1. Mostly it is marked by the genitive of comparison (↑170), e.g.:
| μείζων ἐστὶν ὁ θεὸς τῆς καρδίας ἡμῶν | God is greater than our heart. (1Jn 3:20) |
| μὴ ἰσχυρότεροι αὐτοῦ ἐσμεν; | Are we stronger than he? (1Cor 10:22) |
↑also Lk 7:26; 21:3; Jn 1:50; 13:16; 1Cor 15:10.
2. Less frequently the particle ἤ than is used, e.g.:
| μείζων ἐστὶν ὁ ἐν ὑμῖν ἢ ὁ ἐν τῷ κόσμῳ. | The one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world. (1Jn 4:4) |
↑also 1Cor 14:5; comparing inf./ACI phrases (ἤ than for s.o. to …): Mt 19:24; Mk 10:25.
138b
Further noteworthy points:
1. In rare cases the comparison construction is without the second element; in a translation into English this needs to be replaced by something like “that of” or else be supplied from the context, e. g.:
| Ἐγὼ δὲ ἔχω τὴν μαρτυρίαν μείζω τοῦ Ἰωάννου. | The testimony that I have is greater than [that of John]/… than John’s. (Jn 5:36; ↑137c) |
| τὸ μωρὸν τοῦ θεοῦ σοφώτερον τῶν ἀνθρώπων ἐστίν … | The foolishness of God is wiser than [the wisdom of] human beings. (1Cor 1:25; ↑132d) |
2. When no comparison is involved, a superlative form (or its substitute; ↑138c/138d) may (as in other languages) have an elative force, e.g.:
| ἐκ ξύλου τιμιωτάτου | of most valuable wood/of very expensive wood. (Re 18:12) |
3. The comparative form may be reinforced by πολλῷ or πολύ “to a large extent” = much/many (dative of difference/measure [↑178b] and adverbial accusative respectively [↑157] of πολύς much), serving as an attributive modifier of the comparative adjective or adverb (often of μᾶλλον more; ↑260o), e. g.:
| καὶ πολλῷ (Attr) πλείους (comp. adj.) ἐπίστευσαν. | And many (lit. “to a large extent”) more believed. (Jn 4:41) |
| … νυνὶ δὲ πολὺ (Attr) σπουδαιότερον (comp. adj.) … | … who is now much more eager … (2Cor 8:22) |
4. ὡς with a superlative has the force of as … as possible (↑252.61 [similarly 252.46]) only 1× in the NT (2× in the LXX):
| ὡς τάχιστα (adj. form used as an adv.; ↑53) | as soon as possible (Ac 17:15) |
5. In a number of instances, the comparative is not expressed by an inflected form but by means of μᾶλλον more (in a way comparable to the English construction; ↑BDAG s.v. 1), e.g.:
| μακάριόν ἐστιν μᾶλλον διδόναι ἢ λαμβάνειν. | It is more blessed to give than to receive. (Ac 20:35) |
↑also Mk 9:42; 1Cor 9:15; Ga 4:27.
Occasionally the two possibilities are combined (pleonastically; ↑294x; also 51c), e.g.:
| πολλῷ γὰρ μᾶλλον κρεῖσσον | For [that is/would be] far better. (Php 1:23) |
↑also 1Cor 12:22; 2Cor 7:13.
6. On the special uses of (οἱ) πλείονες and (οἱ) πλεῖστοι ↑132d(3j).
II. Comparison peculiarities in Biblical Greek (LXX and NT):
138c
1. Peculiarities due to Semitic influence: Hebrew and Aramaic have no comparative forms (↑GKC §133; Segert: 342), which has affected Biblical Greek usage; thus, the basic form of adjectives (and adverbs) sometimes has
a) a comparative function (as indicated by the context), e.g.:
| καλόν ἐστίν σε εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν ζωὴν χωλὸν ἢ τοὺς δύο πόδας ἔχοντα βληθῆναι εἰς τὴν γέενναν. | It is better for you to enter life lame than with two feet to be thrown into hell. (Mk 9:45) |
Note that the comparative form or the basic form having a comparative function in the context may be combined with ἤ than as in the above case(s) or else (frequently so in the LXX) with
παρά + acc. in comparison to, more than (Lk 3:13; He 11:4; ↑184m) or
ὑπέρ + acc. over and above, than (Lk 16:8, He 4:12; ↑184r).
