(2) ‘consecutive’ or ‘consequential’ καί (↑259i; 259e): “(and) so”, “(and) then”, “(so) that”, a logic or temporal consequence (also ‘apodotic’ καί, i. e. introducing a then-clause; ↑280a); at times it adds something that is meant as temporally simultaneous “and at the same time”: Jn 7:4), e. g.: τοῦτο δὲ ἐγένετο ἐπὶ τρίς, καὶ ἀνεσπάσθη πάλιν This happened three times, and then everything ἅπαντα εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν was drawn up again into heaven. (Ac 11:10)
(3) ‘final’ or ‘purpose indicating’ καί (↑259j): “in order that”, e. g.:
| πάλιν ἔρχομαι καὶ παραλήμψομαι ὑμᾶς πρὸς ἐμαυτόν. | I will come again and (= in order that) I will take you to myself. (Jn 14:3) |
(4) ‘temporal’ καί, i.e. a καί introducing a temporal clause (↑217e; 259e): “when”, e.g.:
| ἦν δὲ ὥρα τρίτη καὶ ἐσταύρωσαν αὐτόν. | It was the third hour/nine o’clock in the morning when they crucified him. (Mk 15:25) |
(5) ‘relative’ καί, i.e. a καί introducing a relative clause (↑289a), e. g.:
| ἦσαν γὰρ πολλοὶ καὶ ἠκολούθουν αὐτῷ. | For there were many who followed him. (Mk 2:15) |
(6) καί-clause corresponding to a ὅτι-clause or an infinitive phrase (↑271b; 275), e. g.:
| ἤκουσεν ὁ βασιλεύς … καὶ ἔλεγον … | The king heard … that people were saying … (Mk 6:14) |
(7)‘epexegetical’/‘explanatory’ καί (in part also CG): “that is (to say)”, “namely” or “:” (↑341a), e.g.:
| ὁ δὲ θεὸς δίδωσιν αὐτῷ σῶμα καθὼς ἠθέλησεν, καὶ ἑκάστῳ τῶν σπερμάτων ἴδιον σῶμα | But God gives it a body as he planned, and (= that is) to each kind of seed its own body. (1Cor 15:38) |
(8) seemingly ‘pleonastic’ καί (↑294x), CG/KG/NT, after πολύς much before an adjective phrase, or after a relative pronoun (or after an article with a comparable function), not translatable, e. g.:
| Πολλά … καὶ ἄλλα σημεῖα … | … many other signs … (Jn 20:30) |
| Ἰούδαν Ἰσκαριὼθ, ὃς καὶ παρέδωκεν αὐτόν | Judas Iscariot who betrayed him. (Mk 3:19) |
(9) καί signifying “as/like” with expressions indicating equality or similarity (no NT instances), e. g.:
| οὐχ ὁμοίως πεποιήκασι καὶ Ὅμηρος. | They haven’t composed their work the same way as Homer. (Plato, Ion 531d) |
↑also 217e.
b) As a two-word/correlative conjunction καί – καί both – and, not only – but also; at times indicating contrast: although – yet, ↑(1) above; occasionally on the one hand – on the other [hand] (1Cor 1:22).
2. adverb/focus particle (↑241b p.411) also/as well (something additional being highlighted), even (something unexpected or extreme being highlighted), e. g.:
| στρέψον αὐτῷ καὶ τὴν ἄλλην. | turn the other one to him as well. (Mt 5:39) |
| ὑμῶν δὲ καὶ αἱ τρίχες τῆς κεφαλῆς πᾶσαι ἠριθμημέναι εἰσίν. | Even all the hairs on your head are numbered. (Mt 10:30) |
↑also καί used as a particle indicating the concessive nuance of the adverbial participle (↑231g) or introducing a concessive clause (↑286).
