Notes
1The four institutions are Brigham Young University (BYU), in Provo, Utah, which grants bachelor's degrees and a limited range of master's and doctoral degrees; BYU-Hawaii, a four-year university; LDS Business College, a two-year school in Salt Lake City; and Ricks College.
2 Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006).
3 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company). http://www.mckinsey.com.
1 According to data published by the National Center for Higher Education Management Systems in 2009, the graduation rate is higher than 50 percent for bachelor's candidates (http://www.higheredinfo.org) but varies substantially according to the selectivity of the institution, as demonstrated by Frederick H. Hess et al., Which Colleges Actually Graduate Their Students (and Which Don't), American Enterprise Institute (June 2009). http://www.aei.org.
2 Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 29.
4 Rosovsky, University, 29.
6 A survey of more than 500,000 full-time faculty found that the majority feel that teaching should be the primary criteria for academic promotion. David W. Leslie, “Resolving the Dispute: Teaching Is Academe's Core Value,” Journal of Higher Education 73, no. 1, (January–February, 2002): 56–57; see also Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: The Priorities of the Professoriate (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990), 43–44.
7 See Leslie, “Resolving the Dispute.” Leslie concludes, “Given a reasonable level of security and compensation, faculty—on the average—would prefer to teach and be rewarded for teaching than to seek opportunities for pay if it means doing more research and publication.” 70.
8 See Digest of Education Statistics, 2008, Tables 186 and 234. http://nces.ed.gov.
9 Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma (New York: HarperCollins, 2003).
10 For a summary of the theory of disruptive innovation, see Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 45–51. For a fuller treatment, see Christensen, Innovator's Dilemma.
11 http://www.mindingthecampus.com.
12 Institutional variety in higher education is great. See, e.g., Burton Clark, The Academic Life: Small Worlds, Different Worlds (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Learning, 1987). However, among universities granting at least bachelor's degrees, the diversity of aspirations is less than the diversity of actual condition.
14 http://vpf-web.harvard.edu/annualfinancial, 4.
15 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company), 14, 15, 49, 51, 55. http://www.mckinsey.com.
16 The relatively high per year cost of the two-year associate's degree is a function of lower completion rates.
1 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 363. Thanks to Jon Lindford of BYU-Idaho for suggesting the applicability of Hesse's story to today's universities.
Chapter 1: The Educational Innovator's Dilemma
1 U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Education Publications Center, 2006), xii.
3 Department of Education, Test of Leadership, 8–16.
4 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990).
5 Ibid., 14–16, 38–39, 69, 377.
6 Derek Bok, Our Underachieving Colleges (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 6.
7 Ibid, 8.
8 Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), xii.
9 Ibid, 18.
10 Drew Faust, 2008 commencement speech. http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches; http://www.hmc.harvard.edu/pdf/2009_HMC_Endowment_Report.pdf; http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches.
11 “Higher Education and the Federal Government,” presentation by Dr. Terry Hartle to the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities, February 18, 2010 (unpublished).
12 http://www.washingtonpost.com; http://chronicle.com; Jennifer Gonzalez, “For-Profit Colleges, Growing Fast, Say They Are Key to Obama's Degree Goals,” Chronicle of Higher Education, November 8, 2009. http://chronicle.com.
13 http://www.apollogrp.edu/Annual-Reports, 6.
14 Ibid.; http://www.ucop.edu/acadaff/swap, 2.
15 http://www.southmetroed.org.
18 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company), 14, 15, 49, 51, 55. http://www.mckinsey.com. Six Sigma is an operations management certification program originally developed by Motorola.
19 The terms disruptive innovation and creative destruction were introduced into popular parlance by Clayton Christensen and Joseph Schumpeter, respectively. See Innovator's Dilemma and Joseph Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (New York: Harper & Row, 1950).
20 See, e.g., Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education (New York: St. Martin's, 1994), 194–195, 227–228, 233; Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and the Growth of the Contemporary System (San Francisco: Wiley, 2009), 107–108; Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Wiley, 1977), 225–226.
21 http://www.carnegiefoundation.org.
22 Ibid.
23 http://nces.ed.gov/FastFacts/; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2008 (NCES 2008–031), Table 20-1. http://nces.ed.gov.
25 Toni Mack, “Danger: Stealth Attack,” Forbes, January 1999. http://www.forbes.com.
26 In addition to regulatory pressures and increased competition from for-profit institutions, public universities also face the prospect of dramatic changes in the way states fund them. For example, proposals for higher education vouchers have been made. See Richard Vedder, Going Broke by Degree: Why College Costs Too Much (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2004), and James C. Garland, Saving Alma Mater: A Rescue Plan for America's Public Universities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009). Voluntary action is preferable to these various forms of external pressure.
27 There is great variation among types of higher education institutions. Technical colleges, community colleges, and liberal arts colleges, for example, differ fundamentally from one another and from universities. Also, many of the most elite universities and colleges explicitly try to differentiate themselves from Harvard. For example, the elite liberal arts college develop undergraduate-focused curriculum and can make valid claims to offering an undergraduate experience in some respects superior to that of Harvard College. Other schools offer unique work and travel-study experiences. The relative commonality of the elite institutions, though, can be seen in the similarity of the students they admit and the prices they charge.
28 Louis Menand refers to the reproduction function of the academic disciplines in The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 105. He writes, “The most important function of the system is not the production of knowledge. It is the reproduction of the system.”
29 CT, MRI, and PET stand for computerized axial tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography, respectively.
30 Harvard president Charles Eliot paid this tribute to Johns Hopkins University: “I want to testify that the Graduate School of Harvard University, started feebly in 1870 and 1871, did not thrive, until the example of Johns Hopkins forced our faculty to put their strength into the development of instruction for our graduates.” Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education (New York: St. Martin's, 1994), 179. Historian Frederick Rudolph similarly noted Harvard's debt to other institutions: “There on the banks of the Charles River in Cambridge [Harvard] shaped itself into a university, unlike Cornell, unlike Johns Hopkins, but owing much to both.” Rudolph, Curriculum, 155. The University of Chicago, founded in 1892, provided models for departmentalizing, dividing faculty into ranks, and rewarding scholarship over teaching. See Lucas, American Higher Education, 180, 185–186.
31 http://asunews.asu.edu; http://www.osu.edu.
32 David Von Drehle, “The Big Man on Campus,” Time, November 11, 2009. http://www.time.com.
34 7 United States Code, Section 304.
36 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 16.
38 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 13.
1 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 15.
1 Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 3–4.
2 The Charter of the President and Fellows of Harvard College under the Seal of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, May 31, 1650, in Samuel Eliot Morison, The Development of Harvard University Since the Inauguration of President Eliot (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930), xxv, cited in Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 25.
3 http://www.president.harvard.edu; Schlesinger, Veritas, 100.
4 Lewis, Excellence, 26.
5 Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 25.
6 Schlesinger, Veritas, 7.
7 Lewis, Excellence, 26–27.
8 Morisson, Three Centuries, 35.
9 Lewis, Excellence, 26–27
10 Ibid., 74–75.
11 Ibid, 27–28.
12 Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Wiley, 1977), 42.