When such preposition phrases occur with certain nouns or verbs the resulting construction may have a comparative force even without μᾶλλον, e. g.:
| δοκεῖτε ὅτι οἱ Γαλιλαῖοι οὗτοι ἁμαρτωλοὶ παρὰ πάντας τοὺς Γαλιλαίους ἐγένοντο; | Do you think these Galileans were worse sinners than (< “sinners more than”) all the other Galileans? (Lk 13:2) |
| … ἔχρισέν σε ὁ θεός … παρὰ τοὺς μετόχους σου | … God has anointed you … more than/beyond your companions (He 1:9) |
↑also Lk 18:14.
b) a superlative function, e.g.:
| ποία ἐντολὴ μεγάλη ἐν τῷ νόμῳ; | Which is the greatest commandment in the Law? (Mt 22:36) |
Note that some think that comparative constructions may at times express exclusion (as would be possible in Semitic constructions with 
min) rather than a difference in degree (e.g. … θεῷ μᾶλλον ἢ ἀνθρώποις … God, not human beings, rather than … God more/rather (lit. “to a greater degree”) than human beings [Ac 5:29], ↑BDAG sub μᾶλλον 3c). However, none of the examples listed nor extra-biblical usage (↑BDR §246.24) seem to justify the introduction of such a secondary (grammatical) function for this construction; on the other hand, this type of interpretation might occasionally be prompted by contextual factors (textpragmatically).
138d
2. Peculiarities due to popular usage in KG: in popular KG there was a tendency for superlative forms to be replaced by comparative forms. Thus, in the NT the ←201 | 202→comparative form in addition to its normal comparative function sometimes had a superlative or elative (↑138b) function (indicated by the context), the superlative form having become relatively rare:
a) with a superlative function, e.g.:
| μείζων δὲ τούτων (partitive gen.; ↑166) ἡ ἀγάπη. | But the greatest of these is love. (1Cor 13:13) |
b) with an elative function, e.g.:
| σπουδαιότερος δὲ ὑπάρχων αὐθαίρετος ἐξῆλθεν πρὸς ὑμᾶς. | Since he was very eager, he went off to you of his own accord. (2Cor 8:17) |
On πρῶτος with the sense “earlier (than)” ↑145a.
Note that the syntactic rules applicable to the comparison of adjectives in principle apply to gradable adverbs as well. ↑53; 242.
3.2.1.3 Syntax of pronouns (↑22c on word-class, ↑54–61 on forms; also ↑Langslow: 494ff)
Pronouns are used either as noun substitutes (as pronouns in the real sense of the word) or as attributive or non-attributive concomitants of nouns. As such they occur in a variety of different syntactic roles, as shown not only in the following paragraphs (↑138–144), but also in the sections dealing with the syntax of case forms and preposition phrases (↑146ff; 184ff). On their relevance to the coherence of texts ↑319 and 346–348.
Regarding the use of pronouns Biblical/KG differs from Classical Greek mainly in two respects:
1. They are used more frequently, quite often pleonastically (↑139a–139c; 140d; 289i; 294x).
2. The more subtle CG distinctions are disregarded (↑139g–139j/139l; 141c; 142a/142b; 143b).
Personal and reciprocal pronouns
(↑22c[b] on word-class, ↑54–56 on forms; ↑BR §64–66; 154; BDF §277–283; 287f; Z §195–212; Langslow: 143ff)
139a
I. The non-reflexive personal pronoun (↑22c[b.1]; 54; 348b; also 130b with App)
1. The nominative form as a noun substitute (as a subject; ↑255a/255d; also 135c):
a) Generally speaking, it occurs with the predicate verb (predicator) only for emphasis, especially in contrasts, e.g.:
| ἐγὼ χρείαν ἔχω ὑπὸ σοῦ βαπτισθῆναι, καὶ σὺ ἔρχῃ πρός με; | I need to be baptized by you, and do you come to me = I am the one who needs to be baptized by you, and you are the one who comes to me? (Mt 3:14) |
| καὶ σὺ ἐξ αὐτῶν εἶ. | You, too, are one of them. (Lk 22:58) |
b) However, in some NT instances no special emphasis appears to be intended, e. g.:
| ἔθηκα ὑμᾶς ἵνα ὑμεῖς ὑπάγητε … | I appointed you to go (lit. that you should go) … (Jn 15:16) |
↑BDF §277.2; Z §198.