Note that as an adverb/focus particle καί occasionally occurs after an interrogative with a use that corresponds to English at all or still, e.g.:
| ἱνατί καὶ τὴν γῆν καταργεῖ; | Why should it still use up the ground? (Lk 13:7) |
3. Less common uses of καί:
a) ‘alternative’ καί signifying or, e.g.:
| ἐπὶ στόματος δύο μαρτύρων καὶ τριῶν … | by the evidence of two or three witnesses … (2Cor 13:1 ≈ Dt 19:15 LXX; Hebr.  ’ô) |
b) in a hendiadys (“one single [concept] referred to by two [coordinated] expressions”; ↑294v), e. g.:
| περὶ ἐλπίδος καὶ ἀναστάσεως νεκρῶν | concerning the hope of the resurrection of the dead (Ac 23:6) |
252.30
καίπερ indicating concessive nuance of adverbial participle (↑231g) though.
252.31
καίτοι (also καίτοιγε) adversative-concessive and yet, (also with adverbial participle; ↑231g:) though.
252.32
κἄν = καὶ ἐάν (↑252.18).
252.33
μά (related to μέν and μήν) exclamatory particle “indeed!” + accusative of the invoked deity or some other entity appealed to by (↑also 252.41).
In the NT this accusative is used (without μά) in Mk 5:7, Ac 19:13 and 2Tm 4:1; sometimes certain prepositions may have the same function: εἰς (↑184g; Mt 5:35), ἐν (↑184i; Mt 5:34ff; 23:16ff; Re 10:6) or (in CG as well) κατά + gen. (Mt 26:63; He 6:13.16; ↑184k), in CG also πρός + gen. (↑184p).
252.34
°μέν (shortened form of μήν):
←432 | 433→1. combined with other particles to form a two-word/correlative conjunction:
a) μέν – δέ (characteristic of CG usage, much less frequently used in the NT) (indeed) – but, on the one hand – on the other, e.g.:
| τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα πρόθυμον, ἡ δὲ σὰρξ ἀσθενής. | The spirit is willing, but flesh is weak. (Mt 26:41) |
↑also 131/142h:
ὁ μέν – ὁ δέ / ὃς μέν – ὃς δέ one – the other / (this) one – (that) one;
b) less frequently μέν – ἀλλά/πλήν (indeed) – but (e.g. Ac 4:16f; Ro 14:20; Lk 22:22);
2. ‘solitary’ μέν, i. e. μέν is used without the customary δέ (an anacoluthon construction [↑292e]; not uncommon in the NT, in part against CG usage):
a) In cases where there is a contrast, but it is either not expressed at all (i.e. only inferable from the context) or it is expressed in a way that does not grammatically tie in with the μέν phrase (so that a δέ appears to be dispensable; a phenomenon that occurs in CG, too), e. g.:
| ἅτινά ἐστιν λόγον μὲν ἔχοντα σοφίας … _ | These have indeed an appearance of wisdom … (sc.: but in fact are foolish) (Col 2:23) |
| Πρῶτον μέν … _ | First … (series is discontinued) (Ro 1:8) |
| πρῶτον μέν …, ἔπειτα (replacing δέ) … | First … then … (Jas 3:17) |
b) in the NT (disregarding good CG usage): there is no correlative δέ, or it is replaced by an expression with καί, e. g.:
| ὃ μέν … καὶ ἕτερον (un-CG without δέ) … | Some (seed) … other seed … (Lk 8:5f) |
3. μὲν οὖν indicating continuation:
a) so, then (especially in Ac), e.g.:
| Οἱ μὲν οὖν ἐπορεύοντο χαίροντες ἀπὸ προσώπου τοῦ συνεδρίου … | So they left the presence of the council, rejoicing … (Ac 5:41) |
b) μὲν οὖν (CG), μενοῦν(γε) (NT clause-initial) enhancing or correcting a previous assertion certainly, clearly; in fact, actually, rather, e.g.:
| μενοῦν μακάριοι οἱ ἀκούοντες τὸν λόγον τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ φυλάσσοντες. | Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and obey it. (Lk 11:28) |
| 4. CG also = μήν: | |
| καὶ μὲν δή indeed | οὐ μὲν δέ certainly not |
| ἀλλὰ μὲν δή but certainly in fact | πάνυ μὲν οὖν certainly, undoubtedly (in responses) |
252.35
μενοῦν(γε) ↑252.34c.
