For a bibliographical survey of scholarship on Greek and Roman women, see Sarah B. Pomeroy, “Selected Bibliography on Women in Antiquity.”
1. Italian translation, Einaudi, 1978; German translation, Alfred Kröner, 1985; Spanish translation, Editorial Akal, 1987.
2. The same chronological, class, gender, and geographical organization prevails in the teaching of courses on women in classical antiquity, to a large extent owing to the influence of Sarah B. Pomeroy, Helene Foley, Natalie Kampen, et al., “Women in Classical Antiquity: Four Curricular Modules” (Hunter College, New York, 1983, xerox), which reflects the arrangement of Goddesses. For a recent (and unsuccessful) attempt to challenge this structure see Pauline Schmitt Pantel, ed., A History of Women in the West, vol. 1, trans. A. Goldhammer (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1992). See reviews by Eva Keuls, Journal of Women’s History 5 (1994): 156–58; Mary Beard, “What Is a Goddess?” Times Literary Supplement (June 19, 1992): 12–13; and Sarah B. Pomeroy, American Historical Review 98 (1993): 478–79.
3. Goddesses, however, has not been rendered obsolete. In a prepublication review of the newest book in the field, E. Fantham, H. P. Foley, N. Kampen, S. B. Pomeroy, and H. A. Shapiro, Women in the Classical World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), Barbara McManus stated that the book should be read in conjunction with Goddesses.
4. Fragment 214 (Kirk, Raven, and Schofield), quoted by Plato, Cratylus 402A.
5. See Goddesses, pp. 14–15.
6. Sarah B. Pomeroy, “Selected Bibliography on Women in Classical Antiquity: Part II,” in Women in the Ancient World: The Arethusa Papers, ed. J. Peradotto and J. P. Sullivan (Albany: SUNY Press, 1984), pp. 343–72, esp. pp. 348–53; and see now Kevin Butcher and David W. J. Gill, “The Director, the Dealer, the Goddess, and Her Champions: The Acquisition of the Fitzwillian Goddess,” American Journal of Archaeology 97 (1993): 383–401.
7. Goddesses, p. 30. See now Jon-Christian Billigmeier and Judy A. Turner, “The Socio-Economic Roles of Women in Mycenaean Greece: A Brief Survey from Evidence of the Linear B Tablets,” in Reflections of Women in Antiquity, ed. H. Foley (London: Gordon & Breach, 1981), pp. 1–18.
8. See Goddesses, esp. p. 80. For the revisionist view: F. Bourriot, Recherches sur la nature du genos: Étude d’histoire sociale athénienne: Périodes archaïque et classique, Thèse de Lille (Paris: Champion, 1976), and Denis Roussel, Tribu et Cité, Annales Littéraires de l’Université de Besançon, 23 (Paris, 1976). For the implications of the revisionist view for women’s history see Sarah B. Pomeroy, “Women’s Identity and the Family in the Classical Polis,” in Women in Antiquity: New Assessments, ed. Richard Hawley and Barbara Levick (London: Routledge, to be published).
9. See most recently Lesley Ann Dean-Jones, Women’s Bodies in Classical Greek Science (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994); Ann Ellis Hanson, “Continuity and Change: Three Case Studies in Hippocratic Gynecological Therapy and Theory,” in Women’s History and Ancient History, ed. Sarah B. Pomeroy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), pp.73–110; and Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria, trans. Heinrich von Staden (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
10. See most recently William V. Harris, “Child-Exposure in the Roman Empire,” Journal of Roman Studies, to be published.
11. “The Exposure of Girls at Athens,” Phoenix 35 (1981): 316–31.
12. See Goddesses, p. 68, and see now Sara C. Bisel’s discussion of 61 skeletons in Wilfried K. Kovasovics, Kerameikos XIV: Die Eckterrasse an der Gräberstrasse des Kerameikos (Berlin, 1990), pp. 151–59.
13. Nicholas, D. Kristof, “Stark Data on Women: 100 Million Are Missing,” The New York Times (November 5, 1991): Cl, C12.
1. M. I. Rostovtzeff, Greece, p. 176.
1. The subject matter of mythology is vast and can be interpreted from numerous traditional and iconoclastic viewpoints. A valuable guide to literature on mythology is John Peradotto, Classical Mythology. For a possible psychoanalytic interpretation of some of the motifs, see Philip Slater, The Glory of Hera.
2. On Pandora, see D. and E. Panofsky, Pandora’s Box; for an interpretation of Pandora differing from my own, see Frederick Brenk, “Hesiod: How Much a Male Chauvinist?”
3. Hes. Theog. 585–602; Op. 53–82. (Abbreviations follow the Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2d ed.) Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
4. Hom. Od. 22. 205–10. Cf. 1. 105; 2. 401.
5. Helene Deutsch, The Psychology of Women, p. 292.
6. Hom. Od. 1. 275–78; 13. 379–82.
7. Homeric Hymn 5: “To Aphrodite,” 24–32.
8. Hes. Theog. 188–92.
9. Pl. Sym. 180D-81.
10. Hes. Theog. 929–32; Hom. Il. 1. 590–94; 18. 394–99.
11. Dem. 59. 118–22.
12. Aesch. PV 901–6.
13. Eur. Ion 437–52. All citations from Euripides are according to the line numbers in the Oxford Classical Texts, vols. 1–3, edited by Gilbert Murray (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1902–13).
14. E.g., George Derwent Thomson, The Prehistoric Aegean.
15. Hom. Il. 6, 24; Od. 4, 6–8, 13.
16. Peter J. Ucko, Anthropomorphic Figurines of Predynastic Egypt and Neolithic Crete, p. 316.
17. M. I. Finley, “Archaeology and History.”
18. E.g., Jacquetta Hawkes, Dawn of the Gods, p. 6.
19. Erich Neumann, The Great Mother. For a Freudian interpretation of the pathological relations between the Athenian mother and son, see Slater, op. cit.
20. See my article “A Classical Scholar’s Perspective on Matriarchy.”
1. Hom. Il.3, 156–60.
2. For an extensive bibliography on women in Homer, see Kaarle Hirvonen, Matriarchal Survivals and Certain Trends in Homer’s Female Characters, pp. 198–209.
3. Hdt. 2. 112–20.
4. Thuc. 1.9.
5. Hom. Od. 6. 180–85.
6. Hom. Od. 16.77; 16. 391–92; 20. 335; 21. 161–62. Also, Finley, “Marriage, Sale and Gift in the Homeric World,” and W. K. Lacey, “Homeric Hedna and Penelope’s Kurios.”
7. Hom. Il. 9. 336; 9. 340–43; 9. 663–65; 19. 295–99.
8. Hom. Il. 9. 393–400.
9. Hom. Od. 8. 19; 15. 226–40.
10. Hom. Od. 6. 280–84.
11. Hom. Il. 22. 477–515.
12. Hom. Od. 11. 427–34. Cf. 3. 272.
13. Thuc. 1. 1–12.
14. Hom. Od. 6. 303–15.
15. Hom. Od. 7. 68.
16. Hom. Il. 6. 397; 6. 425; Pomeroy, “Andromache and the Question of Matriarchy.”
17. Hom. Il.3. 189; 6. 186.
18. Hdt. 4. 110–17.
19. Hom. Il. 1. 113–15.
20. Hon. Il. 2. 355–56.
21. Hom. Il. 1. 113–15; 23. 263; 23. 704–5; Od. 7. 8–11.
22. Hom. Il. 6. 425–28.
23. See Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycenaean Greek, passim.
24. Laertes: Hom. Od. 1. 429–33; 19. 482–89. Megapenthes: Od. 4. 10–14. Eurycleia: Od. 4. 743–46; 19. 350–56; 19. 467–92.