←202 | 203→139b
2. The non-enclitic forms ἐμοῦ etc., σοῦ etc. (3rd pers. ↑139c), too, are used for emphasis (for use of oblique cases and preposition phrases ↑146ff; 184ff), namely
a) in contrasts, e.g.:
| εἰ ἐμὲ ἐδίωξαν, καὶ ὑμᾶς διώξουσιν. | If they persecuted me, they will persecute you, too. (Jn 15:20) |
b) usually when they are part of a preposition phrase (↑183b), e.g.:6
| μάθετε ἀπ᾿ ἐμοῦ. | Learn from me! (Mt 11:29) |
In other contexts, the enclitic forms are generally preferred. In agreement with the trends of popular KG (Semitic influence seems to be less important) they are more frequent in the NT than in CG (which uses them mainly when considered necessary for clarity’s sake), sometimes occurring pleonastically, e.g.:
| ἐὰν θέλῃς δύνασαί με καθαρίσαι. | If you are willing, you can make me clean. (Mt 8:2) |
Note that in CG the pronoun could be combined with γε for added emphasis:
| ἔγωγε (note accentuation!) | I at least/I at any rate … (↑252.10; 269c), e.g.: |
| αἰτίας οὖν ἔγωγε τρεῖς εἶναι νομίζω φυγῆς. | I at least think that there are three reasons for the flight. (Philo, Fuga 1.3) |
139c
3. The third person (on textgrammatical role ↑348b):
a) αὐτός is used as a personal pronoun of the 3rd pers., in post-CG and NT Greek (unlike CG) also in the nominative (for the nominative CG uses ἐκεῖνος that [sometimes the NT, too] or οὗτος this [↑58; 141d]), e.g.:
| αὐτὸς γὰρ σώσει … (un-CG) | For he will save … (Mt 1:21) |
| ἐκράτησαν αὐτόν. (= CG) | They arrested him. (Mk 14:46) |
| ποῦ ἐστιν ἐκεῖνος; (= CG) | Where is he? (Jn 7:11) |
b) Often a very similar function is encountered with the pronominal use of the article and the analogous use of the relative pronoun (↑131; 142h; generally anaphoric/ anadeictic; ↑346–348b), e.g.:
| Οἱ μὲν οὖν ἐπορεύοντο … | Then these/they left … (Ac 5:41) |
c) In CG the personal pronouns οὗ (οὑ), οἷ (οἱ), ἕ (ἑ), σφεῖς, σφῶν etc. (↑54d) were used referring to the subject of the superordinate sentence (indirect-reflexive; ↑139f–139j), e. g.:
| … κοινωνὸν σφίσι (refers to S) τῆς τύχης μένειν ἱκέτευον (S) | … they entreated him to remain sharing with them in their fortune (Josephus,War 3.202) |
139d
4. αὐτός etc. is used in three different ways in NT/KG (BDF §288; 277.3):
←203 | 204→a) as a non-attributive noun concomitant (“predicative” position; ↑136b/136d): -self, e.g.:
| αὐτὸς ὁ κύριος … καταβήσεται ἀπ᾽ οὐρανοῦ. | The Lord himself will come down from heaven … (1Th 4:16) |
| αὐτὸς ἐγώ … δουλεύω … | I myself serve … (Ro 7:25) |
↑also Lk 2:35 (σοῦ αὐτῆς τὴν ψυχήν the soul “of yourself” = your own soul).
Note that especially in Luke and Acts the simple αὐτός (in the “predicative” position) is sometimes used in a way similar to αὐτὸς οὗτος (ἐκεῖνος) ὁ this (that) same or this (that) very, e. g.:
| ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ | on the day itself = on the same day = on that very day (Lk 24:13) |
Also: (ἐν) αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ in that very hour/moment (also: immediately) Lk 2:38; 10:21; 12:12; 13:31; 20:19; Ac 16:18; with other expressions of time: Lk 13:1; 23:12; with other noun phrases: Mt 3:4; Mk 6:17; Lk 10:7; αὐτὸ τοῦτο this very (thing): 2Cor 7:11; Ga 2:10 etc.
b) as an attributive noun concomitant (↑136a/136d; also nominalized [↑132d]): ὁ αὐτός the same, e.g.:
| διαιρέσεις διακονιῶν εἰσιν, καὶ ὁ αὐτὸς κύριος | There are varieties of ministries, but the same Lord. (1Cor 12:5) |
| τὰ αὐτὰ (nominalized) ἐπάθετε. | You suffered the same things. (1Th 2:14) |
c) as a noun substitute, i.e. as a 3rd pers. personal pronoun: he, of him, to him, him etc. (↑139c).
139e
5. Special uses of personal pronouns:
a) The “authorial” (also “literary”) plural (or “pluralis sociativus”), used not only in the NT, but also widely in other Ancient Greek and non-Greek texts: the speaker/writer uses ἡμεῖς we for ἐγώ I (or the 1st pers. pl. for the 1st pers. sg. of the finite verb), referring to himself, but at the same time in some ways involving his readers/hearers in what he is doing (↑BDF §280; Langslow: 134–136; Z §8), e.g.:
| πῶς ὁμοιώσωμεν τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ; | With what can we compare the kingdom of God? (Mk 4:30) |
↑also He 5:11; 6:1.3.9.11; 1Jn 1:4.