252.36
°μέντoι (μέν [= μήν] intensified by τοι) emphatically affirmative certainly; mostly adversative but, however, e.g.:
| οὐδεὶς μέντοι εἶπεν … | But no one would speak … (Jn 4:27) |
252.37 osition + gen. until (of time or space or extent).
μέχρι(ς) temporal conjunction (also + οὗ) until (CG also as long as; ↑276a); prep-
252.38
μή (for details ↑244; 246–249)
1. in Ancient Greek basically “prohibitive” not (KG/NT negating non-indicative moods, mostly also infinitive and participle phrases);
←433 | 434→2. μή (or μήτι) before direct questions (↑269b) untranslatable (expected answer: “No!”);
3. μή = ἵνα μή in order that … not (↑278) or that … not (↑272a; 272c).
On μηδέ ↑252.48, on μήτε – μήτε ↑252.52.
252.39
°μήν (↑μέν, μά, and μέντοι) is used
1. confirming an assertion surely, certainly, also (CG) ἦ μήν (KG εἶ μήν, ↑252.25) surely (He 6:14; also LXX);
2. with adversative force but, and yet (↑252.1 οὐ μὴν ἀλλά);
3. in questions now, then.
252.40
ναί conversational particle yes (↑241b p.411; 269c).
252.41
νή (related to ναί) confirming an assertion yes, indeed, by (+ acc., ↑252.33), e.g. (only NT instance):
| νὴ τὴν ὑμετέραν καύχησιν … | by my pride in you … (1Cor 15:31) |
252.42
νῦν (also νυνί [in poetry also enclitic; ↑6d]), now, sometimes as things now stand (also nominalized, e.g. τὸ νῦν this time/the present time [↑131 p.187], τὰ νῦν with respect to the present situation ≈ now [accusative of respect; ↑156 p.233]).
252.43
ὅθεν (↑61c) from where (↑273b; 289a); for which reason, therefore (↑259c/259d).
252.44
ὅμως however, nevertheless (only 3× in the NT; ≠ ὁμῶς: in the same way!).
252.45
ὅπως basically comparative relative adverb, however, mainly used as:
1. conjunction + subjunctive (↑210i; at times + ἄν, CG mostly + oblique opt., when the superordinate clause refers to the past; ↑211f/211g):
a) subordinating a purpose clause in order that (↑278);
b) KG/NT subordinating dependent desiderative clauses (replacing inf./ACI phrase; ↑218b; 272) that;
c) CG dependent on expressions that denote to take care or the like (+ ind. fut. [↑202j; 272d]) that;
d) CG + any mood subordinating a manner clause (↑287a) in the way that;
2. adverb (basic use) how, in what way (↑61c; in the NT only Lk 24:20!).
252.46
ὅτι (going back to the neuter of ὅστις; ↑60b):
1. subordinating a declarative clause (↑271) that;
2. introducing direct speech (ὅτι “recitative” [↑274]) rendered as “ , ‘…’ ”;
3. subordinating a causal clause(↑277) because, since (sometimes for);
4. occasionally (e.g. Mk 9:11) = (διὰ) τί (↑143c) or < τί (ἐστιν) ὅτι why …? (↑Z §222);
5. CG also (like ὡς) + superlative as … as possible (↑252.61).
On a possible consequential force of ὅτι (so) that (= with the result that) in questions ↑279a.
252.47
οὐ (proclitic; ↑6a; intensified οὐχί; for details ↑244/245; 247–249):
1. negative not (KG/NT generally negating indicative clauses);
2. οὐ before direct questions (↑269b) (do/does …) not? (expected answer: “yes!”);
3. οὔ/οὐχί conversational particle no (↑241b p.411; 269c).
←434 | 435→252.48
οὐδέ (analogously μηδέ; ↑243):
1. preceded by another negative and not, nor, neither;
2. intensifying not even.
252.49
οὐκοῦν (the stress is on οὖν):
1. CG in questions (well) then …? … isn’t it? (like Lat. nonne igitur);
2. inferential (in declarative clauses mainly post-CG; ↑BR §253.39) therefore, so, e.g. (NT/LXX 1×):
| οὐκοῦν βασιλεὺς εἶ σύ; | So you are a king? (Jn 18:37) |
252.50
οὔκουν (the stress is on οὐ), used in CG:
1. giving emphasis certainly not, in no way;
2. in questions isn’t it that …? surely not …? (↑269b).
