fight are in Loubet, “Ali’s Victory over Frazier,” The Ring, December 1975, 6–8, 35; Schaap, “Manila Maulers,” 67; and Kram, Ghosts of Manila, 184–86.
13 For the thirteenth and fourteenth rounds, see Loubet, “Ali’s Victory over Frazier,” 6–8, 35; Schaap, “Manila Maulers,” 67; and Kram, Ghosts of Manila, 186–187.
14 Nat Loubet, “Editorial, as I See It,” The Ring, January 1976, 5. For fan appreciation, see Tom Pellin, “Letter to Editor,” January 1976, 33; Harry Gibbons, “Letter to Editor,” The Ring, January 1976, 33.
15 “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali,” Playboy, November 1975, n.p., Ali Vertical File, Kaiser Inc., Schomburg Center.
16 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 158; Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 294–95. Death of Elijah Muhammad and Ali as member of transition board and his urging Nation to follow Wallace is in Gregory Simms, “Nation Mourns Muslim Leader,” Jet, 13 March 1975, 13–22, 52–57. For changes in membership policy, see Gregory Simms, “Muslims Drop ‘Black’ Label, Admit Whites,” Jet, 3 July 1975, 22–25; Shirley Norman, “Muhammad Ali on Women, Sex and Marriage,” Sepia, September 1975, n.p., Ali Vertical File, 1973–1978, Kaiser Inc., Schomburg Center.
17 Norman, “Muhammad Ali on Women, Sex and Marriage.”
18 “Playboy Interview: Muhammad Ali.” The need to respect black women was a staple of his message to black men. See an earlier version of his views in Charles Sanders, “Muhammad Ali Challenges Black Men,” Ebony, January 1975, 128–32.
19 Wolf interview, in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 320. For Conrad and the two women, see Kram, Ghosts of Manila, 151, 177 (Wells), 175 (Belinda). Four women is from Norman, “Muhammad Ali on Women, Sex and Marriage,” Sepia, September 1975, n.p.; Pete Axthelm and Peter Bonventre, “The Ali Mystique,” Newsweek, 29 September 1975, 58–61. The press conference is in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 315–20. “Muhammad Ali Says Belinda Is the ‘One and Only,’” Jet, 9 October 1975, 13. For more on Belinda and Manila, see Bob Waters, “Ali’s Credibility Gap,” Newsday, 2 November 1975, n.p., Ali Vertical File 1973–1978, Kaiser Incomplete, Schomburg Center. Jonathan Eig, Ali: A Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017), 415–24, details Ali’s blatant extramarital sex life. For Philippine coverage of the Veronica Porche incident, see Quezon D. Mangawang, “Ali and Frazier Swap Verbal Jabs in Palace,” Bulletin Today, 19 September 1975, 1, 8, 10; Dingo Marcelo, “Ali Dismisses Belinda ‘Stomp,’” Manila Bulletin, 28 September 1975, 1.
20 Ronald E. Kisner, “Has Success Spoiled Ali?” Jet, 16 October 1975, 54–58.
21 Cynthia Lane, “Don’t Mess Up Ali,” letter to editor, Jet, 23 October 1975, 4. See also Ronald E. Kisner, “Ali’s Wife Talks about Marriage Strains,” Jet, 30 October 1975, 21–25; Brenda Hicks, letter to editor, Jet, 6 November 1975, 4; Ajamo Yero Upton, letter to editor, Jet, 6 November 1975, 4; Laura West, letter to editor, Jet, 13 November 1975, 4; Betty Washington, letter to editor, Jet, 13 November 1975, 4; Debra Jackson, letter to editor, Jet, 20 November 1975, 4.
22 “Muhammad Ali’s Wife Talks about Life Without Him,” Jet, 4 November 1976, 44–49. The new name for Ali and Wallace Muhammad’s branch of Islam is in “Nation of Islam Changes Name to Fit New Image,” Jet, 4 November 1976, 6. For the divorce, see Gregory Simms, “Marriage for Muhammad, Khalilah Ali Ends in Divorce, $$$$ and Respect,” Jet, 20 January 1977, 12–16. For details of the June 1977 wedding to Veronica Porche, see Shawn D. Lewis, “Profile: Veronica Porsche before and after Event,” Jet, 7 July 1977, 8–10; Gregory Simms, “Muhammad Ali Takes a Beautiful Bride,” Jet, 7 July 1977, 12–18.