Note that the authorial plural seems to be used by Paul only occasionally (e.g. 2Cor 10:11ff).
b) Depending on the context the 1st pers. pl. may be understood in terms of either an “inclusive we” or an “exclusive we” (by no means limited to NT usage; some languages even have two different “we” forms): The persons referred to by the “we” may either include or exclude the addressees, e. g.:
| Εἰ ζῶμεν πνεύματι, πνεύματι καὶ στοιχῶμεν. | If we (inclusive) live by the Spirit, let us (inclusive) also keep in step with the Spirit. (Ga 5:25) |
| προελέγομεν ὑμῖν ὅτι μέλλομεν θλίβεσθαι … | we (exclusive) told you in advance that we (inclusive) would suffer affliction. (1Th 3:4) |
c) The 1st sg. (or pl. ↑255f) and 2nd pers. sg. may have generic reference (to people in general), a use found in English and many other languages (attested in Ancient Greek since the Late Classical Period), approximately corresponding to the generic personal pronoun “one” in English (↑Carter §60b) or in certain cases to τις someone, one (↑144a; 255f). A number of instances are found with Paul (↑BDF §281), e.g.:
↑also Ro 11:17; possibly Ro 7:9.16.20.25; 8:2.
On the genitive of the personal pronoun in the role of a possessive pronoun ↑140b.
On questions of concord ↑261–265.
II. The reflexive personal pronoun (↑22c[b.2]; 55)7
139f
1. The use of the Ancient Greek reflexive pronoun (a subtype of the personal pronoun) is closely similar to the use of the English reflexive pronoun, myself, yourself, etc.: the entity designated by the reflexive pronoun is equated with the subject entity, the reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject (anaphorically/anadeictically),8 e.g.:
| ἐὰν ἐγὼ μαρτυρῶ περὶ ἐμαυτοῦ … | If I testify about myself … (Jn 5:31) |
The entity designated by ἐμαυτοῦ is equated with the subject entity (here the speaker): ἐμαυτοῦ refers back to the subject.
Non-reflexive example:
| ἄλλος ἐστὶν ὁ μαρτυρῶν περὶ ἐμοῦ. | There is another who testifies about me. (Jn 5:32) |
The entity designated by the (non-reflexive) personal pronoun ἐμοῦ (here the speaker) is different from the subject entity (“another”): ἐμοῦ does not refer back to the subject.
Note that one may distinguish (as is relevant to CG syntax; ↑139c) between
a) direct-reflexive, when the subject of the same sentence/clause is referred back to,
b) indirect-reflexive, when the subject of the superordinate sentence/clause is referred back to.
139g
2. Noteworthy points on the forms of the reflexive pronoun (↑55):
a) The three persons of the plural nearly always have the same form in KG: the ones used for the 3rd pers. pl. in CG. For the 1st and 2nd pers. pl. CG combines the non-reflexive personal pronoun with αὐτός instead (ἡμῶν αὐτῶν etc., ὑμῶν αὐτῶν etc.).
139h
b) The contracted forms of the 3rd pers. reflexive pronoun encountered in CG (αὑτοῦ for ἑαυτοῦ etc.; ↑55) are not used in modern standard editions of the NT (the 25th NA edition of 1963 e.g. still had αὑτῷ in Lk 12:21, αὑτόν in Ac 14:17, and αὑτούς in Re 8:6 [in the early manuscripts of the NT diacritics are used very sparsely; ↑p.22]), and only rarely in the LXX (e.g. Eze 22:3). This similarly applies to the 2nd pers. σαυτοῦ etc.: these do not occur in any of the current editions of the NT (including those based on the Byz.), however, 19× in the LXX (e.g. Dt 21:11; Eze 4:9).
