This encyclopedia covers the religious and cultural traditions of the Southeast Asian countries such as Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (Burma), Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Thailand, Timor Leste (East Timor), and Vietnam. Southeast Asia is home to most of the world religions. While Buddhism and Islam are the major religions here, Christianity, Hinduism, and a host of primal, folk and other religions have a long history in different parts of the region. In our current period, characterized by increased globalization and traffic across borders, it is vital that we have a clear understanding of the various religions, cultures, and their traditions in this region. This volume discusses themes that are important in the overall highly complex context of Southeast Asia, where religions play a more prominent role in public life and daily life than in most other parts of the world. A few themes relevant in the context of religion in Southeast Asia, and discussed in this volume, are outlined below.
Southeast Asia presents a picture of marked contrast with regard to the presence of religions. Most of the countries in the region have a dominant majority religion, with several minority groups existing side by side. The entire state of Papua New Guinea is composed of minorities. While Indonesia as a country has the largest number of Muslims in the world, the Philippines is over 90 percent Christian. Buddhism is the majority religion of several countries including Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Burma. In each of these places, religious minorities account for a significant number of the population.
The region is also dotted with ethnic and linguistic groups, making it a crowded marketplace of faiths and cultures. Most Asian countries have laws that protect the faith, practice, and cultures of the minorities, but in practice, the minority groups tend to be viewed as second-class citizens. The majority faith and culture of a country is often portrayed as the norm, a yardstick the other citizens are expected to reach. There are even overt attempts, such as in Indonesia, to consciously implement policies of forced assimilation, also called, “Indonesianization.” By overt or covert means, the majority communities often lay out the ground rules for the minorities.
Religious diversity in most countries in the region is often the result of historical developments, where the majority of the people accept a new religious tradition while some within the community choose to remain in the tradition they had belonged to. Thus, while many Southeast Asian nations adopted Buddhism, a number of tribal groups within these countries continued in their indigenous faiths and practices. While the Philippines embraced Roman Catholicism under Spanish rule, a significant minority remained Muslim. In Indonesia, the majority of the population adopted Islam, but it continued to have minority Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, Confucians, and peoples with their tribal religious heritages. Minority religious groups are also created by mission activities from the outside, or through the mobilization of population movements, as in the case of the many Buddhist-majority nations of Southeast Asia.
Most nations in the region have religious freedom written into their national constitutions, and several of them are also signatories to the international charters and conventions on religious freedom. A number of nations have taken steps to promote respect for religious plurality in the interest of nation-building. They are committed to the human and religious rights of individuals and groups to believe and practice their religion, which is protected by international conventions. However, discrimination and intolerance are real problems in the region, too, like in most other parts of the world. Religious intolerance and discrimination often lead to violent conflicts, resulting in social disruption, obstruction, and political turmoil.
Large-scale intraregional migration in Southeast Asia (SEA) led to the interdependence of the various nations in the region. In the 1980s and 1990s, migration within the region was seen especially from less developed countries that had excessive labor supply to the more developed ones. There was a direct link between such mobility and rapid economic growth on the one hand, and declining fertility in the newly industrialized economies on the other. Some SEA nations, such as Singapore, Malaysia, and Thailand that are popular countries of destination for the immigrants, strive to preserve a balance within and among their ethnic groups and to resist any security risk. Countries from which most immigrants originate—such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, and Burma—are more concerned with managing recruitment, protecting their workers, reducing homeland unemployment, and providing training and industrial experience. In both instances, the rapidly increasing mobility of people has been consistently regarded as both one of the reasons and one of the effects of unusual socioeconomic and political transformations within the region.
There was also significant international migration, leading to a closer understanding of the faiths and cultures of the immigrants and the high-profile role they play in their new locations. The Southeast Asian presence in the United States has been an important factor in redefining the religious and cultural landscape of this country, especially in recent decades. During the first two centuries of U.S. history, almost all its people came from Europe. The Immigration Act of 1965, however, had facilitated increased migration from Asia, including Southeast Asia. By the 1970s itself, there were as many Asians as Europeans coming to the United States to live and work on a permanent basis. The last few decades have seen an increased Asian immigrant presence in this country. Several places in the United States have become minority-majority regions—i.e., where ethnic and religious minorities constitute the majority of the population. Religions such as Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism have become a part of the religious landscape of this country. By the 1990s, the United States’' population growth was more than one-third driven by migration, as opposed to one-tenth before the Immigration Act. Ethnic and racial minorities, as defined by the Census Bureau, rose from 25 percent in 1990 to 30 percent in 2000. According to the 2000 census, roughly 11 percent of U.S. residents were foreign-born, a major increase from the low of 4.7 percent in 1970. Subsequent data indicates that the number of Asians increased from 19 percent in 2000 to 36 percent by 2010 among all the new immigrants.