25. Hom. Od. 6. 18–19; 6. 273–74; 19. 527.
26. Hom. Il. 16. 175–92.
27. Hom. Il. 9. 452–56.
28. Hom. Od. 14. 199–212.
29. Hom. Od. 1. 356.
30. Hom. Od. 11. 197–203.
31. Hom. Il. 22. 79–83; 24. 212–13.
32. Telemachus: Hom. Od. 16. Orestes: Od. 3. 306–12.
33. Hom. Il. 22. 105–10.
34. Hom. Od. 23. 232–40.
35. Hom. Il. 6. 410; 19. 287.
36. Hom. Il. 6. 490–93. Cf. Od. 1. 356–57.
37. Hom. Od. 7. 103; 22. 420–23.
38. Hom. Od. 7. 233–36.
39. Calypso: Hom. Od. 5. 265. Polycaste: Od. 3. 464–66. Helen: Od. 4. 252.
40. F. F. J. Tritsch, “The Women of Pylos”; Ventris and Chadwick, op. cit., passim; L. R. Palmer, The Interpretation of Mycenaean Greek Texts, pp. 96, 98.
41. Hom. Il. 18. 514–15.
42. Hom. Il. 22. 126–28.
1. Libanius 12. 60. 387.
2. Jean Rougé, “La colonisation grecque et les femmes.” Miletus: Hdt. 1. 146. Cyrene: Hdt. 4. 153; 4. 186. Cf. Hdt. 4. 108 for peaceful marriages.
3. On the marriage of tyrants, see Louis Gernet, Anthropologie de la Grèce antique, pp. 344–59.
4. Hdt. 6. 126–31.
5. Pisistratus: Plut. Mor. 189c, 457f; Val. Max. 5. 1. ext. 2. Periander: Ath. 13. 589f.; Hdt. 3. 50; 5. 92.
6. Theog. 185–91.
7. On Sparta, see H. Michell, Sparta, for the fullest documentation of ancient sources; also, Lacey, The Family in Classical Greece, pp. 194–208, and W. G. Forrest, A History of Sparta.
8. Plut. Lycurgus 27.
9. Xen. Const. Lacedaemonians 3.
10. Jean Charbonneaux, Archaic Greek Art, p. 145.
11. Hdt. 5. 88.
12. Plut. Lycurgus 3. 3.
13. Arist. Pol. 5. 6 (1306b). Cf. Strabo 6. 3. 2–3 and the intermarriage of the Scythian women with their slaves during their husbands’ twenty-eight-year absence described in Hdt. 4. 1; also, the Argive women being taken over by inferiors after the disaster at Sepeia, Hdt. 6.83.
14. I owe this suggestion to W. K. Lacey, in a personal letter.
15. Ath. 13. 555c.
16. Arist. Pol. 2. 6. 8 (1270a).
17. Cic. Tusculan Disputations 2. 15. 36.
18. Forrest, op. cit., pp. 134–37.
19. Plut. Agis 1.
20. Arist. Pol. 2. 6. 5–11 (1269b–1270a).
21. See R. F. Willetts, The Law Code of Gortyn (hereafter: Code), and Lacey, Family, pp. 208–16.
22. Arist. Pol. 2. 7. 5 (1272a).
23. Lacey, Family, p. 227 and note.
24. Strabo 10. 482.
25. Code 3. 40–44.
26. For an extensive survey, with bibliography, see Donna C. Kurtz and John Boardman, Greek Burial Customs.
27. See V. R. d’A. Desborough, Protogeometric Pottery, pp. 5–6; Evelyn Lord Smithson, “The Protogeometric Cemetery at Nea Ionia,” p. 151. Professor Smithson, in a personal letter, disagrees with Desborough’s suggestion that belly-handled amphoras were used to carry water.
28. For the Geometric period, see J. N. Coldstream, Greek Geometric Pottery, and Gudrun Ahlberg, Prothesis and Ekphora in Greek Geometric Art. Much of this data remains controversial.
29. Smithson, “The Tomb of a Rich Athenian Lady, ca. 850 B.C.”
30. Hom. Il. 24. 720–26; Od. 24. 58–62. Cf. Margaret Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, pp. 10–14.
31. Hom. Il. 12. 433–35; Hes. Op. 602–3. Finley (“Was Greek Civilization Based on Slave Labour?” p. 53 note 4) believes that the woman referred to was a slave rather than a free laborer.
32. Homeric Hymn 2, 98–104.
33. J. Lawrence Angel, “Geometric Athenians,” and personal letter.
34. Smithson, “Tomb.”
35. Angel, “Ecology and Population in the Eastern Mediterranean,” pp. 99–100.
36. K. Weiss, Demographic Models for Anthropology, p. 76.
37. Kurtz and Boardman, op. cit., p. 222.
38. For this legislation, the date of which is disputed, see Cic. Laws 2. 26. 64 and G. M. A. Richter, The Archaic Gravestones of Attica, pp. 38–39.
39. Richter, Korai, p. 4.
40. Anthony E. Raubitschek, Dedications from the Athenian Acropolis, pp. 465–66.
41. Christine Havelock, “The Nude in Greek Art.”
42. Archilochus: E. Diehl, Anthologia Lyrica Graeca (hereafter: Diehl), fragment 25; Semonides: Diehl, fragment 7, 65–66.
43. Hes. Theog. 603–12. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
44. Hes. Op. 373–75, 695–705.
45. Phocylides: Diehl, fragment 2. Bees: Arist. Gen. An. 10. 759–60; Virgil Georgics 4. 198–99.
46. Semonides: Diehl, fragment 7. Translated by Marylin Arthur.
47. Ael. VH 13. 25; Paus. 9. 22. 3. Corinna may have lived ca. 200 B.C.; see Denys L. Page, Corinna.
48. Denys L. Page, ed., Poetae Melici Graeci, fragment 664; Suidas Lexicon, s.v. “Corinna” and “Pindar.”
49. Pindar Pythian Odes 9. 98–103.
50. See Page, Sappho and Alcaeus, and Mary Lefkowitz, “Critical Stereotypes and the Poetry of Sappho.”
51. E. Lobel and Denys L. Page, eds., Poetarum Lesbiorum Fragmenta, fragment 31. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
52. Alcman, fragment 3. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
53. Page, Sappho, fragment 94 and pp. 79–80, 142–45; olisb in Lobel and Page, op. cit., fragment 99, 5.
54. Quoted by Ath. 13. 599c = Anacreon: Diehl, fragment 5.
55. Ar. Wasps 1346, Eccl. 920, Frogs 1308; Pherecrates, fragment 149. However, in Wasps, where the context is heterosexual, lesbizein may make a particular reference to fellatio; these interpretations were suggested by Kenneth Dover in a personal letter.
56. Lobel and Page, op. cit., fragment 132. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
57. Hdt. 2. 135.
58. Scholiast, on Lucian Portraits 18; Strabo 10. 2. 9.
59. Palatine Anthology 9. 506.
60. See Page, Alcman: The Partheneion, and C. M. Bowra, Greek Lyric Poetry, pp. 30–65.
62. Page, Sappho, p. 199, Cf. Ath. 13. 609e–f.
63. Diog. Laert. 1. 89. 91.
1. See the survey of discussions of status in Pomeroy, “Selected Bibliography on Women in Antiquity,” pp. 140–43.
2. F. A. Wright, Feminism in Greek Literature, p. 1.
3. A. W. Gomme, “The Position of Women in Athens in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C.”
4. Moses Hadas, “Observations on Athenian Women”; H. D. F. Kitto, The Greeks, pp. 219–36. Cf. Charles Seltman, Women in Antiquity, pp. 110–11, and “The Status of Women in Athens”; and Donald C. Richter, “The Position of Women in Classical Athens,” who gives a history of the controversy.
5. Lacey, Family, chap. 7, and Victor Ehrenberg, The People of Aristophanes, chap. 8.
6. Lacey, Family, p. 176.
7. This topic is competently surveyed by A. R. W. Harrison, The Law of Athens, pp. 132–38, 309–11, et passim, as well as by David Schaps, “Women and Property Control in Classical and Hellenistic Greece,” pp. 49–83.
8. Dem. 30. 7; 57. 41.
9. Similarly, the lawgiver Charondas required that a dowry be provided for a poor epiklēros by her next-of-kin if he did not wish to marry her (Diod. 12. 18. 3–4).
10. Lacey, Family, pp. 202–3.
11. Arist. Const. Athens 58. 3. Cf. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 195–96.
12. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 30–32; Dem. 41. 4.