←205 | 206→139i
c) Examples:
• singular:
| … ἐγὼ μαρτυρῶ περὶ ἐμαυτοῦ. | … I testify about myself. (Jn 5:31) |
| τί λέγεις περὶ σεαυτοῦ; | What do you say about yourself? (Jn 1:22) |
| πᾶς ὁ ὑψῶν ἑαυτὸν ταπεινωθήσεται. | Everyone who exalts himself will be humbled. (Lk 14:11) |
• plural:
| Ἀρχόμεθα πάλιν ἑαυτοὺς συνιστάνειν; | Are we beginning to commend ourselves again? (2Cor 3:1) |
| οὐ γὰρ ἑαυτοὺς κηρύσσομεν. | For we proclaim not ourselves. (2Cor 4:5) |
| … παραστήσατε ἑαυτοὺς τῷ θεῷ … | … present yourselves to God … (Ro 6:13) |
| πορεύεσθε μᾶλλον … καὶ ἀγοράσατε ἑαυταῖς. | Instead, go … and buy for yourselves. (Mt 25:9) |
| ἐφ᾿ ἑαυτὰς κλαίετε. | Weep for yourselves! (Lk 23:28) |
| Τεκνία, φυλάξατε ἑαυτὰ ἀπὸ τῶν εἰδώλων. | Little children, keep yourselves from idols. (1Jn 5:21) |
↑also Ac 13:46, Ro 12:16.19.
| … ἑαυτοὺς ἔδωκαν πρῶτον τῷ κυρίῳ … | … they gave themselves first to the Lord … (2Cor 8:5) |
| αἱ ἅγιαι γυναῖκες … ἐκόσμουν ἑαυτάς … | … the holy women … adorned themselves … (1Pe 3:5) |
| τὰ θηρία … δύνανται ἐκφυγόντα εἰς σκέπην ἑαυτὰ ὠφελῆσαι. | The animals … fleeing to a shelter are able to help themselves. (EpJer 1:67) |
139j
3. Reflexive relationship left unexpressed:
According to the Classical rule a reflexive pronoun is to be used whenever the personal pronoun to be added designates the same entity as the subject (↑139f), e.g.:
| γνῶθι σαυτόν (= σεαυτόν)· | Know yourself! (inscription on the temple of Apollo at Delphi; ↑Pausanias 10.24) |
Generally, the reflexive relationship is carefully taken into account by the authors of the NT. At times, however, the reflexive relationship is left unexpressed, most frequently when the personal pronoun is in the possessive genitive (corresponding to a possessive pronoun in English; ↑159b), especially so in the 3rd person.
While in KG this phenomenon is widely attested, in Biblical Greek the Semitic background appears to provide an added incentive to resort to it (neither in Hebrew nor in Aramaic is there a grammatical distinction between non-reflexive and reflexive relationships).
Examples (the more words there are between the subject and the pronoun, the less likely the reflexive pronoun appears to be used):
| … ἀπαρνησάσθω ἑαυτὸν καὶ ἀράτω τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ … | … let him deny himself and take up his cross … (Mt 16:24) |
ἐβαπτίζοντο ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ Ἰορδάνῃ They were baptized by him in the river ποταμῷ ἐξομολογούμενοι τὰς ἁμαρτίας Jordan, confessing their sins. (Mk 1:5) αὐτῶν.
| ἄξιος ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ … παράλαβε μετὰ σοῦ ἔτι ἕνα ἢ δύο … | The worker deserves his pay. (1Tm 5:18) … take one or two others with you … (Mt 18:16) |
| Τῇ ἐπαύριον βλέπει τὸν Ἰησοῦν ἐρχόμενον πρὸς αὐτόν. | The next day he saw Jesus coming towards him. (Jn 1:29) |
↑also Mk 2:6; 14:33; Lk 23:12; 1Jn 3:15; Re 13:16.
Due to this use, in a handful of instances, more than one interpretation appears to be possible, e. g.:
| … διὰ τοῦ σταυροῦ, ἀποκτείνας τὴν ἔχθραν ἐν αὐτῷ. | … through the cross, putting to death the hostility through it (i.e. through the cross)/in himself (i.e. in his own person). (Eph 2:16) |
↑also Col 1:20; 1Jn 5:10; Jas 5:20.
139k
4. ἑαυτῶν also functions as a reciprocal pronoun, like ἀλλήλων each other (↑139n).
139l
5. In Hebrew 
népēš “soul”/life may have the function of a reflexive pronoun (HALOT s.v.). In a few cases ψυχή is used in a similar way in Biblical Greek, e. g. in Lk 9:24f:
| τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ ≈ ἑαυτόν: | his “soul” / his life ≈ himself: |
| ἀπολέσῃ τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ | (whoever) loses his “soul” / life (v. 24) |
| → ἑαυτὸν δὲ ἀπολέσας | → (but) loses himself (v. 25) |
↑BDF §283; Z §212.
On the genitive of the reflexive pronoun in the role of a possessive pronoun ↑140b.
On questions of concord ↑261–265.
139m
III. The reciprocal pronoun (↑22c[b.3]; 56)
When a mutual relationship is to be expressed between two or more subject entities involved in the “action” of a verb, for which English typically uses each other or one another, Ancient Greek uses either the regular reciprocal pronoun or an alternative construction indicating a mutual relationship (also ↑190f).