252.51
°οὖν inferential/consequential and temporal (as well as affirming) particle:
1. inferential/consequential so, therefore, e.g.:
| μὴ οὖν φοβεῖσθε. | So/Therefore don’t be afraid. (Mt 10:31) |
2. temporal: indicating continuation:
a) to resume narrative after a parenthesis well then, then, so, e. g.:
| Ἔλεγεν οὖν τοῖς ἐκπορευομένοις ὄχλοις. | So he said to the crowds that came out … (Lk 3:7; resumption after parenthesis of verse 4–6) |
b) to mark a transition to something new (especially in the Gospel of John) then (sts. ≈ and), e.g.: εἶπαν οὖν αὐτῷ· τίς εἶ; … Then they said to him, “Who are you? …” (Jn 1:22)
c) combined with other particles such as ἄρα οὖν (↑252.4), οὐκοῦν/οὔκουν (↑252.49/252.50), and μενοῦν (↑252.34).
3. CG, possibly at times in the NT, too, μὲν οὖν affirmative surely, inter alia to correct a previous assertion: in fact, actually (↑Montanari μέν 3B), e. g.:
| Πολλὰ μὲν οὖν καὶ ἄλλα σημεῖα ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς … | In fact, Jesus made also many other signs … (Jn 20:30; ↑Zerwick-Grosvenor ad loc.) |
252.52
οὔτε – οὔτε (μήτε – μήτε, ↑243) neither – nor.
252.53
°περ (enclitic [↑6d]; related to περί [↑218b]; originally something like “in excess”) outside poetry only as an intensifier appended to relatives and particles, e. g.:
| ὥσπερ just as (↑61c; 287) | εἴπερ if indeed, if it is true (↑252.19) |
| καίπερ though (↑252.30) |
252.54
πλήν adversative conjunction but; rather (+ ὅτι except that) until (CG also as long
as; ↑276a); preposition + gen. except, excluding.
252.55
° ποτέ (enclitic; ↑6d):
1. indefinite temporal adverb at some time, ever (↑61c);
2. CG intensifying particle (expressing impassioned urgency) occur with an interrogative, e. g.:
| τίς ποτε …; | Who in the world? (↑LSJ s.v. III3) |
252.56
°πω (enclitic; ↑6d) yet usually after a negative (NT/LXX always appended to it; ↑243), but also e.g. πώποτε ever, after a negative never.
←435 | 436→252.57
°τε (postpositive enclitic; ↑6d; 128b) copulative conjunction and (less strong than καί; ↑Lat. -que/et):
1. usually joining clauses/sentences (↑269b; 251a), less frequently phrases, e.g.:
| ἑτέροις τε λόγοις πλείοσιν διεμαρτύρατο … | And with many other words he bore witness … (Ac 2:40) |
2. τε – τε (clauses/sentences or sentence constituents) (both) – and, e.g.: ἐάν τε γὰρ ζῶμεν … ἐάν τε ἀποθνῄσκομεν … For if we live … and if die … (Ro 14:8)
3. τε – καί or τε καί (both) – and, often simply and, mostly joining phrases, e.g.:
| … ὅ τε στρατηγὸς τοῦ ἱεροῦ καὶ οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς … | … the commander of the temple guard and the chief priests … (Ac 5:24) |
Note that τε being a postpositive it is usually placed after the first word of a phrase (after the article in the above example). When this is a one-word phrase the τε immediately precedes the corresponding καί , e.g.:
| … ποιεῖν τε καὶ διδάσκειν | … to do and to teach (Ac 1:1) |
252.58
°τοι (enclitic; ↑6d)77 affirmative certainly, exactly, believe me, very frequently (in the NT only) appended to other particles, e.g. καίτοι (↑252.31), μέντοι (↑252.36).
252.59
τοιγάρ inferential well then, (just) so, strengthened τοιγαροῦν (2× in the NT) (exactly) so, then, therefore.
252.60
τοίνυν inferential consequently, hence, so therefore (3 or 4× in the NT).