13 Corporation Records, vol. 1, p. 246; UAI.5.30.2, Harvard University Archives, cited in Lewis, Excellence, 28.
14 Morison, Three Centuries, 78.
15 Schlesinger, Veritas, 36.
16 Lewis, Excellence, 28.
17 Rudolph, Curriculum, 44.
18 Morison, Three Centuries, 100, 161–162.
19 Ibid., 190–191.
20 Lewis, Excellence, 29.
21 Ralph Waldo Emerson, in The Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 10: Letters and Biographical Sketches (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1883), 312, cited in Lewis, Excellence, 30.
22 John Y. Simon, Harold Holzer, and William D. Pederson, eds., The Lincoln Forum: Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg, and the Civil War (New York: Da Capo, 1999), 41.
23 Letter from Charles Sumner to Joseph Story, September 24, 1839, quoted by David Herbert Donald, Charles Sumner (New York: Da Capo, 1996), part I, 14 (emphasis in original), cited by Lewis, Excellence, 29.
24 Andrew P. Peabody, Harvard Reminiscences (Boston: Ticknor., 1888), 202, cited in Lewis, Excellence, 29.
25 http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/; http://www.thecrimson.com.
26 Lewis, Excellence, 30.
27 An analogous dynamic has developed in general hospitals, as described in Chapter Three of Clayton Christensen's The Innovator's Dilemma (New York: HarperCollins, 2003). Note that we use the term cross-disciplinary distinctly from interdisciplinary. The former implies study and scholarship that transcends disciplinary boundaries. For example, a cross-disciplinary general education course on the human mind might draw unequally from many disciplines, such as molecular biology, anatomy, psychology, and ethics, without an explicit exploration of the different views and methods of those disciplines. A more interdisciplinary course, by contrast, would compare and contrast the approaches of two or more disciplines in their treatment of a common subject. Louis Menand offers an enlightening definition and critique of interdisciplinarity in The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 119–121. Menand is himself a cross-disciplinary scholar, an English professor who won a Pulitzer Prize for History.
28 Lewis, Excellence, 127.
29 In a report titled On the Clock: Rethinking the Way Schools Use Time, Elena Silva notes that the public school calendar has likewise evolved to address concerns other than agricultural necessity. She writes, “In large cities, long school calendars were not uncommon during the 19th century. In 1840, the school systems in Buffalo, Detroit, and Philadelphia were open between 251 and 260 days of the year. New York City schools were open nearly year round during that period, with only a three-week break in August. This break was gradually extended, mostly as a result of an emerging elite class of families who sought to escape the oppressive summer heat of the city and who advocated that children needed to ‘rest their minds’.” 2. http://www.educationsector.org.
30 Lewis, Excellence, 31.
31 Rudolph, Curriculum, 77–78.
32 Lewis, Excellence, 32; Rudolph, Curriculum, 184–186.
33 Rudolph, Curriculum, 62.
34 See, e.g., Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 218–219.
35 Drew Faust, 2008 commencement speech. http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches.
36 Morison, Three Centuries, 306.
37 Rudolph, Curriculum, 87.
38 Morison, Three Centuries, 35, 324.
Chapter 3: Charles Eliot, Father of American Higher Education
1 Keith Sheppard, “From Justus Von Liebig to Charles W. Eliot: The Establishment of Laboratory Work in U.S. Schools and Colleges,” Journal of Chemical Education 83, no. 4 (April 2006): 567.
2 Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 15–16.
3 Quoted in Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 108.
4 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 18.
5 Ibid, 26.
6 Ibid, 32.
7 Ibid, 31.
8 http://www.news.cornell.edu.
9 Charles W. Eliot, “The New Education,” Atlantic Monthly, February–March 1869, reprinted in Richard Hofstadter and Wilson Smith, A Documentary History of Higher Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 636–637.
10 Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 327–328.
11 http://president.harvard.edu.
12 Schlesinger, Veritas, 123.
13 Charles William Eliot, Inaugural Address, in Samuel Eliot Morison, Development of Harvard University, 1869–1929 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930), lix (emphasis added).
14 See Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 90–92.
15 See Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Wiley, 1977), 137.
16 Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 34.
17 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 93.
18 See Rudolph, Curriculum, 137.
19 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 99.
20 Ibid., 99–101.
21 Ibid., 92.
22 Rudolph, Curriculum, 135; Harvard had, by this time, followed the lead of pioneers such as Brown University in allowing students to choose some courses.
23 See Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 94.
24 There were still two subject matter requirements to satisfy, one in English and another in foreign language, but no one course was required of all students. See Derek Bok, Our Underachieving Colleges (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 15.
25 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 94.
26 Rudolph, Curriculum, 196
27 Eliot, “The New Education,” reprinted in Hofstadter and Smith, Documentary History of Higher Education and cited in http://opac.yale.edu/president/message. In addition to looking to European universities, Eliot also admired Yale's postgraduate program.
28 Until 1890, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences was called the Graduate Department.
29 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 276.
30 Ibid., 58–61.
31 Ibid., 204–205; Frederick Rudolph, The American College and University: A History (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1961), 291.
32 See Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 117–118, 272–273.
33 Lewis, Excellence, 35.
34 Ibid., 37.
35 Ibid., 39.
36 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 65, 67, 71–72. The 1940 tenure statement of the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) specifies that a tenured professor can be dismissed only for “adequate cause, except in the case of retirement for age, or under extraordinary circumstance because of financial exigencies.” http://www.aaup.org.
37 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 66–67.
38 Ibid., 67–68.
39 Ibid., 74.
40 Ibid., 77.
41 Ibid., 111. The story of this truant son's discovery by his irate father is humorous. The boy had carefully written a series of post-dated letters and left instructions with a friend to post them at appropriate intervals. The friend put them all in the mail simultaneously. When the father came to campus looking for his son, no university officer was aware of his absence. Class attendance checking became mandatory as a result. Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 368–369.
42 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 110.
43 Ibid., 106–107.
44 Morison, Three Centuries, 419.
45 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 113.
46 Morison, Three Centuries, 369.
47 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 109.
48 Report to the Overseers, 1883–1884, quoted in Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 134.
49 Lewis, Excellence, 232, 237.
50 http://pds.lib.harvard.edu.
51 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 225–226.
52 Ibid., 227.
53 Ibid., 229.
54 Ibid., 240.
55 Ibid, 92, 102.
56 Ibid., 237–238, 246, 248.
57 Ibid., 243.
58 The challenges of American secondary education are beyond the scope of this book. They are addressed in Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008). Also, the 2006 report of the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce, Tough Choices or Tough Times, makes bold recommendations, including the preparation of high school students to begin college at age sixteen, as they did during Harvard's first two centuries. The report also recommends a system by which high schools could remain comprehensive but also facilitate focused preparation for career training and university study. http://www.skillscommission.org/executive.htm.
59 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2008 (NCES 2008–031), Table 20-1. http://nces.ed.gov.
60 Christensen et al., Disrupting Class, 11.
61 Ibid., 53.
62 Ibid., 54.
63 Ibid., 55–56.
64 http://nces.ed.gov; William M. Chace, One Hundred Semesters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 14, 54.