13. Evelyn B. Harrison, “Athena and Athens in the East Pediment of the Parthenon,” p. 43 and note 134.
14. Dem. 59. 113; Men. Dyscolus 842–47; Ter. Ad. 729; Aeschines 3. 258; Plut. Aristides 27. 4. But cf. J. K. Davies, Athenian Propertied Families 600–300 B.C., pp. 51–52, on the dowering of the daughters of Aristides. Davies, however, has a tendency to disbelieve stories about women, for example the story of the daughter of Pisistratus, who married the young man who kissed her on the street (Davies, p. 449) and the story of Socrates’ marriage to Myrto (p. 52), while he finds credible the tale of the romantic connection between Solon and Pisistratus (p. 445).
15. Isae. 3. 8; 3. 36–38; 3. 78.
16. Ath. 13. 572a.
17. Plut. Solon 20. 4
18. Schaps, op. cit., pp. 11–12, 148–49; Isae. 2. 9.
19. When the husband of Diogeiton’s daughter died, he left her an inheritance which she brought to her father and he (presumably) handed over to her new husband (Lys. 32. 11–18). Likewise, the dowry of Demosthenes’ widow, which was destined for Aphobus, was larger than her original one.
20. W. E. Thompson, “The Marriage of First Cousins in Athenian Society.”
21. Plut. Solon 20. 3.
22. Lys. 1. 6.
23. Xen. Oec. 7. 5. Of course, these ages varied; Davies, op. cit., pp. 336–37, draws attention to the short generations (ca. twenty-five years) and the long (ca. forty years) which existed simultaneously in Athens within the same social class.
24. Arist. Hist. An. 7. l.(581b); Pol. 7. 14. 5 (1335a).
25. Dem. 30. 33; 27. 5; 30. 22; 36. 8; 57. 41. Plut. Pericles 34. 5–6.
26. Thompson, “Athenian Marriage Patterns: Remarriage.”
27. Plut. Alcibiades 8. 5; Andoc. 4. 14. Cf. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 39–44, and Eur. Andr. 984.
28. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 39–44; Thompson, “Athenian Marriage Patterns,” pp. 221–22.
29. Aesch. Eum. 658–66. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett. Cf. Arist. Gen. An. 1. 20 (729a).
30. Arist. Const. Athens 26. 4.
31. Thuc. 2. 44. 3–4.
32. Xen. Hell. 1. 6. 24.
33. Ar. Lys. 591–97.
34. Diog. Laert. 2. 26. Cf. Ath. 13. 555d-556; Aul. Gell. 15. 20. 6; A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 16–17; Contra C. Hignett, A History of the Athenian Constitution to the End of the Fifth Century B.C., p. 345; H. J. Wolff, “Marriage Law in Ancient Athens,” p. 85, n. 195; J. W. Fitton, “That Was No Lady, That Was …”
35. Bigamy and polygyny are often found in societies with an imbalanced sex ratio favoring women, as was likely to have been the case in wartime Athens. See M. Ember, “Warfare, Sex Ratio, and Polygyny.”
36. Lys. 12–21. Cf. Dem. 59. 112–13; Hyperides 1. 13.
37. Eumelus, fragment 2, in F. Jacoby, ed., Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker 2.2, p. 158 and Carystius, fragment 11, in C. Müller, ed., Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum 4, p. 358. Cf. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., p. 26.
38. D. W. Amundsen and C. J. Diers, “The Age of Menarche in Classical Greece and Rome.” Presumably rags or wool were used to absorb menstrual blood. The female genitals were referred to by Aristophanes as choiros (pig), and he called a napkin for menstrual blood a choirokomeion (pigpen) (H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, eds., A Greek-English Dictionary, s.v. choiros, citing Ach. 773; s.v.choirokomeion. citing Lys. 1073). To my knowledge this is the earliest nonmedical reference to menstruation in classical literature.
39. Angel, “Paleoecology, Paleodemography, and Health,” p. 29, and personal letter. A. E. Samuel, W. K. Hastings, A. K. Bowman, and R. S. Bagnall, Death and Taxes, pp. 11–12, have criticized Angel’s work, giving, among other reasons, “that the data are few,” but they do not seem to be aware of the major studies that Angel has conducted since his 1947 publication.
40. See, e.g., Thompson, “Athenian Marriage Patterns,” p. 222.
41. See the survey in Norman E. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, Parts I and II.
42. Arist. Pol. 7. 14. 10 (1335b); E. Nardi, Procurato aborto nel mondo greco romano; W. A. Krenkel, “Erotica 1: Der Abortus in der Antike.”
43. On infanticide, see A. Cameron, “The Exposure of Children and Greek Ethics”; Lacey, Family, pp. 165–66; Ehrenberg, op. cit., p. 199; A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., p. 71.
44. Isae. 11; Dem. 43. The dating of the adoption to 396 B.C. is argued by Davies, op. cit., pp. 78, 82–83. Her inheritance should have facilitated finding a husband, but there is no proof that she married.
45. K. Weiss, op. cit., makes it clear that this is a basic principle of population control.
46. Hignett, op. cit., p. 346.
47. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 16–17, gives the ancient evidence, but does not totally accept it.
48. J. J. B. Mulder, Quaestiones Nonullae ad Atheniensium Matrimonium Vitamque Coniugalem Pertinentes, pp. 115–24. The families studied by Davies, op. cit., likewise show a larger proportion of males than females.
49. Hdt. 5. Cf. Hes. Op. 519–21.
50. Hdt. 8. 40–41.
52. On women’s work, see P. Herfst, Le travail de la femme dans la Grèce ancienne.
53. E.g., Eur. Hel. 329, 830; Phoen. 198.
54. Xen. Mem. 2. 7. 7–10; cf. Oec. 7–10.
55. Thuc. 2. 78. 3. Brides carried a pot for roasting barley, alluding to their kitchen duties (Pollux 1. 246).
56. Hdt. 6. 137.
57. Ernestine Friedl, “The Position of Women: Appearance and Reality,” p. 98.
58. Xen. Oec. 9–10. 1.
59. J. D. Beazley, Attic Red-figure Vase-painters, p. 571, vase no. 73.
60. Helen McClees, A Study of Women in Attic Inscriptions, pp. 23, 31–32.
61. On women and property, see Schaps, op. cit.; A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 73 note 3, 108–9, 112–14, 141–47, 236; and the comments by G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, “Some Observations on the Property Rights of Athenian Women.”
62. Lys. 13. 39–42; 32. 11–18. Dem. 36. 14; 47. 57.
63. Helen North, Sophrosyne, passim; Soph. Ajax 293; Arist. Pol. 1. 5. 8 (1260a); Eur. Andr. 364–65; Hercules 534–35; Heracl. 476–77; Iph. Aul. 830.
64. Thuc. 2. 45. 2.
65. Arist. Pol. 1. 2. 12 (1254b); 1.5 (1259–60). Arist. Eudemian Ethics 1. 10. 8–9 (1242a); 7. 3. 3 (1238b); 7. 5. 5 (1239b). In 1869 John Stuart Mill formulated a response to the sort of ideas about women expressed by Aristotle, in which Mill asserted that no one can know the real natures of the two sexes so long as they exist in their present relationship to each other (On the Subjection of Women, pp. 37–38).
66. For detailed discussions of Athenian cults, see inter alios, L. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States; L. Deubner, Attische Feste; M. P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion.
67. Hdt. 5. 72; 8. 41.
68. McClees, op. cit., pp. 9, 36.
69. Thuc. 6. 56–58; Arist. Const. Athens 18.
70. C. J. Herington, Athena Parthenos and Athena Polias, pp. 32–33.
71. On Eleusis, see, in addition to the references cited in note 66 above, G. E. Mylonas, Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries.
72. The priestesses of Hera at Argos were also eponymous.
73. Mylonas, op. cit., p. 310.
74. In addition to the works cited in note 66 above, see Ar. Thesm. and Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, pp. 120–62.
75. Isae. 6. 49–50.
76. Isae. 8. 19.
77. Isae. 3. 80.
1. Pl. Phd. 3. 60A.
2. R. E. Wycherley, How the Greeks Built Cities, p. 187.
3. Dem. 24. 197.
5. Arist. Pol. 4. 12. 9 (1300a); 6. 5. 13 (1323a); Xen. Oec. 7. 35–36.
6. Dem. 43. 62; Alexiou, op. cit., pp. 15–22.
7. Lys. 13. 39.
8. E.g., Ehrenberg, op. cit., pp. 27–28 note 2; 201. According to the Life of Aeschylus, probably written by Didymus in the first century B.C., women in the audience miscarried at a performance of the Eumenides.