252.61
ὡς (proclitic; ↑6a) basically a relative and indirect interrogative adverb of manner and comparison meaning “how/as/like” (↑61c), which the various uses go back to:
1. + noun, adjective, adverb, or numeral phrases (also ↑260i; in part ὡσεί for ὡς):
a) + noun phrases:
(1) comparative as/like, e.g.:
| μία ἡμέρα παρὰ κυρίῳ ὡς χίλια ἔτη … | One day is like a thousand years … (2Pe 3:8) |
influenced by Semitic usage something like (↑Hebr. כְּ kə HALOT s.v. 6), e.g.:
| ἐνώπιον τοῦ θρόνου ὡς θάλασσα ὑαλίνη. | In front of the throne there was something like a sea of glass. (Re 4:6) |
(2) indicating a property:
• a real one as, e.g.:
| τί ἔτι κἀγὼ ὡς ἁμαρτωλὸς κρίνομαι; | Why am I still being judged as a sinner? (Ro 3:7) |
• an objectively false or erroneous one as though, e.g.:
| ἐπιστολὴ ὡς δι᾿ ἡμῶν | a letter as though from us (2Th 2:2) |
b) + adjective or adverb phrases (in the NT mostly replaced by πῶς, against CG usage) how (in exclamations; ↑266a), e.g.:
| ὡς ὡραῖοι οἱ πόδες τῶν εὐαγγελιζομένων τὰ ἀγαθά. | How beautiful the feet of those who bring good news. (Ro 10:15; ↑Is 52:7) |
c) + superlative (↑138b; also 252.46) as … as possible, e.g. (only NT instance):
| ὡς τάχιστα | as soon as possible (Ac 17:15) |
d) + numeral phrases (↑145d) about/approximately, e.g.:
| ὡς τάχιστα | about two thousand (Mk 5:13) |
e) in CG used as a preposition + acc. (↑184t) to (↑Lat. ad; only relating to persons in combination with verbs of motion), e.g.:
| ὡς βασιλέα | to the King (Xenophon, Anabasis 2.6.1) | |
2. + constructions with verb forms:
a) + constructions with finite verb forms, as a subordinating conjunction of:
| (1) dependent declarative clauses | that (less distinctive than ὅτι; in the NT rarely used with this function; ↑271); |
| (2) dependent interrogative clauses | how (comparatively rare in the NT; ↑ 273b); |
| (3) temporal clauses | when, after, while (↑276); |
| (4) causal clauses | because/since (= ὅτι, rarely used in the NT; ↑277); |
| (5) purpose clauses | in order that (= ἵνα, occasionally in the NT; ↑278); |
| (6) result clauses | so that (= with the result that) (= ὥστε in CG at times, in the NT only occasionally, ↑279); |
| (7) manner clauses | as (strengthened ὥσπερ, CG ὥσπερ ἄν εἰ conditional comparison + opt. as if; ↑287). |
| b) + infinitive/ACI phrases indicating result | so that (= with the result that) (CG = ὥστε; ↑279; in the NT ↑Ac 20:24 [purpose/intended result]) |
| c) + participle phrases: | |
| (1) manner (imagined comparison) | as if/as though (↑231e); |
| (2) causal (subjective reason) | because (I/you etc. think that) (↑231f); |
| (3) indicating purpose (with p.c. fut. and in the NT pres.) | in order/expecting that (↑231i). |
252.62
ὥστε + inf./ACI phrase or + subordinate clause with finite verb:
1. indicating result so that (= with the result that); + finite verb (rarely attested in the NT): reference to an actual result; + inf./ACI: KG/NT reference to conceivable or actual results, but CG mostly reference to conceivable results (↑279);
2. KG/NT + inf./ACI occasionally indicating purpose in order to/in order that (↑278).
252.63
Interjections (↑241b p.411). These express reactive emotions or evaluations, some of them also directives. Like vocatives (↑148a), they are, grammatically speaking, outside the surrounding sentence structure (they are parenthetical; ↑254e/292d). They do, however, have a communicative function: as text constituents they convey propositions (↑311c). In the NT the following three (proper) interjections are used, typically with the function of an exclamation (↑266a; ↑BDR §107.2):
1. ὦ mostly + vocative (for details ↑148a), but also to express surprise, joy (thus in Ro 11:33) or pain oh (↑LSJ; also written ὤ).