65 http://www.media.utah.edu/.
66 http://www.westminstercollege.edu/
67 See Robert B. Barr and John Tagg, “From Teaching to Learning—A New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education,” Change, November–December 1995, 13–25.
68 http://www.westminstercollege.edu.
69 http://bx.businessweek.com.
70 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 177.
2 Doctrine and Covenants (Salt Lake City: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 1995), 170. (D&C88:79.
3 David Lester Crowder, The Spirit of Ricks: A History of Ricks College (Rexburg, ID: Ricks College, 1997), 2.
4 Ibid., 3.
5 Ibid., 3–4.
6 Many of religion courses offered by Ricks Academy and now by BYU-Idaho are analogous to Bible study classes, though they also include studies of other faiths and current social issues.
8 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 4–5.
9 Ibid., 7–8, 9–10, 14, 19, 20.
10 Ibid., 23–25, 39–40, 44.
11 Ibid., 25–26, 40, 44.
12 Ibid., 26.
13 Ibid., 39, 43.
14 Harvard did not adopt the Carnegie Unit, or credit hour, the generally accepted measure of educational attainment, notwithstanding its having been championed by Eliot as the standard for secondary schools. See Jessica M. Shedd, The History of the Student Credit Hour, New Directions for Higher Education, no. 122 (Summer 2003). http://virtual.parkland.edu. The credit hour is based on time spent per week in the classroom; for example, a three-credit course typically meets three times per week for one hour (really fifty minutes plus a ten-minute break). Generally, 120 credit hours are required to obtain a bachelor's degree.
15 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 36, 40, 41.
16 Ibid., 24, 28, 34, 37, 44.
17 Ibid., 35–36.
18 Ibid., 45.
Chapter 5: Revitalizing Harvard College
1 See Henry Aaron Yeomans, Lawrence Lowell: 1856–1943 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948), 6–12.
2 Ibid., 39–40.
3 Ibid., 44–46.
4 Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 151.
6 Nathan Marsh Pusey, Lawrence Lowell and His Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 8–9.
7 Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 274.
8 Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Wiley, 1977), 12.
9 Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 441.
10 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 277. One study found that “the average student each week spent twelve hours in class and thirteen hours at his desk.” Rudolph, Curriculum, 232.
11 Derek Bok, Our Underachieving Colleges (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 16.
12 Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 39; Rudolph, Curriculum, 233.
13 Rudolph, Curriculum, 227.
14 Harvard Alumni Bulletin XVII, no. 1 (September 30, 1914): 393.
15 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 14.
16 A Lawrence Lowell, Inaugural Address, October 6, 1909, in A. Lawrence Lowell, At War with Academic Traditions in America (New York: Greenwood, 1970). http://hul.harvard.edu.
17 In 1907, Harvard's governing board had demanded that Eliot reign in spending (Lewis, Excellence, 39). In 1909, Lowell's first year as president, the university ran a budget deficit. http://pds.lib.harvard.edu.
18 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 279.
19 Ibid., 92.
20 http://www.thecrimson.com/.
21 Hawkins, Between Harvard and America, 279–280.
22 Harvard Annual Report, 1908–1909, in Lowell, At War, 245.
23 http://www.thecrimson.com/.
24 http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher.
25 Morison, Three Centuries, 476–477.
26 Pusey, Lawrence Lowell, 33–34.
27 Ibid., 34
28 Lowell, Inaugural Address, in Lowell, At War, 39–40.
29 Lowell was intrigued by the challenge of striking such Aristotelian balances among contradictory or “conjugate” principles, many of which he explored in Conflicts of Principle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1932). He treated the tensions between “general” and “professional” education, and between “cultural” and “vocational” aims in pages 115–121.
30 See Lewis, Excellence, 48; Lowell, Inaugural Address, in Lowell, At War. http://hul.harvard.edu/huarc/lowell_inaug.html through n. xxi.
31 Lewis, 48–49.
32 Ibid., 48.
33 http://hul.harvard.edu/huarc/lowell_inaug.html through n. xxi.
34 Ibid.; also, Lewis, Excellence, 50.
35 Lewis, Excellence, 49–50.
36 http://hul.harvard.edu/ through xxi.
37 See Clayton M. Christensen, Jerome H. Grossman, and Jason Hwang, The Innovator's Prescription: A Disruptive Solution for Health Care (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 20–22.
38 Ibid., 22–23.
39 Pusey, Lawrence Lowell, 23, 29.
40 Lewis, Excellence, 50.
41 A. Lawrence Lowell, “Degrees, Prizes, and Honors,” Harvard Teachers Record (June 1934), in Lowell, At War, 232.
42 A. Lawrence Lowell, Harvard Annual Report, 1908–1909, in Lowell, At War, 238.
43 Morison, Three Centuries, 445.
44 Lewis, Excellence, 113–114.
45 Lowell, “Degrees, Prizes, and Honors,” Lowell, At War, 237.
46 Morison, Three Centuries, 449.
47 Lewis, Excellence, 107.
48 Ibid., 108.
49 Ibid., 132–138.
50 Morison, Three Centuries, 451.
51 Lowell, Harvard Annual Report, 1916–1917, in At War, 268.
52 Ibid., 270.
53 Ibid., 271.
1 A. B. Christensen is not a close relative of Clayton Christensen.
3 David Lester Crowder, The Spirit of Ricks: A History of Ricks College (Rexburg, ID: Ricks College, 1997), 59.
4 Ibid., 53–54, 56, 63, 70.
5 Ibid., 54, 62.
6 George S. Romney was an uncle of George W. Romney, the father of former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney.
8 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 64–65, 71–73, 98–99.
9 Ibid., 64, 78, 99.
10 See http://www.byui.edu.
13 http://www.students.haverford.edu.
14 http://www.haverford.edu/studentlife/.
15 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 76, 79, 81, 86.
16 Ibid., 93, 125.
18 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 104.
19 Ibid., 89, 101–103, 104–105, 109–110.
20 Ibid., 112.
21 Ibid., 115–116.
22 Ibid., 115, 118.
23 Ibid., 115, 119.
24 Ibid., 115–116, 120, 123, 126–127, 129–130.
25 Ibid., 118, 122–124.
26 Ibid., 133–134.
27 Ibid., 136, 140.
28 Ibid., 142–146.
29 Ibid., 154.
30 J. Reuben Clark Jr., The Charted Course of the Church in Education (repr. Intellectual Reserve, 1994), 7, 10.
31 Henry J. Eyring, Mormon Scientist: The Life and Faith of Henry Eyring (Salt Lake City: Deseret, 2009), 49–50, 51; the phrase “The way, the truth, the life” comes from John 14:16.
33 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 144, 148, 159.
Chapter 7: The Drive for Excellence
2 James B. Conant, My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), 3, 6.
3 Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 25 (November 1979), 209.
4 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 22.
5 Conant, My Several Lives, 90.
6 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 23.
7 Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 486.
8 Ibid., 480.
9 Ibid., 460.
10 Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 174.