23 “Ali Goes to Trenton to Cop Plea for Hurricane,” Jet, 6 November 1975, 48; “Muhammad Ali Makes Pledge of $100,000 to Aid NAACP,” Jet, 22 1976, 16; “W. D. Muhammad Honored with Gala Dinner Party,” Jet, 23 June 1977, 54–55.
24 Hugh John Furlong, letter to editor, The Ring, April 1976, 33; Angelo Dundee, with Bert Randolph Sugar, My View from the Corner: A Life in Boxing, foreword by Muhammad Ali (New York: McGraw Hill, 2008), 200–201.
25 Letters to editor from John M. O’Brien, Robert L. De Russo, Charles Swedberg, and Henry DiCarb Jr., The Ring, August 1976, 33.
26 Nat Loubet, “Ali-Norton #3: Lackluster Bout Controversial,” Ring, September 1976, 6–9, 64. Norton quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 340.
27 Trudie Loubet, “‘The Greatest’ Recreates All the Excitement that Marked Muhammad Ali’s Rise in Boxing,” The Ring, August 1977, 34–35, 44; A. B. Giamatti, “Hyperbole’s Child,” originally in Harper’s Magazine (December 1977), reprinted in The Muhammad Ali Reader, ed. Gerald Early (Hopewell, NJ: Ecco Press, 1998), 174. Demand for retirement is from Nat Loubet, “Editorial,” The Ring, August 1977, 5. For the fight description, see John Ort, “Ali Beats Evangelista, but Loses to Father Time on Triple Championship Card,” The Ring, August 1977, 12–13, 51. For the Shavers bout, see John Ort, “Ali Does It Again!” The Ring, December 1977, 8–10. For Brenner and Pacheco, see Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 344–45. Former light heavyweight champion José Torres saw Ali’s sluggish performances as the result of boredom and so psychosomatic. See José Torres, “Ex-Fighter’s Notes on the Champion,” originally in Black Sports (February 1978), reprinted in Early, Muhammad Ali Reader, 175–82.
28 For the Spinks bouts, see Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 350–60.
29 Cosell quoted in Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 360. Ishmael Reed, “The Fourth Ali,” in Early, Muhammad Ali Reader, 199–206, originally in Reed, God Made Alaska for the Indians: Selected Essays (New York: Garland, 1982).
30 “Fallen Champion Foreman Named in ‘Vague’ Suits of Marriage and Paternity,” Jet, 9 January 1975, 46–47. See also Jet, June 12, 1975, 9.
31 George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Touchstone, 2000), 120–23.
32 Foreman, By George, 127–28.
33 Sean Kelly, America’s Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1993), 206, 209–24; George Foreman, with Ken Abraham, Knockout Entrepreneur (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2009), 113.
34 Foreman, By George, 128; Foreman, Knockout Entrepreneur, 114–15.
35 Foreman, By George, 128–29; Foreman, Knockout Entrepreneur, 115.
36 The description of the brawls after the bell comes from Ed McCoyd, To Live and Dream: The Incredible Story of George Foreman (New York: New Street Publishing, 1997), 49–50.
37 “Mr. Nice” is from “Foreman Blasts Foes: Fight Future Turns to Ali-Frazier,” Jet, 15 May 1975, 49. “Jack the Ripper” is in Foreman, By George, 130. The “Foreman Circus” is in John T. Hale, letter to editor, The Ring, September 1975, 37. “Pitiful excuses” is from Joric Kellogg, letter to editor, The Ring, January 1976, 33.
38 Vicious punishment from Foreman, By George, 133.
39 McCoyd, To Live and Dream, 51–53; Foreman, By George, 133–35.
40 For the Frazier bout, see John Ort, “Foreman Drives Frazier into Retirement with KO in Five,” The Ring, September 1976, 26–27, 46; and Kram, Ghosts of Manila, 203.