←437 | 438→2. οὐαί expresses profound grief, especially in the face of impending disaster woe to …! ≈ How terrible it will be for …! (Mt 11:21 etc.), mostly + dat., but also + acc. or voc.
3. οὐά ah! expresses scornful amazement amounting to something like “Didn’t we know that nothing would come of it” (Mk 15:29).
Alongside these there are adverbs used as interjections:
4. δεῦρο/δεῦτε Come! (Mt 28:6 etc.; ↑210c; 212f).
5. εὖ Well done/Wonderful! (Mt 25:21.23).
6. καλῶς Well said/You are right! (Mk 12:32; Ro 11:20).
Similarly a number of fossilized imperatives (↑210c; 212f) such as:
7. ἄγε Come! (Jas 4:13; 5:1).
8. ἰδού (↑ἰδοῦ, imp. aor. mid. [↑105e] of ὁράω to see [↑113.8]), sometimes replaced by ἴδε (imp. aor. act. of ὁράω), occurring frequently in the NT/LXX, used along the following lines (being a particle its form always stays the same regardless of whether one or more persons are addressed), in principle in KG/NT the same as in CG (though some NT uses appear to be due to Semitic influence [as reflected in the LXX], thus the frequency of καὶ ἰδού; ↑Hebrew 
hinnēh HALOT s.v.; Baum: 20–26):
a) Traditionally behold!, see!, look!. “In communities accustomed to oral communication, ἰδού would serve to nuance a narrative reduced to writing, especially to focus on exceptional moments in the narrative.” (Danker s.v.). It is particularly common in Mt and Lk, where it often occurs after some adverbial construction (e.g. a genitive absolute; ↑230d). Depending on the context it may be rendered in a variety of ways (often it is not translatable at all). E.g.:
| Αὐτῶν δὲ ἐξερχομένων (gen.ab.) ἰδοὺ προσήνεγκαν αὐτῷ ἄνθρωπον … δαιμονιζόμενον. | As they were going away, (behold) a man who was demon-possessed … was brought to him. (Mt 9:32) |
b) In verbless clauses it may have the role of a predicate (↑256d; BDAG s.v. 2): here/there is (are), here/there was (were) or there comes (came) or the like (↑use not only of Hebr. 
hinnēh and Aram. 
hāʾ, but also of CG ἰδού as well as of Lat. ecce, and e. g. Italian ecco and Fr. voici), e. g.:
| κύριε, ἰδοὺ ἡ μνᾶ σου … | Sir, here is your mina … (Lk 19:20) |
3.3 Sentences and their constituents
Sentences and their constituents: preliminaries (↑BR §254)
In 129–252 we saw mainly what functions word-classes and phrases may have within sentences (↑126). In the next section (↑254–260) we will be moving in the opposite direction: starting from functions within sentences, i. e. from the various types of sentence constituents and attributive modifiers (↑127), we will show how these may be expressed by word-classes, phrases, and clauses.
This will be followed (↑261–265) by a section on the rules of grammatical concord (or agreement) of sentence constituents or of attributive modifiers and their heads.
After that there will be a section dealing with the various types of clauses or sentences (↑266–290), while a final section (↑291–296) will be about important peculiarities of sentence structure (“syntactic stylistics”) and related questions.
3.3.1 Sentence constituents
Sentence constituents: terminological approach
254a
I. On many details of how to classify and define the essential elements of well-formed sentences or clauses and of how to view their functional role there is no agreement among linguists. Most points of disagreement, however, are of merely theoretical concern. The approach adopted here basically follows the one used in the standard German grammar, the Duden-Grammatik, primarily the third edition (DuG3), supplemented with insights found in subsequent editions, especially the ninth one (DuG9). For the English version of the present grammar leading English grammars of a fairly recent date were regularly consulted, particularly those by Aarts, Carter, and Huddleston-Pullum (also the Crystal Dictionary). These works have greatly helped to make sure that the approach adopted in the present grammar is not only reasonably up-to-date as far as the results of general linguistic research are concerned, but also sufficiently accessible to prospective users (typically accustomed to a more traditional approach). At the same time, it was kept in mind that the syntax of Ancient Greek, in spite of basic similarities with the syntax of other languages, has laws and rules of its own and must not be squeezed into the mould of distinctions applicable to German or English syntax.