11 Morison, Three Centuries, 460.
12 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 13–14.
13 Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 52.
14 Morison, Three Centuries, 461.
15 Ibid., 487.
16 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 68.
17 Ibid., 69–70.
18 In 1940, the American Association of University Professors established a seven-year limit. Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 131.
19 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 65–66.
20 Ibid., 70.
21 Ibid., 42, 45.
22 Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 32.
23 Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 216.
24 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 100–101.
25 Ibid., 46.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid., 34, 40.
28 Morison, Three Centuries, 488; in Conant's day, a “scholarship” was a grant of financial aid, not a reward for superior academic or athletic performance.
29 http://pds.lib.harvard.edu.
30 Conant, My Several Lives, 128.
31 http://news.harvard.edu/gazette.
32 See Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1999), 28–29 and Conant, My Several Lives, 419–420.
33 Conant, My Several Lives, 131, 134, 417–418.
34 Lemann, The Big Test, 33–34.
35 Ibid., 32, 86, 113.
37 http://www.admissions.college.harvard.edu.
40 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 154.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid., 34.
43 Morrision, Three Centuries, 459.
45 Ibid.
46 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 162.
47 Ibid., 163–164.
48 Ibid., 99.
49 Lewis, Excellence, 51.
50 Harvard University, General Education in a Free Society (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1945), 51, in Lewis, Excellence, 53.
51 Lewis, Excellence, 53.
52 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 44.
53 Ibid., 54.
54 Nathan Marsh Pusey, Lawrence Lowell and His Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), 29.
55 Harvard, General Education, 196; Final Report, 8. http://www.fas.harvard.edu.
56 Harvard, General Education, 217, in Lewis, Excellence, 54.
57 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 44.
58 See Lewis, Excellence, 56.
59 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 45; Lewis, 54.
60 Louis Menand, The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 43.
61 “Gentlemen and Gen Ed,” Harvard Crimson, February 24, 1971. http://www.thecrimson.com, in Lewis, Excellence, 54.
62 Harvard, General Education, xiii.
63 Ibid., 7.
64 Ibid., 11–13.
65 Ibid., 12–13.
66 Ibid., 22.
67 Ibid., 12–13, 28, 101.
68 Ibid., 107–109, 124, 126–132.
69 Ibid., 138–143, 159–160, 162–166, 168.
70 Ibid., 155.
71 See Cohen, Shaping of American Higher Education, 138.
72 http://www.gocrimson.com/sports.
73 http://www.varsityclub.harvard.edu.
74 Lewis, Excellence, 237.
75 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 41.
76 Ibid.
77 http://www.varsityclub.harvard.edu; Schlesinger, Veritas, 147.
78 Lewis, Excellence, 241.
79 1932–1933 Report of the President of Harvard, 16. http://pds.lib.hardvard.edu.
80 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 476.
81 Morison, Three Centuries, 415.
82 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 163.
83 See Cohen, Shaping of American Higher Education, 135–136.
85 Rosovsky, University, 21.
86 Ibid.
87 National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2004; Graduation Rates, 1998 & 2001 Cohorts; and Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2004, Table 5. http://nces.ed.gov.
88 Private institutions devote nearly twice as much effort to advising as their public counterparts. See Wesley R. Habley, The Status of Academic Advising: Findings From the ACT Sixth National Survey (Manhattan, KS: National Academic Advising Association, 2004).
Chapter 8: Four-Year Aspirations in Rexburg
1 David Lester Crowder, The Spirit of Ricks: A History of Ricks College (Rexburg, ID: Ricks College, 1997), 174–175, 178–179.
2 Though BYU-Idaho and its sister institutions welcome students who are not members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, those student pay twice the tuition rate. The rationale for this price differential is that more than half of BYU-Idaho's operating and capital costs are paid for by the tithes of the church; the pricing strategy is analogous to that of state institutions that set a higher tuition rate for nonresidents.
3 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 181–182, 184.
4 Ibid., 188, 192–194, 196–199.
5 Ibid., 200.
6 Ibid., 189.
7 Ibid., 201, 205–206.
8 James B. Conant, Shaping Educational Policy (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 15, quoted in John Aubrey Douglass, The California Idea and American Higher Education (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 265.
9 Conant, Shaping Educational Policy, 50–52, 55–56. The tendency toward imitation was noted at roughly the same time by Harvard sociologist David Riesman in Constraint and Variety in American Education (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1958). Riesman and his colleague Christopher Jencks described the development and explored the implications of the traditional university model in their 1968 book, The Academic Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2001).
10 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 213–214.
11 Ibid, 220.
12 Ibid., 217.
13 Douglass, California Ideal, 314–315.
14 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 221–222.
15 Ibid., 231–237, 258–259, 262–263.
16 Ibid., 261–262, 265, 267–273, 286.
17 Ibid., 274–275.
Chapter 9: Harvard's Growing Power and Profile
1 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 175.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., 178.
4 Ibid., 178–180.
5 Ibid., 180.
6 Ibid., 181.
7 Ibid., 182.
8 Tuition went from $400 to $800 under Conant and from $800 to $2,600 under Pusey. Samuel Eliot Morison, Three Centuries of Harvard, 1636–1936 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University, 2001), 460; http://www.thecrimson.com.
9 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 293–296.
10 Ibid., 193–198, 211–214.
11 Ibid., 210.
12 Ibid., 184, 297.
13 Ibid., 185
14 Ibid., 191.
15 Ibid., 151–152, 192–193. The power of departments over faculty appointments, curriculum, and scholarship had been growing since Eliot's time. See Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 135–136, and Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2001), 14–16.
16 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 274.
17 Carnegie Foundation, Flight from Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation, 1964).
18 Ibid., 230.
19 Oliver Fulton and Martin Trow, “Research Activity in American Higher Education,” Sociology of Education 47, no. 1 (Winter 1974), 55.
20 Ibid., 54.
21 Ibid., 239.
22 Hermann Hesse, Magister Ludi, trans. Mervyn Savill (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 1949), 326.
23 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 304.
24 Ibid., 290–291, 293, 297, 304.
25 Ibid., 290, 291, 301, 305.
26 Ibid., 295–297, 325; Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 110.
27 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 278, 324.
28 Ibid., 300.
29 Ibid., 313–314.
30 Ibid., 314; http://www.thecrimson.com.
31 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 316–317, 320–322.
1 Paul Harvey, quoted in David Lester Crowder, The Spirit of Ricks: A History of Ricks College (Rexburg, ID: Ricks College, 1997).
2 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 273, 290.
3 Ibid., 295, 301.
4 Ibid., 298, 301–302, 308.
5 Line upon Line: The Autobiography of Alan Clark (Self-published), 130.
7 Spencer E. Ante, Creative Capital: Georges Doriot and the Birth of Venture Capital (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2008), 47.
8 C. Roland Christensen is not related to Clayton Christensen.
9 See C. Roland Christensen, “Every Student Teaches and Every Teacher Learns: The Reciprocal Gift of Discussion Teaching,” in Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership, ed. C. Roland Christensen, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1991), 99–119.