9. This arrangement was peculiar to Athens, according to D. M. Robinson and J. Walter Graham, Excavations at Olynthus 8: The Hellenic House, pp. 167–68; but Hdt. 5. 20 describes women’s quarters in the royal palace at Macedonia, and 3. 123 refers to men’s quarters in the house of Polycrates. Plut. Pelopidas 9. 5 mentions women’s quarters at Thebes.
10. Xen. Oec. 9. 4–5; in Dem. 47. 56, slave women live in a tower.
11. Andoc. 1. 124–27.
12. Andoc. 1. 16.
13. Lys. 3. 6–7; Dem. 47. 53.
14. Lys 1. 6–14.
15. On women’s dress, see U. E. Paoli, La donna greca nell’antichità, pp. 13–35.
16. Xen. Oec. 10. 2; according to Angel, “Paleoecology,” p. 29, the mean height of women was 61.5 inches and that of men 66.8 inches.
17. Ar. Lys. 88, 149; Thesm. 215–47, 538–40; Ehrenberg, op. cit., pp. 34, 179. Some vase paintings show the hair.
18. Eur. Med. 250–51.
19. Eur. Iph. Taur. 1404–9.
20. Kurtz and Boardman, op. cit., p. 139.
21. McClees, op. cit., pp. 17–22.
22. Eur. Alc. 318.
23. Plut. Lycurgus 14; Xen. Const. Lacedaemonians 1. 3.
24. Richard T. Hallock, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, pp. 344–53, for mothers’ rations (Ionian women in tablet no. 1224). I owe this reference to Ernst Badian.
25. Ar. Lys. 80–83.
26. Pl. Republic 5. 452; 5. 460E. Pl. Laws 6. 785; 8. 833D.
27. Arist. Pol. 7. 14. 4; 7. 14. 9 (1335a–b).
28. Amundsen and Diers, “The Age of Menopause in Classical Greece and Rome.”
29. Dem. 43. 62. 4. A number of persons catalogued in Davies, op. cit., reached advanced ages, but they were members of the propertied classes.
30. On these laws, see A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., pp. 32–38, and Lys. 1.
31. Plut. Solon 20. 3.
32. Ar. Lys. 26–28.
33. Pl. Sym. 190A–B.
34. Ath. 13. 569d–e.
35. Dem. 59. 30–32; Lacey, Family, p. 172 and notes.
36. Ar. Ach. 526–34.
37. Plut. Pericles 34. 3–6. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
38. Davies, op. cit., pp. 458–59.
39. Pl. Menex. 4. 236B; 4. 237E–238B.
40. Xen. Oec. 10. 12.
41. Plut. Alcibiades 8. 3–6; Andoc. 4. 14.
42. Hdt. 2. 134–35.
43. Dem. 59. 18–20.
44. Aeschin. 1.28; Arist. Const. Athens 56.6.
45. Ps.-Dem. 59. 100. Cf. Lacey, Family, pp. 172–74.
46. Ar. Lys. 865–97; Ehrenberg, op. cit., chap. 8; Eur. Alc., passim.
47. G. Kaibel, ed., Epigrammata Graeca 44. 2–3. Cf. R. Lattimore, Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs, p. 275.
48. E.g., Clive Bell, Civilization, pp. 238–45.
49. Xen. Mem. 3. 11. 1.
1. Gomme, op. cit.; Hadas, op. cit.; Kitto, op. cit., pp. 219–36; Seltman, Women in Antiquity, pp. 110–11, and “Status of Women”; and Donald C. Richter, op. cit.
2. Soph. Antigone 61–62.
3. Candaules’ wife: Hdt. 1. 10–13; Artemisia: 8. 87; Amestris: 9. 112. Cf. the vengeance of Tomyris on the corpse of Cyrus: 1. 214.
4. Slater, op. cit.
5. Ar. Birds 130–32 and Clouds 1382–90, 863–64. Ehrenberg, op. cit., p. 197. Marie-Thérèse Charlier and Georges Raepset, “Etude d’un comportement social: Les relations entre parents et enfants dans la société athénienne à l’époque classique.”
6. Arist. Poetics 15. 4.
7. A. Adler, Understanding Human Nature, pp. 124–25. For an analysis of Clytemnestra as a masculine personality whose motive for murder was jealousy of Agamemnon’s power, see R. P. Winnington-Ingram, “Clytemnestra and the Vote of Athena.”
8. Eur. Or. 553–57.
9. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, p. 73 note 8.
10. Hdt. 8. 88, 93.
11. R. Jebb, ed., Sophocles: Antigone, p. 91 note 464, p. 124 note 651. Cf. R. Kühner and B. Gerth, Ausführliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache, 2, part I, p. 83.
12. Hdt. 3. 119. Cf. Octavia’s refusal to choose between brother and husband in Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra, III, vi, 15–20.
13. Jebb, op. cit., p. 164. See C. M. Bowra, Sophoclean Tragedy, pp. 93–96; A. J. A. Waldock, Sophocles the Dramatist, pp. 133–42.
14. Deutsch, op. cit., pp. 285–86, 289–92.
15. In the light of the heroine’s cruel treatment of the female members of her family, it is surprising to read sentimental judgments of her “womanly nature, her absolute valuation of the bonds of blood and affection,” and that she represents “the all-embracing motherly love” (C. Segal, “Sophocles’ Praise of Man and the Conflicts of the Antigone,” p. 70). Cf. E. Fromm, The Forgotten Language, p. 224.
16. Cf. Eur. Hipp. 525–63.
17. A. R. W. Harrison, op. cit., p. 22; Soph. Oed. Col. 830–33.
18. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, p. 73.
19. Aesch. PV 436–71, 476–506; but cf. Soph. Oed. Col. 668–719, where olive culture is included.
20. I owe these suggestions to Froma Zeitlin.
21. Eur. Med. 410–29.
22. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
23. Aul. Gell. 15. 20.
24. Ath. 13. 557e; cf. 13. 603e.
25. Eur. Med. 408–9.
26. Eur. Or. 605.
27. Eur. Med. 569–73.
28. Eur. Med. 285, 319–20.
29. Eur. Ion 1025, 1330; Alc. 304–19, 463–65.
30. Eur. Hipp. 409–10.
31. Eur. Ion 617, 844, 1003; Andr. 33, 157.
32. Eur. Hipp. 616–68. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
33. Hom. Od. 24. 196–202.
34. Eur. El. 1018–34. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
35. Eur. Hipp. 378–84.
36. E.g., Eur. Hec. 941 and Tro. 773; Iph. Taur. 326, 524; Rhes. 261.
37. Eur. Heracl. 979.
38. Eur. Hec. 237, 511, 1252–53.
39. EUT. Iph. Aul. 139.
40. Eur. Hec. 545–83.
41. Eur. Supp. 990–1071.
42. Eur. Hel. 352–56; Tro. 1012–14.
43. Eur. Alc. 623–24, 728.
44. Eur. Andr. 222–25; cf. 465–85, 911; El. 945–46, 1033; Med. 155–56. The wife of the elder Cato often suckled her slaves’ children, so that, by being nursed together, they might feel affection for her own son (Plut. Cato the Elder 20. 3).