1. Examples with the regular reciprocal pronoun:
| οἱ ποιμένες ἐλάλουν πρὸς ἀλλήλους … | The shepherds said to one another … (Lk 2:15) |
| … ἵνα ἀγαπᾶτε ἀλλήλους … | … that you love another … (Jn 13:34) |
| ἱνατί ἀδικεῖτε ἀλλήλους; | Why do you wrong each other? (Ac 7:26) |
| ὅτι ἐσμὲν ἀλλήλων μέλη | for we are members of one another (Eph 4:25) |
139n
2. Examples with an alternative construction indicating a mutual relationship:
a) The reflexive pronoun ἑαυτῶν (↑139k) used like ἀλλήλων (also CG), e.g.:
| εἰρηνεύετε ἐν ἑαυτοῖς. | Live in peace with each other! (1Th 5:13) |
| ←207 | 208→ἀλλὰ παρακαλεῖτε ἑαυτοὺς καθ᾽ ἑκάστην ἡμέραν | But exhort one another every day. (He 3:13) |
b) Very rarely εἷς τὸν ἕνα “one another” for ἀλλήλους (perhaps a Semitism; ↑145b):9
| οἰκοδομεῖτε εἷς τὸν ἕνα. | Build up/Strengthen one another! (1Th 5:11) |
On the use of related ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλο other ↑145e (last paragraph; on form ↑56a).
The possessive pronoun and its alternatives
(↑22c on word-class, ↑57 on forms; ↑BR §67; BDF §284–286; Z §195ff)
140a
1. The possessive pronoun itself (normally emphasizing the possessor) is not used much in the NT (ca. 121×), most frequently ἐμός my/mine (ca. 76×). The personal pronoun in the possessive genitive (↑140b) is typically used instead.
Syntactically it is used like an adjective (↑137; thus also “possessive adjective”); when it is an attributive modifier (so in most cases), its head mostly has the article, e.g.:
| ἡ βασιλεία ἡ ἐμή | my kingdom (Jn 18:36) |
| διὰ τὴν σὴν λαλιάν | because of your words (Jn 4:42) |
On rare occasions the head has no article, which may affect the meaning of the noun phrase in the following way (but also ↑133 on definiteness without the article):
| _ ἐμὸς φίλος | my friend = a friend of mine (↑BR §67) |
| … μὴ ἔχων _ ἐμὴν δικαιοσύνην. | … having a righteousness of my own. (Php 3:9) |
The possessive pronoun sometimes indicates a relationship that is not strictly possessive, but one that is typical of an objective genitive relationship (↑160e; applicable to CG, too):
| εἰς τὴν ἐμὴν ἀνάμνησιν | in remembrance/memory of me (1Cor 11:24f) |
↑also Ro 11:31; 15:4; 1Cor 15:31.
140b
2. Typically the possessive pronoun is replaced by the personal pronoun in the possessive genitive (in the 3rd pers. nearly always), by the non-reflexive form (without emphasis) or (less frequently) by the reflexive form (with some emphasis; ↑159b):10
| non-reflexive: | reflexive: | ||
| μου | my | ἐμαυτοῦ | my (own) |
| σου | your | σεαυτοῦ | your (own) |
| αὐτοῦ, -ῆς | his/its, her | ἑαυτοῦ, -ῆς | his/its, her (own) |
| (or ἐκείνου –ης/τούτου, ταύτης) | |||
| ἡμῶν | our | ἑαυτῶν | our (own) |
| ὑμῶν | your | ἑαυτῶν | your (own) |
| αὐτῶν | their | ἑαυτῶν | their (own) |
| (or ἐκείνων/τούτων with some emphasis) | (↑54–55/139 for CG forms) | ||
140c
3. The NT fairly frequently uses the adjective ἴδιος (one’s) own like a personal pronoun in the possessive genitive, especially like a reflexive one (typically with the possessor being emphasized), e.g.:
| ἐκάλεσεν τοὺς ἰδίους δούλους (with no emphasis on the possessor). | He called his servants. (Mt 25:14) |
| ↑ἀπέστειλεν τοὺς δούλους αὐτοῦ. | He sent out his servants. (Mt 22:3) |
| κοπιῶμεν ἐργαζόμενοι ταῖς ἰδίαις χερσίν (with emphasis on the possessor). | We work hard with our own hands. (1Cor 4:12) |
↑also Lk 6:41; Jn 4:44; 10:3; Eph 5:22; 1Th 2:14.