41 Ort, “Foreman Drives Frazier into Retirement,” The Ring, September 1976, 26–27, 46.
42 Gordy Peterson, “Foreman Pounds Out Agosto in Four,” The Ring, May 1977, 19, 56. Young’s views are in Gregory Simms, “Young Predicts KO over Strong Foreman,” Jet, 10 March 1977, 48–50.
43 Slow start, holding, and wrestling is in Ort, “The Experts Ask: What Now, George Foreman?” The Ring, June 1977, 10; Don King’s advice and Foreman’s view of the slow start and round seven is from Foreman, By George, 143–44.
44 Ort, “Experts Ask,” The Ring, June 1977, 10–11, 42. “Hero” from Foreman, By George, 143.
45 Jerry Izenberg, “Foreman Tells His Story,” Staten Island (NY) Advance, 23 December 1977, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center. See also Gregory Simms, “Foreman Quits for God and Mom: Heavyweights Sorry to See Him Go,” Jet, 26 May 1977, 52–53: Bob Waters, “George Foreman’s Transformation,” Newsday, 29 March 1978, 95; Mike Marley, “George Foreman,” New York Post, 6 April 1979, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center; George Vecsey, “Foreman Fights from Pulpit,” New York Times, 17 November 1981, C13, C16. In a telephone interview with the author, 6 July 2016, Izenberg confirmed this information and Foreman’s sincerity.
46 Izenberg, “Foreman Tells His Story”; Foreman, God in My Corner, 24–25.
47 Foreman, God in My Corner, 26–27.
48 Foreman, God in My Corner, 28–34.
49 Foreman, God in My Corner, 35–41.
50 Izenberg, “Foreman Tells His Story.”
51 Jerry Izenberg, “George Foreman: God Gave Me a Choice,” Staten Island (NY) Advance, 24 December 1977, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg Center. See also “Foreman Trades Ring for Pulpit,” Newsday, 16 March 1980, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg. “Ex-heavyweight” from Jack Wilkinson, “Ex-Heavyweight Champ Foreman Socks It to ’Em from the Pulpit,” New Daily News, 17 August 1980, n.p., George Foreman Vertical File, Schomburg.
1 When We Were Kings, produced and directed by Leon Gast (DAS Films, David Sonenberg Productions, Polygram Filmed Entertainment, 1997), 89 mins.; Roger Ebert, “Review of When We Were Kings,” http:/www.rogerebert.com/reviews/when-we-were-kings/1997.
2 Budd Schulberg, “The Second Coming of George Foreman,” Newsday, April 1991, reprinted in Sparring with Hemingway (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1995), 222–31.
3 For Ali’s role in the 1980 boycott, see Nicholas Evan Sarantakes, Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, the Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 115–18.
4 For the Mayo Clinic’s report, see Thomas Hauser, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 403–6, and Parkinson’s diagnosis at 430–32.
5 Tim Shanahan, with Chuck Crisafulli, Running with the Champ: My Forty-Year Friendship with Muhammad Ali (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2016), 255.
6 Hauser, Muhammad Ali, 382–94.
7 Michael Ezra, Muhammad Ali: The Making of an American Icon (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2009), 162–63.
8 Shanahan, Running with the Champ, 255–57, argues that Ali was unsophisticated politically and that by 1984 he was endorsing a sitting president rather than a candidate.
9 John Gearan, “Boxing Now a Circus Act; Foreman, Though, Getting Last Laugh with Trip to Bank,” (Worcester, MA) Telegram and Gazette, 11 November 1994, D2, http://flagship.luc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/268568328?accountid=12163).
10 On the press, Foreman’s new personality, and his media savvy, see Angelo Dundee, My View from the Corner: A Life in Boxing (New York: McGraw Hill, 2008), 280–85; and Dan Barreiro, “Foreman Deals in Fun, Not Logic,” Minneapolis Star-Tribune, 19 April 1991, 01C, http://flagship.luc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/418262501?accountid=12163.