In 127b–127e there is a brief introduction to the most important syntactic functions that sentence elements may have (major sentence constituents and attributive modifiers). These and a number of further ones will now have to be defined more systematically and illustrated more copiously (↑254b–
254e). In particular it will be shown how they are expressed grammatically in Ancient Greek, primarily in the variety used in the NT (↑255–260).
254b
II. To begin with, sentence constituents may be divided into two groups:
1. Sentence constituents that are typically obligatory for sentences to be well-formed or “grammatical”: subject and predicate (↑254c–258);
2. Sentence constituents that are optional, i. e. not needed for sentences to be well-formed or “grammatical” (not required by the valency of the verb): adverbial adjuncts and subject or object adjuncts (↑259).
Note that an attributive modifier is not a sentence constituent itself, but generally part of one (mostly of a noun phrase), modifying it in some way (↑260).
←439 | 440→Example:
| νηστεύω (S/P) δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου (ManA). | I fast twice a week. (Lk 18:12) |
νηστεύω I fast (subject and predicator) is obligatory for the sentence to be well-formed or “grammatical”. Without it there would be a phrase (↑127b), but no sentence capable of conveying any information (↑127a):
| δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου | twice a week |
Conversely, δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου twice a week (adverbial adjunct) is optional. Without it there would still be a well-formed, “grammatical”, sentence:1
| νηστεύω | I fast (↑Mt 9:14) |
254c
III. As stated above (↑254b) the group of obligatory sentence constituents is made up of the subject (↑255) and the predicate (↑256).
The term “predicate”2 is meant to refer to
1. the predicator (predicate verb; ↑256), rarely occurring alone, but (due to the valency of the verb; ↑below) calling for
2. one or more “complement(s)”, i.e. typically obligatory (predicative) sentence constituents such as objects, subject/object or adverbial complements (↑254d; 257).3
Each verb (or each of its uses) is connected with a particular sentence pattern that largely determines the way a sentence/clause is to be structured, i. e. what further constituents, if any, are expected for it to be considered well-formed or “grammatical” (↑258d for an overview of typical sentence patterns).
In this context many linguists make use of the term “valency” borrowed from chemistry (“a measurement that shows the combining power of an element, especially as measured by the number of hydrogen atoms it can displace or combine with”; ↑COED s.v.). The sentence pattern of a verb is said to derive from the valency of the verb in question (or of one of its uses): it is the valency of the predicate verb that shows its “combining power”, indicating the number of sentence constituents that, if any, it (usually) combines with in a well-formed (“grammatical”) sentence/clause.
The concept of valency, a syntactic-semantic phenomenon, may be illustrated by the two examples 1 and 2 below (↑DuG9: 397ff; also ↑Huddleston-Pullum: 218–219):
Example 1: The “action”/“situation” referred to by the verb φεύγω to run away (in its typical use) necessarily involves someone who moves “quickly from a point or area in order to avoid presumed difficulty or danger” (↑LN 15.61). This verb may be said to have one semantic role to assign: the role of the agent (the entity performing or primarily causing the “action”), here represented by the subject οἱ βόσκοντες the herdsmen. The valency of this verb does not call for any further sentence constituents, its sentence pattern thus being simply S+P.
Example 2: ποιέω with a double accusative (↑153b) refers to an “action”/“situation” that may be defined as to cause sth./s.o. to be sth./s.o. This (in its typical use) necessarily involves not only an agent (“causer”), here represented by the subject (ἐγώ Ι [Jesus]), but also an entity or entities caused (to be sth./s.o.), i.e. a “patient” or “patients” (entity/entities targeted or affected by the “action”), here represented by the direct object (ὑμᾶς you [the disciples]). Moreover, there must be an entity or entities standing for the “effect” of the “action” (what or who the patient is caused to be), here represented ←440 | 441→by the object complement with an identifying function (ἁλιεῖς ἀνθρώπων fishers of people). So, this verb, used this way, may be said to have three semantic roles to assign: the roles of agent, patient, and effect. This state of affairs has led to the valency of ποιέω with a double accusative (in the active) usually requiring not only a subject, but also a direct object and an identifying object complement for a sentence to be well-formed (“grammatical”), its sentence pattern being S+P+Od+OCid.