140d
4. In Ancient Greek (unlike in English) a naturally given possessive relationship may be expressed simply by means of the article, though in KG/NT far less frequently than in CG (↑132a), e. g.:
| ἐκτείνας τὴν χεῖρα ἥψατο αὐτοῦ. | He stretched out his hand (lit. “the hand”) and touched him. (Mt 8:3) | |
On the occasional (KG) use of κατά + acc. comparable to a possessive pronoun ↑184k.
140e
5. Examples:
a) non-reflexive use:
• without emphasis on possessor: personal pronoun in the possessive genitive (↑140b):
| ὁ παῖς μου | my servant (Mt 8:6) |
| ἡ δόξα ἡμῶν | our glory/pride (1Th 2:20) |
| ἡ ἀριστερά σου | your left hand (Mt 6:3) |
| τὸ φῶς ὑμῶν | your light (Mt 5:16) |
| τὰ ἔργα αὐτοῦ | his deeds (2Tm 4:14) |
| ὁ λόγος αὐτῶν | their talk/teaching (2Tm 2:17) |
• with emphasis on possessor: possessive pronoun/3rd pers. demonstrative pronoun in the possessive genitive (↑140a/140b):
| εἰς τὸ ἐμὸν ὄνομα | in MY name (Mt 18:20) |
| εἰς τὴν ἡμετέραν διδασκαλίαν | for OUR instruction (Ro 15:4) |
| ὁ λόγος ὁ σός | YOUR word (Jn 17:17) |
| ὁ καιρὸς ὁ ὑμέτερος | YOUR time (Jn 7:6) |
| τοῖς ἐκείνου γράμμασιν | HIS writings (Jn 5:47) |
| εἰς τὸ ἐκείνων ὑστέρημα | for THEIR need (2Cor 8:14) |
| τῇ τούτων ἀπειθείᾳ | because of THEIR disobedience (Ro 11:30) |
b) reflexive use (for which KG also uses non-reflexive forms; ↑139j):
• without emphasis on the reflexive relationship (it is left unexpressed): possessive pronoun (↑140a):
• with emphasis on the reflexive relationship (it is expressed): reflexive pronoun in the possessive genitive/ἴδιος (↑140b/140c), e.g.:
| … μὴ ζητῶν τὸ ἐμαυτοῦ σύμφορον. | … not seeking my own advantage. (1Cor 10:33) |
| εὐδοκοῦμεν μεταδοῦναι ὑμῖν … τὰς ἑαυτῶν ψυχάς. | We were delighted to share with you … our own lives. (1Th 2:8) |
| σῷζε τὴν σεαυτοῦ ψυχήν. | Save your own life! (Gn 19:17 LXX) |
| τὴν ἑαυτῶν σωτηρίαν κατεργάζεσθε. | Continue to work out your own salvation! (Php 2:12) |
| ὁ ἀγαπῶν τὴν ἑαυτοῦ γυναῖκα … | He who loves his own wife … (Eph 5:28) |
| … θάψαι τοὺς ἑαυτῶν νεκρούς. | … to bury their own dead. (Mt 8:22) |
| … ἵνα μή … ἐκπέσητε τοῦ ἰδίου στηριγμοῦ. | … so that you do not … fall from your secure position. (2Pe 3:17) |
| εὑρίσκει … τὸν ἀδελφὸν τὸν ἴδιον. | He finds … his own brother (Jn 1:41) |
| … ὑποτασσόμεναι τοῖς ἰδίοις ἀνδράσιν. | … they submitted themselves to their own husbands. (1Pe 3:5) |
Demonstrative pronouns
(↑22c word-class, ↑58 forms, ↑346ff functions; ↑BR §68; 156; BDF §289ff; Z §213f; Langslow: 528ff; Givón I: 97)
141a
1. In Ancient Greek there are three major types of demonstrative pronouns (on “anadeictic/catadeictic/deictic” role also ↑346/347b/348c), two to point to what is near, and one to point to what is distant, whether in space, time or emotional distance:
Pointing to what for the speaker/writer is near:11
| (1) ὅδε/ἥδε/τόδε (NT: 10×) | this (here) |
| • typically points to | what is present at the moment of speaking/writing (pure deixis) or what is identified later in the text (catadeictic use) |
Pointing to what for the speaker/writer is more distant:
| (3) ἐκεῖνος/ἐκείνη/ἐκεῖνο (NT: ca. 260×) | that (anadeictic or catadeictic use, or pure deixis) | |
141b
2. When any of the above demonstrative pronouns are used as attributive modifiers (rather than as noun substitutes), they are in the so-called “predicative” position (a misnomer!; ↑136c), e.g.:
| ὅδε ὁ λόγος / ὁ λόγος ὅδε | this word (i.e. the one at the moment of speaking/writing) or the one that follows in the text) |