45. Eur. Andr. 1350.
46. Eur. El. 1039–40.
47. Eur. Andr.; Tro.; Or.; Iph. Aul., 1148–56; Hipp.; Alc.
48. Eur. Med. 232–35; Andr. 675, 940.
49. The mother of Rhesus in Eur. Rhes.; Creusa in Ion; Melanippe in the lost Melanippe the Wise.
50. Hermione in Eur. Andr.; Creusa in Ion.
51. Eur. Iph. Taur. 219; Supp. 790–92; Heracl. 523, 579–80, 592–93; Med. 233–34.
52. Eur. Phoen. 355; Iph. Aul. 918; Andr., passim; Hec., passim.
53. Eur. Tro. 84, 792–85; Med. 1090–1115; Andr. 720–79; Hec. 650–56; Hel. 367.
54. Eur. Supp. 1132–35.
55. Eur. Alc. 303.
56. Eur. Hec. 924–26.
57. Eur. Med. 250–51; Phoen. 355; Hipp. 161–69; Alc. 315–19; El. 1107–8.
58. Eur. Or. 107; Tro. 646; Heracl. 476; Iph. Aul. 996.
59. Eur. El. 343–44, 1072–75; Iph. Aul. 830–34.
60. Eur. Phoen. 1485–86.
61. Eur. Hec. 975; Tro. 654.
62. An excellent sociological analysis of the women in Aristophanes is Ehrenberg, op. cit., chap. 8.
63. Germaine Greer, in The Female Eunuch, p. 315, recommends the tactic of Lysistrata.
64. Ar. Eccl. 93, 156, 166, 243–44, et passim.
65. Ar. Eccl. 717–24, 1161.
66. Ar. Clouds 553–56; Eccl., passim.
67. E.g., Ar. Thesm., 331–40, 395–423, 476–517; Frogs 1047–52.
68. Finley, “Utopianism Ancient and Modern”; Pierre Vidal-Naquet, “Esclavage et gynécocratie dans la tradition, le mythe, l’utopie.”
69. Pomeroy, “Feminism in Book V of Plato’s Republic;” Dorothea Wender, “Plato: Misogynist, Paedophile, and Feminist.”
70. Arist. Pol. 2. 4. 2 (1266a–b).
71. Hdt. 4. 104. Cf. 1. 216 for a community of wives among the Massagetae; 4. 172 and 4. 180 for other groups practicing promiscuous intercourse.
72. Pl. Republic 5. 449C; 5. 457C–D.
73. Ar. Eccl. 468–70, 616–20.
74. Diog. Laert. 7. 131; Diod. 2. 58.
75. Ar. Eccl 716–19.
76. Diod. 2. 55–60.
77. Frederick Engels, The Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State, p. 120.
78. Pomeroy, “Feminism.” Note that in his other works Plato does not see women as equal. For example, see Timaeus 90E–91A, where men who are cowardly and spend their lives in wrongdoing become women in their second incarnation.
79. P. Herfst, op. cit., p. 99.
80. Joseph Vogt, Von der Gleichwertigkeit der Geschlechter in der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft der Griechen, pp. 211–55; R. Flacelière, “D’un certain féminisme grec”; Wender, op. cit., pp. 84–85.
1. See Grace Macurdy, Hellenistic Queens, and W. W. Tarn and G. T. Griffith, Hellenistic Civilization.
2. Plut. Alexander 2. 4–5.
3. Some parallels from the Archaic period can be found in the marriage of Pisistratus and the daughter of Megacles. Pisistratus, who already had adult sons whose succession he did not wish to jeopardize by engendering new heirs, had agreed to a political marriage with the daughter of Megacles, but he had intercourse with her in an unnatural fashion. Megacles, insulted and enraged, was obviously deprived of the hope of having a grandson succeed to the tyranny and became the adversary of his son-in-law. Hdt. 1. 61.
4. App. Syr. 65; Pliny HN 7. 53; Macurdy, op. cit., pp. 82–90.
5. Ptolemy II, IV, VI, VIII.
6. The marriage of Elpinice to her half-brother Cimon in Athens was irregular. See Davies, op. cit., pp. 302–3.
7. Tarn and Griffith, op. cit., p. 50.
8. Macurdy, op. cit., p. 125.
9. See McClees, op. cit., and the convenient collection of H. W. Pleket, ed., Epigraphica II: Texts on the Social History of the Greek World (hereafter: Pleket).
10. Pleket, no. 3; J. and L. Robert, “Bulletin épigraphique” 81, inscription nos. 444, 445.
11. E.g., IG 2. 5. 477d.
12. Tarn and Griffith, op. cit., p. 99; IG 2. 1. 550.
13. IG 9. 2. 62.
14. Pleket, no. 2; J. and L. Robert, “Bulletin épigraphique” 76, inscription no. 170.
15. Pleket, no. 5; I. Priene, no. 208.
16. The legal position of women in the papyri has been reviewed by Claire Préaux, and some of her findings will be summarized here. Préaux, “Le statut de la femme à l’époque hellénistique, principalement en Egypte.” For an interpretation differing on some points, see Claude Vatin, Recherches sur le mariage et la condition de la femme mariée à l’époque hellénistique, pp. 241–54.
17. Citizen women of Alexandria, titled astai, were barred from making wills. See the Gnomon of the Idios Logos, line 15.
18. P. Tebtunis 776. 27–28; P. Enteuxeis 82. 7; BGU 648. 11–16.
19. BGU 1104.
20. P. Elephantine 1. The names of six witnesses are added at the bottom of the document.
21. P. Giessen 2; BGU 1052, acting with a guardian.
22. Athens: see this page. Rome: see this page below. Roman Egypt: Naphtali Lewis, “On Paternal Authority in Roman Egypt.”
23. P. Tebtunis 104.
24. For epigraphic documentation, see Schaps, op. cit., passim, and M. I. Finley, Studies in Land and Credit in Ancient Athens, 500–200 B.C., pp. 78, 101–2.
25. Arist. Pol. 2. 6. 11 (1270a): Plut. Agis 4, 7; IG 5. 1564a; Paus. 3’. 17. 6; 3. 8. 1; 6. 1. 6; 5. 8. 11. The daughters of Polycrates of Argos were Panathenaic victors in the early second century B.C. (IG 2 2 2313, 2314).
26. Arist. Pol. 1. 5. 6–7 (1260a).
27. For gynaikonomoi in Athens and other cities, see C. Wehrli, “Les gynéconomes,” and Vatin, op. cit., pp. 254–61.
28. Arist. Pol. 6. 5. 13 (1322b–1323a); 4. 12. 3 (1299a); 4. 12. 9 (1300a).
29. W. S. Ferguson, Hellenistic Athens, p. 89.
30. Stob. 16. 30.
31. Zeno: Diog. Laert. 7. 131. Later views on marriage: Stob. 57. 25.
32. Polyb. 36. 17; Tarn and Griffith, op. cit., pp. 100–104.
33. Holger Thesleff, The Pythagorean Texts of the Hellenistic Period, pp. 142–45 = Stob. 4.28.10. Translated by Flora R. Levin. On the female students of Pythagoras: Porph. Pythagoras 19, and Diog. Laert. 8.41–42. On Neopythagoreanism: Thesleff, An Introduction to the Pythagorean Writings of the Hellenistic Period.
34. Diog. Laert. 10. 119.
35. Diog. Laert. 6. 72.
36. Diog. Laert. 6. 97–98.
37. L. Moretti, ed., Iscrizioni Agonistiche Greche, no. 63 = Pleket, no. 9. Cf. H. A. Harris, Sport in Greece and Rome, pp. 178–79.
38. R. Calderini, “Gil agrammatoi nell’Egitto greco-romano,” p. 23. See P. Oxyrhynchus 1467 (A.D. 263) for a woman who demands special consideration because she is literate.
39. Erinna: Palatine Anthology 7. 11. 2.
40. Greek text in Page, Literary Papyri: Poetry, pp. 486, 488. Translated by Marylin Arthur.
41. Slater, op. cit., pp. 63–65.
42. Palatine Anthology 7. 712; cf. 7. 710.
43. Palatine Anthology 7. 13.
44. Angel, “Ecology and Population,” p. 100 and Table 28.
45. Tarn and Griffith, op. cit., pp. 100–104; Vatin, op. cit., pp. 230–33.
46. P. Oxyrhynchus 37 (A.D. 49) for rearing a foundling; P. Oxyrhynchus 744 (1 B.C.) on exposing a daughter.
47. Hyperides, fragment B, 45, “Against Demetria”; Tarn and Griffith, op. cit., p. 105.
48. Ps.-Dem. 59.30–32
49. OGIS 2.674. I owe this reference and interpretation to M. G. Raschke.
50. Athenaeus, Machon, Alciphron, and Lucian are important sources of information about courtesans in different periods. On Phryne, see also Ferguson, op. cit., p. 88.
51. On Agathoclia, see Ath. 13. 577 and Polyb. 15. 31–33.
52. See Otto J. Brendel, “The Scope and Temperament of Erotic Art in the Greco-Roman World”; K. Clark, The Nude, especially pp. 23–145; and Havelock, op. cit.