10 Christensen, “Every Student Teaches,” 100.
11 http://www.news.harvard.edu.
12 Christensen, “Every Student Teaches,” 99, 109, 116, 117.
13 Eyring journal, 1973, p. 74.
14 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 311, 318.
15 Ibid., 329–330.
17 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 324–323.
19 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 361, 378, 382.
20 Ibid., 399–400; Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 9.
21 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 401.
22 Ibid., 401; Worrell, History of Ricks College, 3, 6.
23 Crowder, Spirit of Ricks, 401, Worrell, History of Ricks College, 10.
1 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 275–276.
Chapter 11: The Weight of the DNA
1 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 341–343.
2 Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 22; Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 325–326, 344–335; Andrew Schlesinger, Veritas: Harvard College and the American Experience (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2005), 243.
3 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 344, 362, 366.
4 Ibid., 384, 469–470; Rosovsky, University, 113–130.
5 Rosovsky, University, 126; Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006), 57; Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 346.
6 Lewis, Excellence, 58; Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 346, 470–471.
7 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 344–345, 349–350, 467.
8 http://www.president.harvard.edu.
9 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 346, 356.
10 Ibid., 346.
11 Ibid., 388–390, 419, 432, 434.
12 Ibid., 386.
13 Ibid., 362, 365; Annual Report of the President, 1988–1989, 36–37. http://pds.lib.harvard.edu.
14 Alan David Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today's Students (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987).
15 Annual Report of the President, 1988–1989, 3.
16 Ibid., 27–29; Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 397, 410.
17 See Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 390.
18 Annual Report of the President, 1989–1990, 14–17.
19 Ibid., 19, 30–31.
20 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 379–380.
21 Annual Report of the President, 1989–1990, 10–12.
22 Keller, Making Harvard Modern, 353.
23 Ibid., 437–438.
24 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 349–350.
25 Derek Bok, Higher Learning, 4th ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 35–36.
26 Nathan M. Pusey, “A Faith for These Times,” in The Age of the Scholar (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1963), 3–6.
27 Louis Menand notes of this period, “The stars were the people who talked about the failures and omissions in their own fields.” The Marketplace of Ideas Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 86.
28 William Chace has written persuasively of the challenge facing English departments. With regard to a 2009 curriculum proposal at Harvard he has said
29 http://www.thecrimson.com; http://www.provost.harvard.edu/institutional_research, 27. These are nominal dollars, not adjusted for the considerable inflation of that period.
30 Annual Report of the President, 1988–1989, 19, 34.
31 Ibid., 37.
1 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 372.
2 Final Report, 7. http://www.fas.harvard.edu.
3 Derek Bok, Our Underachieving Colleges: A Candid Look at How Much Students Learn and Why They Should Be Learning More (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), and Harry R. Lewis, Excellence Without a Soul: How a Great University Forgot Education (New York: Public Affairs, 2006).
4 Final Report., 11, 13.
5 http://www.seasholes.com; http://www.ucop.edu.
6 Drew Faust, 2008 commencement speech. http://www.president.harvard.edu.
7 Ibid.
9 Ibid.; http://www.president.harvard.edu.
10 http://www.yaledailynews.com; http://planning.fas.harvard.edu.
11 http://www.president.harvard.edu; http://www.boston.com.
12 http://www.president.harvard.edu.
13 Ibid.
14 Faust, 2008 commencement speech.
15 http://www.president.harvard.edu.
17 http://cdn.wds.harvard.edu.
Chapter 13: Vulnerable Institutions
1 William W. Chace, One Hundred Semesters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 49.
2 Morton Keller, Making Harvard Modern (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 178; http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu.
4 Clark Kerr, The Uses of the University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 78.
5 http://www.time.com; http://www.admissions.umich.edu; http://ro.umich.edu.
6 See Nicholas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of American Meritocracy (New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, 1999), 131–136.
7 Ibid., 133.
8 http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org.
9 http://www.businessweek.com bschools/content/dec2009, _4.
10 See Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education (New York: St. Martin's, 1994), 259–260, and Chace, One Hundred Semesters, 30.
11 http://classifications.carnegiefoundation.org.
12 See http://www.aftface.org/storage/face/documents, 10.
13 Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 36.
14 Gaye Tuchman describes the role of upwardly ambitious academic administrators at a state university in Wannabe U. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
15 See, e.g., Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 107–108; 149–151; Lucas, American Higher Education,177; Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Wiley, 1977), 226–227; Christopher Jencks and David Riesman, The Academic Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2001), 13–14, 24–25, 27, 514–515; Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: The Priorities of the Professoriate (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990), 53–55.
16 Lucas, American Higher Education, 195; for a description of the process and mechanisms in California, see Lemann, The Big Test, 130–131.
17 Alexander C. McCormick and Chun-Mei Zhao, “Rethinking and Reframing the Carnegie Classification,” Change 37, no. 5 (September–October 2005): 50–57.
18 See http://www.knightcommission.org.
19 See Cohen, Shaping of American Higher Education, 137.
20 “Will Higher Education Be the Next Bubble to Burst?,” Chronicle of Higher Education, May 2, 2009. http://chronicle.com. The cost of university activities are not the only reason for tuition increases; others may include decreasing state support and increasing financial aid provided by the university to needy students.
21 National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2004; Graduation Rates, 1998 and 2001 Cohorts; and Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2004, Tables 5 and 6. http://nces.ed.gov.
22 National Center for Education Statistics, 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey and 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy, cited in U.S. Department of Education, A Test of Leadership: Charting the Future of U.S. Higher Education (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Education Publications Center, 2006), 13.
24 http://oaa.osu.edu; http://oaa.osu.edu/irp/publisher_surveys, 6.
25 http://newamericanuniversity.asu.edu, 5; http://www.time.com.
26 http://www.mindingthecampus.com.
Chapter 14: Disruptive Competition
1 http://www.acenet.edu/e-newsletters/, 1–2.
2 Ibid., 3
3 Judith S. Eaton, Distance Learning: Academic and Political Challenges for Higher Education (Washington, DC: Council for Higher Accreditation, 2001), 12.
4 Edward Chancellor, Devil Take the Hindmost: A History of Financial Speculation (New York, Plume, 1999), 257; for greater detail on Milken's assessment of the bond markets in the early 1970s, see Connie Bruck, The Predator's Ball (New York: Penguin, 1989), 23–40.
5 For a summary of Milken's long-term impact on the financial markets, see http://www.economist.com. This article credits Milken and his colleagues with the “democratization of credit.”
9 Michael Leavitt, former governor of Utah and U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services. Interview with the authors, January 2, 2011.
10 http://www.wgu.edu/; http://www.wgu.edu.tuition_financial_aid
11 Though demonstrations of learning outcomes are akin to investment rates of return, they are not equivalent. Risk-weighted rates of return allow precise comparisons among investments of vastly different types. By contrast, the difficulty of quantifying many important outcomes of higher education, such as creativity and judgment, makes similar comparisons of degree providers impossible, even when cognitive learning outcomes are known.
12 http://www.geteducated.com.