11 William Graebner, “‘The Man in the Water’: The Politics of the American Hero, 1970–1985,” Historian 75, no. 3 (Fall 2013): 517–43, discusses the search for the ordinary man as a hero. George Foreman and Joel Engel, By George: The Autobiography of George Foreman (1995; New York: Touchstone, 2000), 234.
12 For renewed national pride and patriotism during the 1980s and 1990s, see Christian G. Appy, American Reckoning: The Vietnam War and Our National Identity (New York: Penguin Books, 2016), 250–74.
13 For Foreman’s crossover appeal as part of a larger trend, see Robert Lipsyte, “Star-Crossed Celebrities, Generations Later,” New York Times, 30 December 1994, B12. For an analysis of Jordan, see Walter LaFeber, Michael Jordan and the New Global Capitalism (1999; New York: Norton, 2002).
14 Alice Weintraub, “George Foreman: Marketing Champ of the World,” Bloomberg News, 19 December 2004, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2004-12-19/george-foreman-marketing-champ-of-the-world. For Foreman’s views of success, see George Foreman, with Ken Abraham, Knockout Entrepreneur (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2009).
15 For the gold-medal story, see Muhammad Ali and Richard Durham, The Greatest: My Own Story (1975; New York: Ballantine Books, 1976), 55–80. For the medal’s symbolic return, see Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 175–80.
16 Ezra, Muhammad Ali, 186–90.
17 Hank Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring to the Corners of the Earth (Valley Stream, NY: CIVCOM Publishers, 2009–2010), 319–27.
18 Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring, 335.
19 Mark Ribowsky, “Killer to King: The Amazing Saga of the New King of Boxing,” Sepia, October 1975, 26–27.
20 For more on the tournament, see John Ort, “U.S. Tourney Makes Spectacular Debut,” The Ring, April 1977, 10–13, 45; Stu Berman, “Round Two: U.S. Boxing Championships,” The Ring, May 1977, 20–21, 53; Gordon Peterson, “U.S. Boxing Tourney Tops in Action,” The Ring, June 1977, 16–17, 51; Gordon Peterson, “U.S. Championship Tourney Approaches Climax,” The Ring, July 1977, 12–14.
21 Edward Kiersh, “The Man Who Would Be King Takes a Fall,” Crawdaddy, 4 August 1977, 34–40.
22 Kiersh, “Man Who Would Be King,” 39–40. For more on the scandal, see Sam Toperoff, “Death of the Don King Tournament,” Sport, August 1977, 26–40.
23 King’s defense is in James Borders, “The King of Pugilistica,” Black Collegian, February–March 1981, 54–55, and in “Playboy Interview: Don King,” Playboy, May 1988, 51-68. Holmes quoted in Jack Newfield, The Life and Crimes of Don King: The Shame of Boxing in America (1995; New York: Sag Harbor Electronic Publishers, 2003), 147.
24 King quoted in Borders, “King of Pugilistica,” 57.
25 Stephen R. Weissman, “Fisticuffs for Mobutu,” The Nation, 30 November 1974, 558–59, uncovered Mobutu’s connection to Risnelia through in an interview with its Swiss chairman, Raymond Nicolet. For a discussion of recent books on offshore companies, see Alan Rusbridger, “Panama: The Hidden Trillions,” New York Review of Books, 27 October 2016, 33–35.
26 Keith B. Richburg, “Mobutu: A Rich Man in Poor Standing; As He Teeters in Zaire, Questions Mount over His Wealth,” Washington Post, 3 October 1991, sec. A, A01, http://flagship.luc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/307452094?accountid=12163.
27 See Sean Kelly, America’s Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu of Zaire (Washington, DC: American University Press, 1993), 213–40, for Kissinger and the CIA’s use of Mobutu to prop up the Portuguese in Angola. For more on the later ties between Mobutu and the CIA, see Robert B. Edgerton, The Troubled Heart of Africa (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002), 217–21.
28 Schwartz, From the Corners of the Ring, 299–301; George Plimpton Shadow Box (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), 314–17.
29 Thomas Borstelmann, The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), discusses the two forces of the modern world: growing egalitarianism and the power of an overarching market society and its values.