53. Thuc. 1. 6. 5; cf. Hdt. 1. 10.
54. Pl. Republic 5. 452A–B.
55. Hdt. 1. 8–12.
56. See K. J. Dover, “Classical Greek Attitudes to Sexual Behavior.” Professor Dover has brought to my attention a very rare representation of a woman making the conventional homosexual chin-chucking gesture to another woman on a plate from Thera, ca. 620 B.C., published in Arnold von Salis, Theseus und Ariadne, p. 10 and Plate 7, and in Gisela Richter, Korai, p. 24 and Plate 8c.
57. T. B. L. Webster, Athenian Culture and Society, pp. 139–40; this finding is not readily verified, and remains controversial. I am grateful to Ann Sheffield for this reference.
58. Ael. VH 4. 3; Pliny, HN 35. 58.
59. Paoli, op. cit., pp. 20–23. Elpinice, though a member of the upper class, was poor and notorious; thus her modeling for Polygnotus was irregular (Plut. Cimon 4).
60. Pliny HN 35. 61; Cic. De Inventione 2. 1. 1.
61. On Praxiteles’ Aphrodite, see, e.g., Pliny, HN 36. 20; Ath. 13. 590.
62. Brendel, op. cit., pp. 41–54.
63. Arist. Gen. An. 1. 20 (728a–b).
64. Ov. The Art of Love 2. 719–32.
1. For Roman women, especially of the upper classes, see J. P. V. D. Balsdon, Roman Women: Their History and Habits. For an account of the political activities of women, especially between 60 B.C. and A.D. 14, see R. Syme, The Roman Revolution.
2. For Cornelia, see Plut. Tiberius Gracchus 1.4 and Gaius Gracchus 4, 19, and App. Civil Wars 1. 20; on her statue, see Pliny HN 34. 31, and the base in A. Degrassi, ed., Inscriptiones Italiae 13.3 (“Elogia”), no. 72, pp. 51–52. A shorter inscription is reported in Plut. Gaius Gracchus 4. 3: “Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi.”
3. R. Taubenschlag, The Law of Greco-Roman Egypt in the Light of the Papyri: 332 B.C.–640 A.D., pp. 48–49, 176–77.
4. For the Lex Claudia de tutela, see G. Rotondi, Leges publicae populi romani, pp. 467–68; on literacy, Calderini, op. cit., pp. 30–31.
5. Dionysius of Halicarnassus attributed this feature to marriages concluded “with ritual,” implying the existence of marriages without manus even in the days of Romulus (Ant. Rom. 2. 25).
6. Livy 1. 26.
7. Livy 3. 44–58; Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 11. 28–49; Diod. 12. 24.
8. Alan Watson, The Law of Persons in the Later Roman Republic, p. 110.
9. Val. Max. 6. 3. 9. The ideal that a woman must not drink survived so that even in A.D. 153 a woman donor to a man’s collegium made herself one of the recipients of the cash distributions from her fund, but excluded herself from the drinking for which she had also donated money (ILS 7213. 12).
10. Aul. Gell. 10. 23; cf. Livy 34. 2. 11. Watson, op. cit., p. 28, accepts Cato’s testimony.
11. Plut. Roman Questions 6 also suggests that a reason for married women’s habit of kissing their blood relatives on the lips was the desire of the men to maintain surveillance over the women’s drinking. Cf. Mor. 265b.
12. Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2. 25. 4.
13. Plut. Romulus 22. 3.
14. Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2. 25. 6.
15. Pliny HN 14. 89–90.
16. Livy 39. 18. 6.
17. Plut. Roman Questions 108.
18. Plut. Pompey 9.
20. Plut. Pompey 44.
21. Plut. Sulla 35.
22. T. P. Wiseman, Cinna the Poet, p. 181.
23. Ulp. Digest 1. 12.
24. Paulus Sententiae 5. 6. 15.
25. Val. Max. 8. 2. 3.
26. Vell. Pat. 2. 100. 5; Dio 55. 10–14.
27. Polyb. 31. 26.
28. Plut. Cato the Younger 25. 52. Cf. Hattie Gordon, “The Eternal Triangle, First Century B.C.”
29. Plut. Sulla 3. 2.
30. “Turia”: CIL 6. 1527, 31670 = ILS 8393 (in Marcel Durry, ed., Eloge funèbre d’une matrone romaine).
31. Digest 48. 5. 21 (20); for Julian laws on marriage and adultery, see Rotondi, op. cit., pp. 443–47.
32. Digest 48. 5. 1–4.
33. Digest 48. 5. 14 (13). 5.
34. Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta 244.
35. Lucan Pharsalia 2. 387–88.
36. Digest 48. 5. 6. 1.
37. Suet. Aug. 101.
38. Tac. Ann. 2. 85. 1.
39. Codex Theodosianus 9. 9. 25.
40. Livy 1. 57–60.
41. Hor. Odes 3. 14. 4; Prop. 4. 11. 36; Lattimore, op. cit., p. 296; Durry, op. cit., p. 9; and Gordon Williams, “Some Aspects of Roman Marriage Ceremonies and Ideals,” pp. 23–24.
42. Pliny Ep. 3. 16; Dio 60. 16. 5–6; Martial 1. 13. Cf. Pliny Ep. 6. 24; Tac. Ann. 6. 29; 16. 10.
43. Polyb. 31. 26.
44. Polyb. 18. 35; 31. 22; 31. 27.
45. See John H. D’Arms, Romans on the Bay of Naples, pp. 8–12.
46. Val. Max. 4. 4. 1.
47. Tac. Ann. 12. 22; Pliny HN 9. 117. Cf. G. Rickman, Roman Granaries and Store Buildings, pp. 164–65.
48. See Amundsen and Diers, “Age of Menarche,” and Keith Hopkins, “The Age of Roman Girls at Marriage.”
49. David Daube, Roman Law, pp. 102–12.
50. For a different viewpoint, see W. den Boer, “Demography in Roman History.” Whether women are enumerated in the census figures at particular periods in Roman history remains unclear, despite the efforts of Joël Le Gall, “Un critère de différenciation sociale,” and P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.–14A. D.
51. On the names of Roman women, see Iiro Kajanto, “Women’s Praenomina Reconsidered.”
52. Justin Martyr Apology for the Christians, “To Antoninus Pius,” 27. I owe this reference to JoAnn McNamara.
53. Degrassi, “L’indicazione dell’età nelle iscrizioni sepolcrali latine,” pp. 85–86.
54. In his sample Keith Hopkins found 149 sons and 100 daughters (“On the Probable Age Structure of the Roman Population,” p. 262).
55. Watson, Roman Private Law Around 200 B.C., p. 22; Brunt, op. cit., p. 559.
56. Suet. Aug. 89. 2; Livy Per. 59; Aul. Gell. 1. 6; H. Malcovati, Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta, p. 107.
58. On contraception, see Hopkins, “Contraception in the Roman Empire,” and John T. Noonan, Jr., Contraception, pp. 23–46. For the possibility of coitus interruptus in Archaic Greece, see the fragment of Archilochus, P. Coloniensia 7511.
59. Pliny H N 29. 85; Aëtius 16. 17.
60. Soranus 1. 61. The references to Soranus are to his Gynecology, translated by O. Temkin (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1956). Hopkins, “Contraception,” p. 140, note 47.
61. Lucretius 4. 1269–78.
62. Hopkins, “Contraception,” p. 135, note 30.
63. On abortion, see Noonan, op. cit.; Krenkel, op. cit.; Nardi, op. cit., reviewed by Sheila Dickison in Arethusa 6 (1973): 159–66.
64. Ov. Loves 2. 14. 27–28.
65. Ibid.; Fasti I. 621–24; Her. 11. 37–42. Juvenal 6. 595–97. Sen. Helv. 16. 1.
66. Digest 48. 19, 39; 48. 8. 8; 47. 11. 4.
67. Digest 48. 19. 38. 5. See the discussion in Noonan, op. cit., pp. 44–46, and Hopkins, “Contraception,” p. 137 note 35.
68. Soranus 2. 17; 4. 9. On mothers not nursing their children, see Tac. Dial. 28. 4–29.
69. Hopkins, “Age Structure of the Roman Population,” pp. 260–63.
70. Angel, “Ecology and Population,” Table 28.
71. Columella On Agriculture 12, Preface 9–10. Cato Agr. 143. 1.
72. Tac. Agr. 4. For other influential mothers, cf. Aurelia, mother of Caesar; Rhea, mother of Sertorius, Atia, mother of Augustus, in Tac. Dial. 28; and Cornelia in Cic. Brut. 211.