13 Assuming a compensation package including medical and retirement benefits of $100,000, a tenured university professor teaching five courses per year receives $20,000 per course, absent external funding. An online adjunct professor is likely to receive roughly one-tenth that amount. That gap can be closed if the tenured professor teaches classes of average size greater than the thirty or more typical of the online offerings of for-profit educators.
14 BYU-Idaho pays $825 per credit hour.
15 http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/tech/evidence-based-practices/finalreport.pdf, xiv.
16 The overhead costs can be substantially less than two times the direct instructional costs for established universities offering online degrees.
17 http://www.trends-collegeboard.com.
18 Ibid.
19 http://www.sloan-c.org/publications; in Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008). Christensen et al. have estimated that by 2019 one-half of high school courses will be delivered online. 98.
20 http://www.devryinc.com/investor-relations/annual-report/index.jsp, 88, 98.
21 Most of the DeVry campuses that have been in existence long enough to report six-year graduation rates graduate or transfer to other institutions between one-quarter and one-third of their first-time bachelor's degree-seeking students, compared with a national average of more than 60 percent. See http://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator.
22 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company), 11. http://www.mckinsey.com.
23 http://www.insidehighered.com.
24 http://www.businessweek.com.
25 http://www.mindingthecampus.com.
1 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 444.
Chapter 15: A Unique University Design
1 Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 2, 32, 48.
2 Ibid., 8, 48–49.
3 Ibid., 3, 7, 14, 84, 225, 461.
4 Ibid., 63, 118–121, 216, 218, 226.
5 Ibid., 14, 46.
6 Ibid., 44–46, 107.
7 Ibid., 46–47, 108, 125.
8 Ibid., 112, 116, 131.
9 Ibid., 81–83, 134.
10 Ibid., 231–232.
11 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company), 43. http://www.mckinsey.com.
12 The exception to this finding was non–BYU students who attended classes at a Church Institute of Religion for four years while attending another university or college; they experienced outcomes similar to those of BYU students.
13 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 85.
14 Undergraduate mentored research is a growing phenomenon recognized by federal research funding agencies. See, e.g., http://www.nsf.gov.
15 Henry B. Eyring, A Steady, Upward Course, Brigham Young University-Idaho, September 18, 2001. http://www.byui.edu.
16 Ibid., 10.
17 Ibid., 9–10.
18 http://www.byui.edu. By June 2001, fifty majors were planned for rollout over the next five years. Worrell, History of Ricks College, 460.
19 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 45, 260, 283.
20 http://webdocs.registrar.fas.harvard.edu.
21 Task Force on Education, Preliminary Report (October 2006), 3. http://www.fas.harvard.edu.
1 See Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 629.
2 The concept of a heavyweight team is described in detail Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008), 204.
3 Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma (New York: HarperCollins, 2003).
4 See http://www.byui.edu.
5 See Worrell, History of Ricks College, 581–582.
6 http://www.byui.edu; Worrell, History of Ricks College, 119.
7 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 255.
8 http://www.knightcommissionmedia.org. A recent NCAA study showed athletic expenses growing three times faster than those of total university operations. http://www.ncaa.org.
10 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 385.
11 Idaho Falls Post Register, June 22, 2000, D1.
12 http://www.hofstrachronicle.com.
13 http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/.
14 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 265.
15 Ibid., 274.
16 Ibid., 284.
17 Ibid., 285.
18 BYU-Idaho internal data.
19 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 409, 582, 632.
20 http://www.byui.edu. The internship program was ably led by Guy Hollingsworth, an Army Reserve colonel and Ph.D. who would later spend a year creating educational programs for the Iraqi military.
21 See David Bednar's comments in Worrell, History of Ricks College, 462.
22 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 582–584, 607, 623, 633.
1 Harvard Business School Dean to Step Down, Move On, Harvard University Gazette, June 9, 2005, http://www.news.harvard.edu.
2 Neil Rudenstine, 1999 commencement speech. http://www.president.harvard.edu.
3 “Harvard Business School Dean to Step Down.”
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 633.
8 This calendar was the brainchild of Clark's academic vice president, Max Checketts, who brought unique insights to the task. Originally hired at Ricks College to start a dairy program in the 1980s, he had risen through the administrative ranks while working on a Ph.D. that included a doctoral minor in statistics. Checketts's gift for numerical analysis and his experience with dairy production timetables helped him see an innovative solution to the problem of serving more students while also providing an adequate summer vacation for the faculty.
9 The naming system was created by associate academic vice president Rhonda Seamons, who had played a leading role in the university's initial accreditation process.
10 See http://www.byui.edu.
11 http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED101652.pdf, 45 and 49); this study did not account for potential savings from spreading the fixed expense of the health care and retirement benefits of faculty and other university employees.
12 http://www.lao.ca.gov/sections/higher_ed/.
13 http://www.lao.ca.gov/analysis_2006/education/.
14 See http://www.byui.edu.
15 This assessment was offered by Ross Baron, a professor of religion, ethics, and logic.
16 The full list of Learning Model principles can be found at http://www.byui.edu.
18 C. Roland Christensen, “Premises and Practices of Discussion Teaching,” in Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership, ed. C. Roland Christensen, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1991), 16.
19 See Abby J. Hansen, “Establishing a Teaching/Learning Contract,” in Education for Judgment, 123–135.
20 Christensen, “Premises and Practices,” 31.
21 See Worrell, History of Ricks College, 203–204, 491–498.
22 See http://www.byui.edu.
23 Michael Bassis of Utah's Westminster College has articulated the possibilities created by the combination of new learning and information retrieval technologies:
24 See http://www.byui.edu.
25 Maryellen Weiner, Making Learner-Centered Teaching Work (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, forthcoming).
26 Derek Bok, 1971–1972 President's Report, 15–16, http://pds.lib.harvard.edu.
27 Worrell, History of Ricks College, 496.
28 See http://www.byui.edu/Foundations.
29 See Bok, 109–145, 146–171, 225–254.
30 Ibid., 123.
31 Rob Eaton, “A Case for Student Participation,” Perspective 6, no. 2 Autumn 2006: 25. http://www.byui.edu.
32 Ibid.
33 Bok, 49, emphasis in original.
34 This team member, Humanities and Philosophy Department Chair Vaughan Stephenson, became a highly rated instructor of the BYU-Idaho American Foundations course.
35 The leader of the Pakistan, or “Global Hotspot,” course team was former corporate attorney and then-religion professor Rob Eaton. His teammates included Theron Josephson (geographer), Alan Walburger (economist), and Brian Felt (Russian linguist).
36 Though BYU-Idaho negotiated transfer arrangements with the schools to which most of its students transfer—BYU and the Idaho and Utah public universities—the uniqueness of some Foundations courses made them nontransferrable except as part of an associate's degree, leading the university to caution students planning to transfer before the end of the sophomore year against taking those courses.
37 Therese Huston, Teaching What You Don't Know (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).
39 Release time means an exemption from normal teaching duties.
40 BYU-Idaho Faculty Association internal survey data, 2009.
2 See http://www.byui.edu; as in the case of admission to BYU-Idaho, the Grant Scholars program is open to all students, regardless of religious affiliation, so long as they commit to living by the universities code of conduct.