While religion is often discussed in terms of dominant faith traditions such as Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and such, the “little traditions” in each of these and indigenous beliefs that fall outside the pale of “world religions” often tremendously influence the lives of ordinary people in a great way. This volume discusses a number of such “little traditions” and some of the leaders behind these. The role of Engaged Buddhism, one of the major Asian religious movements of the twentieth century, in redefining religion for the common people, for instance, is important. Engaged Buddhism has received inspiration from Mahatma Gandhi’s nonviolent social activism, Christian charitable activities and modern, Western forms of social and political analysis. However, Engaged Buddhism is deeply Buddhist. It is a practical expression of the foundational Buddhist values of compassion and loving-kindness. Engaged Buddhism does not ask Buddhists to choose between traditional Buddhist spirituality, such as meditation, and social action; it sees them as two sides of the same coin. That is, a person practices meditation, generosity, moral self-discipline, etc., in order to become more selfless and compassionate and in order to develop inner strength and inner peace. One would then be in a better position to “make peace” and be helpful to society. Engaged Buddhism has played a positive role in resolving the major twentieth- and twenty-first-century conflicts in Southeast Asia. Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, and several other leaders of Engaged Buddhism advocate an alternative reading of Buddhist scriptures aimed at empowering individuals with moral and ethical foundations to engage the world and bring changes for the better. In the ultimate analysis, Engaged Buddhism advocates human rights, environmental sustainability, social justice, rights for the poor and dispossessed, nonviolence, and fighting racism and discrimination, among many other worthy social causes.
There have also been other forms of little traditions. One of the haunting images from the Vietnam crisis of the 1960s was Malcolm Browne’s photo of the self-immolation of the Buddhist monk, the Venerable Thich Quang Duc. While the monk’s protest was primarily against the anti-Buddhist policies being pursued by the government, it also symbolized the unpopular involvement of the United States in Vietnam. In the years and decades that followed this tragic event, the memory and message of Thich Quang Duc has been etched in the history of Vietnamese Buddhism. He continues to be an inspiration for people around the world who are struggling for freedom.
Islam in Southeast Asia also has had movements that redefine traditional interpretations of religion. Ahmadiyya, as an Islamic reformist and messianic movement based on the teachings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, strives toward building a world free of war, violence, hunger, and persecution. The movement aims at the revitalization of religion. Muhammadiyah, the largest Islamic movement in Southeast Asia and perhaps in the world, is another example of a modernist and reformist group that has the ability to combine theological purification and social reformation. Muhammadiyah employs pragmatic ways, including adopting the Western educational system, to achieve its goals.
The Sai Baba movement is a forum that has a great sway among the Hindus in the diaspora. In the 1970s, there was a growing interest in the Indian Hindu saint Sathya Sai Baba, and it was around this time that the Malaysian middle-class Indians and some Malaysian Chinese began to develop what was to become a renowned Sai Baba organization in that country. In Malaysia and Singapore, the movement grew strong under the leadership of middle-class, politically well-connected Indians. Many of these Indians had grown up under a strong British and Christian influence, and they aspired to rekindle their Hindu identity while cleansing it of any association with folk practices such as blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and fire-walking that were common among the Indian plantation laborers, who also arrived in Malaya under the British colonial rule.
Scholars have described Southeast Asia as characterized by two realities: religiosity and poverty. The majority of people in the region adhere to, or are deeply influenced by, the great religious traditions of Asia, including Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, as well as a variety of diverse popular traditions. In short, the overwhelming majority of the poor lives in a rich religio-cultural context. Given the essence of diversity in Asia, it is clear that there will be no easy solution to the situation of injustice, poverty, indignity, or oppression. While common problems exist across the region, each context provides a different set of issues to be addressed. It is also the case that diverse religions understand the root cause of human oppression in different ways. Buddhism, in accordance with the teachings of the Buddha, names human suffering as the chief problem to be overcome through the path of enlightenment. For many Christians, the primary cause of human oppression is sin, both on a personal and a broader systematic level, which needs to be overcome through a process of action and theological reflection to bring about the holistic transformation of the individual and society. Islam, Hinduism, and the other faith traditions too have distinct approaches to solving the perennial problems of the society.
No discussion on religion in Southeast Asia is complete without identifying women’s roles in and contributions to religion. While poverty and injustice exist across the society, the status of women needs to be of special significance. On the one hand, women are among the poorest in the society, and on the other, they are at the forefront in observing the various religious practices and rituals. While religious movements in Asia have traditionally been patriarchal, women are increasingly asserting their voices. The relevant question is, what are the common features and significant contributions of women to religion in the region.