73. Pliny Ep. 5. 16. 3.
74. Quint. 1. 6; Cic. Brut. 211.
75. Plut. Pompey 55, 66, 74, 76, 78–80.
76. Pliny Ep. 4. 19. 4.
77. Quint. 1. 1. 6.
78. Musonius Rufus (ed. Hense), fragment 4.
79. Arrian Discourses of Epictetus, fragment 15 = Stob. 3. 6. 58.
80. Sallust The War with Catiline 25. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett. On Sempronia, see Syme, Sallust, pp. 25–26, 133–35.
81. Juvenal 6.434–56. Translated by Roger Killian, Richard Lynch, Robert J. Rowland, and John Sims.
82. Mentioned by Martial 10. 35. 38.
83. [Tibullus] 3. 13. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett. On Sulpicia, see Esther Bréguet, Le roman de Sulpicia, and G. Luck, The Latin Love Elegy, pp. 107–16.
84. [Tib.] 3. 11. Translated by Judith Peller Hallett.
85. [Tib.] 3. 16.
86. On the circle of Julia Domna, see G. W. Bowersock, Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire, pp. 101–9.
87. A Greek woman who was not an orator but whom necessity forced to make one public address is mentioned in Diod. 12. 18. 4.
88. Val. Max. 8.3; Claudine Herrmann, Le rôle judiciaire et politique des femmes sous la république romaine, pp. 100–101, 107–8, 111–15. On Hortensia, see also Quint. 1.1.6.
89. App. Civil Wars 4. 33.
90. Sabine women: Livy 1. 13. Coriolanus: Livy 2. 40. Verginius: Livy 1. 26. Contributions to the gods: Livy, passim. On women’s contribution to the offering of Camillus to Apollo: Val. Max. 5. 6. 8. Poisoning: Livy 8. 18; Val. Max. 2. 5. 5.
91. Livy 22. 56. 4–6; 34. 6. 15; Plut. Fabius Maximus 18. 1–2; Val. Max. 1. 1. 15. The substance of this discussion of the Oppian Law was first presented in my “Women and War.”
92. Livy 22. 57. 9–12; 22. 60. 1–3; 34. 3. 7; 22. 61. 1; 23. 48. 8–9. Single women and orphans were not liable for the tributum, but paid the aes equestre.
93. Daube, op. cit., pp. 71–75; see p. 162 above. For a contrary opinion, see Crook, “Intestacy in Rome.”
94. Plut. Cato the Elder 18.
95. Polyb. 31. 26. 6–10.
96. Livy 34. 1–8; Tac. Ann. 3. 34; Val. Max. 9. 1. 3; Oros. 4. 20. 14; Zonaras 9. 17. 1
97. Livy 24. 18. 13–14; 34. 5. 10; 34. 6. 14.
98. Livy 26.36. Cf. the theme of women’s avarice and luxury in Tac. Ann. 3.33–34. Juno: Livy 27.37.9–10.
99. Livy 34. 7. 12; but cf. 34. 7. 13, modifying the rhetorical point.
100. Livy 22. 7. 7–13; 22. 60. 2.
101. Livy 25. 2. 9–10.
102. Livy 29. 14. 10–14; Ov. Fasti 4. 179–372. Cf. G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p. 318.
103. Livy 26. 36. 5; 27. 51. 9.
104. Livy 34. 1–8. 3.
105. Livy 34. 50. 3–7; Val. Max. 5. 2. 6.
106. Polyb. 9. 11a; Brunt, op. cit., pp. 67–68.
107. Tac. Ann. 3. 34.
108. Plut. Agis 4; Plut. Spartan Sayings 212b.
109. Livy 34. 4. 15–18; 34. 7. 8–10.
110. Plut. Cato the Elder 18; H. H. Scullard, Roman Politics 220–150 B.C., pp. 156, 260.
111. Le Gall, “Critère,” pp. 281, 285–86.
112. Hist. Aug.: Elagabalus 4. 4 and Aurelian 49. 6. For a body of women with possibly the same functions as the senaculum at Rome, see Angela Donati, “Sull’ iscrizione Lanuvina della curia mulierum.” and J. Straub, “Senaculum, id est mulierum senatus,” p. 229.
113. Plut. Gaius Gracchus 4. 3–4.
114. Malcovati, op. cit., p. 220.
115. Plut. Caesar 5. 1–2.
116. Suet. Aug. 8. 1, 61. 2; Dio 54. 35. 4–5.
117. Ruth Hoffsten, Roman Women of Rank of the Early Empire as Portrayed by Dio, Paterculus, Suetonius, and Tacitus, pp. 88–89.
118. Scullard, op. cit., p. 156.
119. Tac. Ann. 1. 14. 1–3.
120. Statues: Dio 55. 2. 5; 61. 12. 2; Tac. Ann. 14. 61. 1; Pliny HN 34. 31. Inscriptions in Pleket, passim.
121. Plut. Antony 10; C. Babcock, “The Early Career of Fulvia”; Vell. Pat. 2. 74. 2.
122. W. W. Tarn, “Alexander Helios and the Golden Age.”
123. Alexandra of Judaea: Josephus Jewish Antiquities 15 [3. 1] 40. Aba at Olba in Cilicia: Dio 49. 44. For Cleopatra, see Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 10.
124. See, e.g., Finley, “The Silent Women of Rome.”
1. P. R. C. Weaver, Familia Caesaris; Susan Treggiari, Roman Freedmen During the Late Republic.
2. Columella On Agriculture 12, Preface, 9.
3. On these jobs, see Treggiari, “Women in Slavery” and “Domestic Staff at Rome in the Julio-Claudian Period, 27 B.C. to A.D. 68”; Mima Maxey, Occupations of the Lower Classes in Roman Society; Le Gall, “Métiers de femmes au Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum.”
4. Cato Agr. 143. Cf. Columella On Agriculture 12, Preface, 8.
5. Aemilia: Val. Max. 6. 7. 1. Cato: Plut. Cato the Elder 21, 24. Augustus: Dio 54. 19. 3; 58. 2. 5; Suet. Aug. 71. 1. Claudius: Tac. Ann. 11. 29.
6. CIL 1. 1214.
7. Digest 23. 2. 8; 2. 14. 2; Inst. 1. 10. 10.
8. On slaves bred at home as a source of new slaves, see I. Biezunska-Malowist and M. Malowist, “La procréation des esclaves comme source de l’esclavage.”
9. Weaver, op. cit., pp. 109–10; Treggiari, “Women in Slavery.”
10. Weaver, op. cit., p. 172; Treggiari, “Women in Slavery.” Trimalchio: Petron. Sat. 53.
11. CIL 1.2. 1221.
12. A seven-year-old is deflowered in Petron. Sat. 25. See also Durry, “Le marriage des filles impubères dans la Rome antique,” pp. 21, 25.
13. Gaius 1. 19; Digest 40. 2. 13.
14. Beryl Rawson, “Family Life Among the Lower Classes at Rome in the First Two Centuries of the Empire.”
15. Digest 23. 2. 44.
16. Statius Silvae 3. 3; Weaver, op. cit., pp. 171, 289–94.
17. Digest 24. 2. 11.
18. Ter. The Self-Tormentor 300–301.
19. Columella On Agriculture 1. 8. 19; cf. Varro On Agriculture2. 1. 26.
20. Code lust. 5. 4. 3.
21. On the Senatusconsultum Claudianum, see Crook, Life and Law, p. 62, and Weaver, op. cit., pp. 162–69.
22. Dio 65. 14; Suet. Vespasian 3; Hist. Aug.: Antoninus Pius 8. On Acte, freedwoman of Nero, see Tac. Ann. 13. 12; Suet. Nero 28; Dio 61. 7.
23. Herculaneum Tablets 13–30. A.-J. Boyé, “Pro Petronia Iusta.”
24. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen, p. 214.