3 Statement of Alan Young, leader of online course development at BYU-Idaho.
4 See http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/.
5 The importance tailoring curriculum to differing learning styles is explored in Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008).
6 Christensen et al., Disrupting Class, 81.
7 Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1989).
8 Online Learning: Extending the BYU-Idaho Experience, 72. http://www.byui.edu.
9 See “Peer Instruction: From Harvard to the Two-Year College,” American Journal of Physics 76, no. 11 (November 2008): 1066–1069.
11 “Peer Instruction.”
13 Eric Mazur, Peer Instruction: A User's Manual (Redwood City, CA: Benjamin Cummings, 1996).
15 Online Learning, 71–72.
17 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p.: McKinsey & Company). http://www.mckinsey.com.
18 http://www.riosalado.edu; August et al., Winning by Degrees, 16–17.
19 David Peck, “Participants in an Academic Community,” Perspective 9, no. 2 (2009): 88–89. http://www.byui.edu.
20 Online Learning, 69–70.
21 Ibid, 69–70.
22 BYU-Idaho internal data; the reasons for a tighter distribution of quality outcomes in online courses are well articulated by Todd Gilman, “Combating Myths About Distance Education,” February 22, 2010 http://chronicle.com.
23 Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma (New York: HarperCollins, 2003).
24 The one-third value assumes a full-time faculty teaching load of thirteen three-credit courses per year, the BYU-Idaho standard. The low market rate for online instruction raises the questions of whether and how the wages of online and full-time face-to-face instructors will converge. Greater use of online instruction should cause online wages to rise, assuming a fixed pool of qualified instructors. However, that pool is truly global and thus very large; it is also likely to grow, via increasing education participation rates in less-developed countries. As a consequence, downward pressure on full-time faculty salaries seems likely, along with a decrease in the proportion of full-time opportunities, an already established trend. See http://www.aftface.org.
25 The authors thank Rob Eaton for this metaphor.
26 The typical college student in the United States takes at least one semester longer to graduate than the eight required. http://nces.ed.gov.
27 See http://webdocs.registrar.fas.harvard.edu.
28 National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2004; Graduation Rates, 1998 & 2001 Cohorts; and Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2004, Table 5. http://nces.ed.gov.
29 Louis Menand, The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 53.
30 Arthur M. Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education: Emergence and Growth of the Contemporary System (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), 108.
32 National Center for Education Statistics, Enrollment in Postsecondary Institutions, Fall 2004; Graduation Rates, 1998 & 2001 Cohorts; and Financial Statistics, Fiscal Year 2004, Table 6.
33 See Kim B. Clark and Carlyss Y. Baldwin, Design Rules, Vol I: The Power of Modularity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).
34 The slogan was coined by Associate Academic Vice President Bruce Kusch, a former Silicon Valley marketing executive.
36 Robert S. Kaplan and Davis P. Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard—Measures That Drive Performance,” Harvard Business Review 70, no. 1 (January–February 1992): 71–79.
37 Ibid.
38 BYU-Idaho's institutional report card can be accessed at http://www.byui.edu.
Chapter 19: Serving More Students
2 Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 489.
3 Kaoru Ishikawa's principles and practices of quality control are explored in his book What Is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1985).
4 For a detailed presentation of the BYU-Idaho fishbone, see Henry O. Eyring, “Unexploited Efficiencies in Higher Education,”Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 4, no. 7 (2011).
5 The task fell to Ric Page, a thirty-year veteran who knew every nook and cranny of the campus.
6 The work of enlisting and coordinating the efforts of these volunteers, as well as recruiting the students, fell to J. D. Griffith. His background in organizing summer youth camps (before the campus was filled with college students in summer by the year-round calendar) made him well suited to the task.
7 See chaps. 5 and 6 of Clayton M. Christensen, The Innovator's Dilemma (New York: HarperCollins, 2003).
8 For a description of the effect of organizational structure on innovation in education, see chap. 9, “Giving Schools the Right Structure to Innovate,” in Clayton Christensen, Michael Horn, and Curtis Johnson, Disrupting Class: How Disruptive Innovation Will Change the Way the World Learns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008).
10 Ibid.
11 These are full-time equivalent figures, assuming a fifteen-hour credit load in each of two semesters, including BYU-Idaho's spring semester.
12 These are constant 2010 dollars.
1 Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 444.
2 Ibid.
3 http://www.businessweek.com.
4 Theodore Levitt, “Marketing Myopia,” Harvard Business Review 38 (July–August 1960): 45–46.
5 Theodore Levitt, The Marketing Imagination (New York: Free Press, 1983), 48.
6 Jonathan Cole, The Great American University: Its Rise to Preeminence, Its Indispensable National Role, Why It Must Be Protected (New York: Public Affairs, 2010).
9 http://www.tco.utah.edu/vip.html.
10 http://www.deseretnews.com. Eleven of the 109 companies had failed, and eight were operating outside of Utah.
11 See http://infolab.stanford.edu.
12 Allen Peskin, Garfield (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1978), 34.
17 The trend toward hybridization, or blended learning, is well documented. See, e.g., I. Elaine Allen, Jeff Seaman, and Richard Garrett, Blending In: The Extent and Promise of Blended Education in the United States Sloan (Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium, 2007); Anthony G. Picciano and Charles D. Dziuban, Blended Learning: Research Perspectives (Needham, MA: Sloan Consortium, 2007).
18 A Lawrence Lowell, Inaugural Address, October 6, 1909, in A. Lawrence Lowell, At War with Academic Traditions in America (New York: Greenwood, 1970). http://hul.harvard.edu.
19 U.S. Census Bureau, A Half-Century of Learning: Historical Census Statistics on Educational Attainment in the United States, 1940 to 2000, Table 2. http://www.census.gov.
20 See http://nces.ed.gov.
21 The earning power of a college degree has held steady (see U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 2008 (NCES 2008–031), Table 20-1, http://nces.ed.gov), but as the cost has increased faster than inflation, the relative value has decreased.
22 See Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: The Priorities of the Professoriate (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990), xii, 33.
23 Micahel E. Porter, “What Is Strategy?,” Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6 (November–December 1996). http://www.ipocongress.ru.
24 http://www.universitybusiness.com.
25 http://president.babson.edu.
Chapter 21: Students and Subjects
1 Byron G. August, Adam Cota, Kartick Jayaram, and Martha C. A. Laboissiére, Winning by Degrees: The Strategy of Highly Productive Higher-Education Institutions (n.p., McKinsey & Company), 51. http://www.mckinsey.com.
2 http://www.completecollege.org.
3 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 51.
4 The future of digitally empowered constituents that awaits universities and all service providers is described by Jeff Jarvis in What Would Google Do? (New York: HarperCollins), 2009. Jarvis suggests that the insensitivity of the multiversity to undergraduate students described by Clark Kerr will not be tolerated indefinitely: “Anyone can use the internet to undercut you—to craigslist you. If you make your living telling people what they can't do because you control resources or relationships, if you work in a closed marketplace where information and choice are controlled and value is obscured, then your days are numbered.” 74.