Example 1 with φεύγω to run away (valency →sentence pattern S+P; ↑258d,1.1), based on Mt 8:33:
Example 2 with ποιέω + double accusative to cause sth./s.o. to be sth./s.o. (valency →sentence pattern S+P+Od+OCid; ↑258d,1.15), based on Mt 4:19:
Note that not only verbs, but also some adjectives and adverbs, or even nouns have a valency of their own: some members of these word-classes need to be connected with a certain kind of expression in well-formed (“grammatical”) sentences/clauses. This type of valency leads to what may be called a “second degree pattern”, the basis of a “composite complement”, of which the adjective/adverb or noun in question is “complement part 1”, and the “second degree object” called for by the valency of the adjective/adverb or noun (mostly a Og/2nd, sometimes a Odat/2nd or a Op/2nd) “complement part 2” (↑137a; 163b; 169a; 169b; 175; 179b; 183c; 219). ↑example 7 in 254d.
254d
The following sentence constituents count as complements:
1. objects (↑257), ↑example 6 below, and
2. other types of predicative elements/complements (↑258):
a) subject/object complements (on the less frequent subject/object adjuncts ↑254e), ↑examples 3, 4 and 7;
b) adverbial complements (on the more frequent adverbial adjuncts ↑254e), ↑examples 5 and 6.
Examples 3 and 4 (sentence pattern: S+P+SC; ↑258d,1.6), based on Mt 16:16 and Lk 19:2:
| ←441 | 442→(αὐτὸς) | ἦν | πλούσιος. |
| He | was | rich. (↑Lk 19:2) |
Example 5 (sentence pattern S+P+LocC; ↑258d,1.7), based on Ac 10:38:
Example 6 (sentence pattern S+P+Od+LocC; ↑258d,1.14), based on Re 1:17:
Example 7 (sentence pattern S+P+SCprop+Og/2nd; ↑258d,2.2), based on Mk 3:29:
Example with an adverb used with a valency of its own:
περιπατῆσαι (P) ἀξίως (adverb/ManC) τοῦ κυρίου to live in a manner worthy of the Lord (Col 1:10) (Og/2nd)
254e
IV. As stated above (↑254b) the group of optional sentence constituents is made up of
1. adverbial adjuncts (standard function of adverbials; on the less frequent adverbial complements ↑254d also 259a) and
2. subject or object adjuncts on the more frequent subject/object complements ↑254d also 259n).
←442 | 443→Note that attributive modifiers (adding some information to an existing sentence constituent) are usually to be considered optional as well, i.e. grammatically speaking (though necessary in terms of communicational intent; ↑254b1), e.g.:
| ἐπορεύθησαν εἰς ἑτέραν (Attr) κώμην. | They went on to another village. (Lk 9:56) |
The adjective phrase ἑτέραν here functions as an attributive modifier (↑260o). It is part of the local complement εἰς … κώμην (in)to … a village. It contributes some additional information, which is dispensable grammatically speaking. Without ἑτέραν another the sentence/clause would be poorer informationally (in terms of communicational intent), but still be well-formed grammatically.
Also note that the vocative phrases (↑148a) and interjections (↑252.63) are outside the surrounding sentence structure (they are parenthetical; ↑292d).
3.3.1.1 Obligatory sentence constituents
Subject: function and ways of expressing it
255a
I. The subject (“S”) typically indicates the “theme”4 (i.e. what the sentence or clause is “about”; also ↑135c) and, in sentences/clauses with a non-passive predicate verb, the entity performing the “action”, the agent (↑254d), or its leading participant.
With a passive predicate verb it mostly indicates the entity undergoing, experiencing, or enduring the “action”, i.e. the patient (↑254c) which in a non-passive construction appears as the object entity.