25. Brunt, op. cit. pp. 558–66.
26. Ibid., p. 565.
27. Lyde and her four slaves: Monumentum Liviae 4237, 4275, 4276, cited by Treggiari, “Women in Slavery.”
28. Plut. Antony 9. 5. Servius, on Virgil Eclogue 10. Freedwomen at bachelor parties: Cic. Letters to His Friends 9. 26. 2.
29. IG 2 2 1553–78. Cf. M. Tod, “Epigraphical Notes on Freedmen’s Professions,” pp. 10–11.
30. CIL 1.2. 1211. Cf. Durry, Eloge funèbre, p. 9.
31. Suet. Aug. 73.
32. Maxey, op. cit., p. 31. The weighing of wool is the only supervisory job as yet attested for slave women in an upper-class household (Treggiari, “Women in Domestic Service in the Early Roman Empire”).
33. On Pompeii, see H. H. Tanzer, The Common People of Pompeii, and Michele D’Avino, The Women of Pompeii.
34. Helen Jefferson Loane, Industry and Commerce of the City of Rome (50 B.C-200 A.D.), pp. 103–5, 110–11.
35. See J.-P. Waltzing, Etude historique sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains jusqu’à la chute de l’Empire d’occident, 1: 348–49, and 4: 254–57; Guido Clemente, “Il patronato nei collegia dell’impero romano.”
36. On the price of prostitutes, see Richard Duncan-Jones, The Economy of the Roman Empire, p. 246.
37. Ramsay MacMullen, Roman Social Relations 50 B.C. to A.D. 284, pp. 86–87.
38. Exemptions from operae: prostitutes, Digest 38. 1. 38; high status, 38. 1. 34; over fifty, 38. 1. 35; married to patron, Code Iust. 6. 39; married with patron’s approval, Digest 38. 1. 48.
39. Suet. Aug. 65. 2.
40. CIL 6. 8958.
41. Juvenal 11. 172–73. Hor. Epist. 1. 14. 21; Sat. 1. 2. 30.
42. On the doles and assistance programs, see A. R. Hands, Charities and Social Aid in Greece and Rome, who gives English translations of the relevant texts; Duncan-Jones, op. cit., passim; and Denis Van Berchem, Les distributions de blé et d’argent à la plèbe romaine sous l’empire, who cites one woman recipient of public grain. She is Mallia Aemiliana, known from ILS 9275, who availed herself of the right of some male member of her family, or was granted an extraordinary privilege, or, as Van Berchem (pp. 42–43) suggests, was the recipient of special charity as a widow.
43. On the curia mulierum of ILS 6199, see Chapter VIII, note 112 above.
44. Augustus: Suet. Aug. 41. Trajan: Pliny Pan. 26, 28. 1–3.
45. Duncan-Jones, op. cit., p. 301.
46. ILS 977.
47. Pliny Ep. 7. 18
48. ILS 6278. Cf. Duncan-Jones, op. cit., pp. 27, 144–45.
49. Hist. Aug.: Antoninus Pius 8. 1; Marcus Aurelius 7. 8; 26. 6.
50. CIL 14. 4450. Cf. Duncan-Jones, op. cit., pp. 228–29, no. 641.
51. Treggiari, “Libertine Ladies,” p. 198.
52. Kajanto, “On Divorce Among the Common People of Rome.”
1. Cic. Letters to His Friends 14. 4.
2. On the numerous cults of Fortuna—many of which are not specific to women—see W. H. Roscher, Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie; Wissowa, op. cit.; Jean Gagé, Matronalia; and Robert E. A. Palmer, “Roman Shrines of Female Chastity from the Caste Struggle to the Papacy of Innocent I.”
3. Arn. 2. 67; a relief on the Ara Pacis of Augustus shows a young girl clad in a toga on a ceremonial occasion.
4. On Matuta, see Ov. Fasti 6. 475–768; Plut. Roman Questions 16, 17; Mor. 492d; and Robert E. A. Palmer, “Cupra, Matuta, and Venilia Pyrgensis,” pp. 295–96.
5. Livy 10. 23; Prop. 2. 6. 25.
6. Livy 10. 31. 9.
7. Livy 2. 40. 12.
8. Val Max. 8. 15. 12; Pliny HN 7. 120; Solinus 1. 126.
9. Livy 10. 23; Festus 270L.
10. Juvenal 6. 306–48. Translated by Roger Killian, Richard Lynch, Robert Rowland, and John Sims.
11. Freud, op. cit., p. 51.
12. Robert E. A. Palmer, The Archaic Community of the Romans, p. 153 note 1; Kurt Latte, Römische Religionsgeschichte, pp. 108–11.
13. Zosimus 5. 38.
14. Dion. Hal. 1. 76–78.
15. Livy 22. 57. 2.
16. Aristotle: see Chapter III, above. Theopompus: Ath. 12. 517. Livy 1. 57. 6 on the contest between a Roman and an Etruscan wife. Juvenal 6. Tac. Germania 19.
17. Suet. Dom. 8. 3–5; Pliny Ep. 4. 11. 5–16; Robert E. A. Palmer, “Roman Shrines.”
18. Peter Garnsey, Social Status and Legal Privilege in the Roman Empire, pp. 57–58.
19. Cic. Cat. 3. 9; Plut. Crassus 1 and Mor. 89e.
20. On the affair of 114 B.C., see, most recently, Erich S. Gruen, Roman Politics and the Criminal Courts, 149–78 B.C., pp. 127–32.
21. Gaius 1. 145.
22. Aul. Gell. 1. 12. 9–12; Plut. Numa 10.3.
23. Suet. Aug. 44. 2–3; Vitruvius 5. 6.
24. Aul. Gell. 1. 12. 9.
25. Dio 55. 22. 5.
26. Plut. Romulus 22.3; Henri Le Bonniec, Le culte de Cérès à Rome, pp. 86–88. On controversial issues, I have followed Le Bonniec’s interpretations.
27. Latte, op. cit., pp. 141–43.
28. Cyril Bailey, Phases in the Religion of Ancient Rome, p. 197.
29. For further reading, see J. Leclant, Inventaire bibliographique des Isiaca (IBIS), A—D, and other works in the series “Etudes préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire romain” (Leiden: Brill, in progress).
30. Plut. Isis and Osiris 372e–f, 382c.
31. This inscription is dated third or fourth century A.D. by V. Tran Tam Tinh, Le culte des divinités orientales en Campanie, p. 77, but first or second century A.D. by L. Vidman, Sylloge inscriptionum religionis Isiacae et Sarapiacae, no. 502 = CIL 10. 3800; cf. no. 42.
32. Diod. 1. 27.
33. P. Oxyrhynchus 11. 1380. 214–16.
34. Vera Frederika Vanderlip, ed., The Four Greek Hymns of Isidorus and the Cult of Isis, p. 35, lines 33–34.
35. Juvenal 6. 511–41. Translated by Roger Killian, Richard Lynch, Robert Rowland, and John Sims.
36. The virgin of Isis: Vidman, op. cit., no. 62 = IG 7. 3426. Prop. 2. 33; cf. 4. 5. 34.
37. For a full description of the ceremonies, see Tran Tam Tinh, Le culte des divinités orientales à Herculaneum, pp. 29–49.
38. The freedman’s daughter is Usia Prima, daughter of Rabirius Postumus Hermodorus, in CIL 6. 2246; cf. Treggiari, Roman Freedmen, p. 205. The social and economic backgrounds of followers of Isis are analyzed by Michel Malaise, Les conditions de pénétration et de diffusion des cultes égyptiens en Italie, pp. 127, 136–37.
39. R. E. Witt, Isis in the Graeco-Roman World, pp. 70–72, 222.
40. Malaise, op. cit., pp. 94, 99.
41. Val. Max. 1. 3. 4.
42. Dio 47. 15. 4.
43. Hor. Epode 9. 13–14.
44. Tac. Ann. 2. 85; Suet. Tiberius 36; Josephus Jewish Antiquities 18. 65–80.
45. Witt, op. cit., pp. 223–54; A. Roullet. The Egyptian and Egyptianizing Monuments of Imperial Rome, pp. 23–35. The proximity of the temple of Isis of the Campus Martius no doubt contributed to the idolatry of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, whose church was built over a temple of Minerva beside the great Iseum.
46. Malaise, op. cit., p. 94.
1. Dio 54. 16. 2; eugeneis may mean “freeborn” rather than “upper-class.”