5 http://www.achievingthedream.org.
6 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 10, 11, 43. The $56,289 amount is the institution's cost of delivering a degree, inclusive of costs incurred to educate the fraction of students who do not graduate.
7 See http://www.valenciacc.edu.
8 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 34–35.
9 Ibid., 49.
10 Ibid., 57.
11 See http://chronicle.com/article/Disappearing-Disciplines; also, http://chronicle.com/blog/Campus-Cuts.
12 http://www.businessweek.com.
13 One way to avoid these outcomes is grow student enrollments.
14 August et al., Winning by Degrees, 11, 36.
15 Derek Bok, Our Underachieving Colleges, 38.
16 Ibid.
17 Stanley Fish, Save the World on Your Own Time (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), makes this argument pointedly.
18 Ibid., 65.
19 C. Roland Christensen, “Premises and Practices of Discussion Teaching,” in Education for Judgment: The Artistry of Discussion Leadership, ed. C. Roland Christensen, David A. Garvin, and Ann Sweet (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1991), 117, 118.
1 Addresses at the Inauguration of Charles William Eliot as President of Harvard College, Tuesday, October 19, 1869, in Samuel Eliot Morison, Development of Harvard University Since the Inauguration of President Eliot 1869–1929 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930), p. 29.
2 Ibid., 30.
3 See Ernest L. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered: The Priorities of the Professoriate (Princeton, NJ: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1990), 15; William W. Chace, One Hundred Semesters (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 134.
4 See Derek Bok, 340; also, Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, 37–40.
5 Annual Report of the President, 1988–1989, 14. The most demanding research universities measure not just the number of publications but also the frequency of citation by other scholars; they also seek evaluation of tenure and promotion candidates by domain experts.
6 Ibid., 14–15.
7 Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 25 (November 1979): 211.
8 Ibid., 229–231.
9 Governments and Parties in Continental Europe 1, vii.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid., vi–vii.
12 For a compelling account of a Stanford English professor's experience with similar research constraints, see Chace, One Hundred Semesters, chap. 16, “Tenure and Its Discontents,” and chap. 16, “The English Department in Disarray.”
13 For two descriptions of this dynamic, see http://www.nytimes.com and http://www.lewrockwell.com.
14 See Chace, One Hundred Semesters, 57; also, Henry Rosovsky, The University: An Owner's Manual (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 138–147.
16 http://journals.aomonline.org.
17 Clark Gilbert and his HBS colleague Joseph L. Bower have written about the general tendency of operating procedures to drive organizational behavior and strategy in their book From Resource Allocation to Strategy (New York: Oxford University Press), 2005.
18 Annual Report of the President, 1988–1989, 15.
19 The scholarship of application has also been termed the scholarship of engagement, in recognition of a potential two-way flow—scholars engaged in sharing theories with practitioners can learn in the process. See R. Eugene Rice and Mary Deane Sorcinelli, “Can the Tenure Process Be Improved?” in Richard P. Chait, ed., The Questions of Tenure (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 110–113.
20 Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, 16–25.
21 http://www.mindingthecampus.com/.
22 Ibid., 27.
23 Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, 28, 35.
24 For examples of customization in addition to those that follow in the text, see Rice and Sorcinelli, “Can the Tenure Process Be Improved?,” 107–116.
25 For a more detailed description of the scholarship of both Michael Porter and Clayton Christensen, see http://www.innosight.com.
26 http://www.library.hbs.edu.
27 http://www.carnegiefoundation.org.
28 Ibid.
29 http://www.nytimes.com. The fourfold definition of scholarship proposed in Scholarship Reconsidered has had less impact on rank and tenure criteria than Ernest Boyer might have hoped. Emphasis on teaching has increased at some institutions, but discovery research generally remains predominant. See Boyer, Faculty Priorities Reconsidered, cited in http://www.insidehighered.com.
30 Louis Menand, The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 121.
31 Boyer and his colleagues proposed “creativity contracts” reflecting different mixes of scholarship types at different points of a faculty member's career. Boyer, Scholarship Reconsidered, 48
32 See, e.g., Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America's Best-Run Companies (New York: Harper Paperbacks, 2004), 244, 249, 252, 261; Jeffery Pfeffer, Competitive Advantage Through People: Unleashing the Power of the Work Force (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 31–33; Peter Drucker, Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices (New York: Harper Paperbacks, 1993), 246–265, 285–288.
33 The analogy is not exact: though partners in law and business consulting firms often specialize, they do so to a lesser degree than university professors, making them more easily deployable to new types of work as the need arises.
34 Jim Collins, Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap … and Others Don't (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), 114.
35 See Rosovsky, University, 179.
36 See, e.g., Chait, Questions of Tenure, 101–106.
37 Robert Worrell, History of Ricks College and Brigham Young University-Idaho: The Bednar Years (1997–2004) (unpublished manuscript), 232 (emphasis added).
38 This view is supported by the finding that, in 1989, 70 percent of professors reported feeling loyal to their discipline, but only 40 percent had similar feelings for their institution. Boyer, Faculty Priorities Reconsidered, 56, cited in Menand, Marketplace of Ideas, 122. That same study showed that tenure does not correlate with a decline in faculty productivity. See Richard P. Chait, “The Future of Academic Tenure,” AGB Priorities, no. 3 (Spring 1995): 8.
39 As in the case of students, BYU-Idaho employees must commit to abiding by the University's code of honor, regardless of their religious affiliation.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.; Cathy R. Trower, “What Is Current Policy?,” 57, in Chait, Questions of Tenure.
43 Trower, “What Is Current Policy?,” 53–54, 63.
44 See Benjamin, “Implications of Tenure.”
45 In this respect tenure makes university professors more powerful than employees of the typical corporation, though not necessarily more so than partners in a professional corporation or members of an organized union.
46 Chait, Questions of Tenure, 312.
47 Hugh Hawkins, Between Harvard and America: The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 77.
4 See http://www2.ed.gov
* Note: An asterisk in the list denotes the need to track a measure by major and/or department
Chapter 24: Change and the Indispensable University
1 Henry Aaron Yeomans, Lawrence Lowell: 1856–1943 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948), 183.
2 http://www.news.harvard.edu.
3 Louis Menand deftly describes the scholar's urge to be relevant: “Mainly, we want to feel we are in a real fight, a fight not with each other and our schools, which is the fight that outsiders seem to be encouraging us to have, but with the forces that make and remake the world most human beings live in…. It is important for research and teaching to be relevant, for the university to engage with the public culture and to design its investigative paradigms with actual social and cultural life in view.” The Marketplace of Ideas: Reform and Resistance in the American University (New York: W.W. Norton, 2010), 124–125, 158.
4 Addresses at the Inauguration of Charles William Eliot as President of Harvard College, Tuesday, October 19, 1869, in Samuel Eliot Morison, Development of Harvard University Since the Inauguration of President Eliot 1869–1929 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1930), 31, 33.
5 Ibid. 30.
6 “What Is Strategy?,” Harvard Business Review (November–December 1996).
7 Yeomans, Lawrence Lowell, 46.