The various dimensions of women’s presence in religion and culture in Southeast Asia addressed in this volume demonstrate the complexity of the roles that women play as they embody their religious beliefs in every aspect of society. An important component of several renascent and reform movements in the various religions was the efforts of Asian women to claim their place under the sun. This publication discusses Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah, two organizations in Indonesia that are committed to facilitating the dignity of women in accordance with Islamic teachings. Along with the other women’s movements in the region, these organizations strive to represent women’s interests not only through education, but also by struggles aimed at women’s empowerment. Even while respecting the image of the traditional wife and mother in the society, Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah could visualize an ideal of womanhood that aimed to realize the full potential and full scope of women’s rights and duties.
Women’s initiatives have not been confined to the social realm alone, but extend to their participation in the religious life as well. This volume also discusses Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, the first woman to openly practice her religion in Thailand as a fully ordained Theravada Buddhist monk who works within the Theravada Buddhist context of the country. Even though the official Thai Buddhist bodies are yet to formally recognize the legitimacy of her ordination and status as a Theravada bhikkhuni, female monks appear to be gaining a degree of acceptance. Women like Dhammananda Bhikkhuni ground their concern and work for justice within the framework of hierarchical religious structures.
Within the broader context of the interface between religion and society, liberation has become an urgent concern in Southeast Asia, especially in the latter part of the twentieth century. The influence of liberation theologies has been witnessed among the different religions in the region, each turning to its own sources and traditions in order to refocus attention on the emancipation of people from oppression. Diverse forms of liberation theologies in Southeast Asia, discussed in this publication, encourage mutually, enriching conversation and joint action initiatives across the religious spectrum. To be in solidarity with the people in their concrete historical contexts involves forging and nurturing relationships among the adherents of various religious faiths and identifying and challenging the causes of oppression without being destructively invasive to diverse religious identities.
Religion in Southeast Asia has in general been defined by tolerance, moderation, and pluralism. The majority of Muslims, for instance, reject interpretations of religion that are sympathetic to violence or extremism, as in some other parts of the globe. Unlike in the Middle East, Islam in Southeast Asia facilitated the development of civil society and democracy. Even though Indonesia has the largest Muslim population in the world, it is not an Islamic state but provides formal space for the different religious traditions in the country. Muslims in the region generally support the secular state in the sense that the state’s basis is not religion. Radical Islamist or extremist groups who may be labeled fundamentalist had traditionally not demonstrated any broad appeal among masses in Southeast Asia even as some segments in these societies have experienced a resurgence of religious belief. Secular and nationalist parties are generally preferred during elections in the region even as religion remains a core value of the people. The majority Muslim, Buddhist, Christian, and other populations of the region have officially shunned the fundamentalist and violent path.
Despite a tradition of tolerance and pluralism, however, across Southeast Asia there has been a resurgence of religion in recent times. While it is true that only a small minority may be called fundamentalist, it is equally important to note that groups that advocate extremism are active in most of the countries in the region and, to a certain extent, enjoy official patronage. Even though, for the most part, the grievances of radical Muslims in the region have been confined to limited geographical spaces, since the early 1990s, there has been a noticeable expansion of both radical Islamists and their transnational connections. Some Muslims would argue for the implementation of a strict Islamic law in the society but would not advocate the use of violence. However, some others—arguably, fringe groups—in the region indulge in terroristic activities in the name of religion. The resurgence of religion is in part inspired by links to the Middle East and elsewhere in the world. However, Islam is not the only religion that is affected by fundamentalism. The situation in Burma, where the minority Rohingya Muslims are being brutally and violently persecuted by chauvinistic Buddhists, has been described by human rights groups such as Amnesty International as “genocide.” Fundamentalist upsurge in multiracial societies like Southeast Asia could tear apart their social fabric and generate political instabilities. As a region of great strategic importance, religious as well as political developments there will be watched carefully. It needs, however, to be reiterated that nonfundamentalist forms of religion is the hallmark of all religions.
Discussions on religious fundamentalism are closely linked to the concept of secularism. In the 1950s and 1960s, it was fashionable to speak about secularization as a process linked to the decline of religion. There were great expectations that under the impact of modernization—characterized by urbanization, market economy and the explosion of information—the influence of religion would gradually decline, especially in Eastern societies. As the sectarian and fundamentalist forces were on the rise around the world, such expectations were abandoned. Rather than an era of rampant secularization and the decline of religion, the current period is characterized by a revival of religion and, indeed, the return of the sacred. The resurgence of religious fundamentalism that accompanied the revival of religion in most traditional societies has considerable significance for pluralistic societies such as in Southeast Asia with their fragile intercommunal framework. While academic notions about the retreat of religion and the universalization of the secularization process were highly exaggerated, it is important to note that most traditional societies had a religious basis rooted largely in a secularist worldview. Such an approach does not imply that religion has little significance in public life or politics. Modern history has shown that reformed religion is often the best basis for building a secular society that recognizes the unity of humanity and that can transcend divisive spiritual, communal, and materialist forces in the society, and yet make space for authentic expressions of spirituality.