| οὗτος ὁ ἀνήρ / ὁ ἀνὴρ οὗτος | this man (i.e. the one just mentioned, the one here, or the one to be mentioned) |
| ἐκείνη ἡ ἡμέρα / ἡ ἡμέρα ἐκείνη | that day |
Rarely a demonstrative pronoun is a concomitant of a noun that is without the article. In such a case the demonstrative pronoun functions as a subject or object, whilst the noun serves as a subject/object adjunct (SA/OA), which in an English rendering may often be introduced by the preposition as (↑259n; also ↑137c; BDF §292 or BR §258–262), e.g.:
| τοῦτο (O) _ ἀληθὲς (nominalized; OA) εἴρηκας. | You have said this “as something true” ≈ What you have said is true. (Jn 4:18) | |
↑also Lk 2:2 (αὕτη [S] ἀπογραφὴ πρώτη [SA] ἐγένετο This took place as a first registration ≈ This was the first registration); 24:21 (τρίτην [Attr of OA] ταύτην [O] ἡμέραν ἄγει [OA] [one] passes this as a third day ≈ it is now the third day); Jn 2:11 (Ταύτην [O] ἐποίησεν ἀρχὴν [OA] τῶν σημείων [gen. Attr of OA] ὁ Ἰησοῦς … Jesus did this as a beginning of his signs …≈ What Jesus did … was the first of his signs; ταύτην shows concord with ἀρχήν in a way analogous to the use referred to in 263e).
141c
3. The demonstrative pronouns in KG and NT Greek
a) In KG ὅδε etc. is used more rarely (still) than in CG (↑141a on relative frequency). As a result: οὗτος etc. by now has become (more) clearly the standard (unmarked) demonstrative pronoun pointing to what is near. Its functional domain has expanded and increasingly includes the CG special use of ὅδε etc. In the NT οὗτος etc. (↑141a and 346–348c) thus regularly points not only to what is identified earlier in the text (anadeictic use), but also to what is present at the moment of speaking/ writing (pure deixis) or to what is identified later in the text (catadeictic use).
b) Examples:
←211 | 212→(1) ὅδε/ἥδε/τόδε (NT: 10×):
| τάδε (here noun substitute; Od; catadeictic) λέγει … | These things/The following things/Thus says … (Ac 21:11 and 7× in Re) |
↑also Lk 10:39 (un-CG anadeictic use); Jas 4:13: εἰς τήνδε τὴν πόλιν in this/in such and such a city (starting from pure deixis, generalizing; according to BDF §289 Hellenistic usage).
(2) οὗτος/αὕτη/τοῦτο (NT: ca. 1390×):
• Pointing to what is identified earlier in the text (anadeictic; typical in CG), e.g.:
| οὗτος γάρ ἐστιν ὁ ῥηθείς … | For this is the one spoken of … (Mt 3:3) |
| ταῦτα λελάληκα ὑμῖν ἵνα ἡ χαρὰ ἡ ἐμὴ ἐν ὑμῖν ᾖ. | These things I have spoken to you so that my joy may be in you. (Jn 15:11) |
• Pointing to what is present at the moment of speaking/writing (pure deixis), e.g.:
| τίνος ἡ εἰκὼν αὕτη καὶ ἡ ἐπιγραφή; | Whose image and inscription is this (here)? (Mk 12:16) |
↑also Mt 3:9; 4:3; 17:20; 20:14; Mk 11:23; Ac 3:24; 4:10; 7:7; 11:12; 13:17; 20:34; 22:3; 28:20.
• Pointing to what is identified later in the text (catadeictic), e.g.:
| ἀκούσατε τοὺς λόγους τούτους· | Listen to these words! (Ac 2:22) |
| τοῦτο δὲ λέγω· | But I mean this (what follows): (Ga 3:17) |
(3) ἐκεῖνος/ἐκείνη/ἐκεῖνο (NT: ca. 260×; anadeictic/catadeictic, or pure deixis), e.g.:
| πολλοὶ ἐροῦσίν μοι ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ· (probably pure deixis) | Many will say to me on that day, (Mt 7:22) |
↑also Ro 14:14 (anadeictic); He 6:7 (catadeictic).
141d
4. Demonstrative pronouns may be used catadeictically (in NT and CG)
a) before a relative clause (↑142; 289d), e.g.:
| τίς οὗτός ἐστιν ὅς …; | Who is this, who …? (Lk 7:49) |