Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures

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ZOROASTRIANISM

With a history of some 3,000 years, the Zoroastrian religious tradition is one of the most ancient religious traditions. It is the most important and best-known religious tradition of ancient, or pre-Islamic Iran, also known as Persia. It takes its name from that of its founder, Zarathustra (Zoroaster), who probably lived around the beginning of the first millennium BCE. Another name for it, Mazdaism, is derived from the tradition’s supreme deity, Mazda (“wise”) or Ahura Mazda (“wise lord”).

The roots of the religious tradition can be located in an eastern Iranian tribal and basically pastoral society. The tradition originated approximately 1000 BCE. But its clear conservatism and strong traditionalism appear to be manifestations of a cultural attitude that emerged during the Sasanid period (third to seventh century CE). The Sasanids consciously sought to resuscitate Iranian traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence.

Central to the Zoroastrian tradition is a monotheistic belief in God, known by the Avestan name Ahura Mazda. He is the supreme lord of creation, and for practical and devotional purposes, the only one. Indeed, the primary innovation of Zoroastrian religious tradition, which sets it apart from other Indo-European peoples in the Near East and Central Asia, is its emphasis on monotheism. At the same time, its outstanding feature, in the context of the entire Indo-Mediterranean world, is its radical dualism. Monotheism and dualism are closely linked in the Zoroastrian religious tradition. They are not in conflict with each other, for monotheism is in opposition to polytheism, not to dualism. In fact, dualism, far from being a protest against monotheism, is a necessary and logical consequence of monotheism; its purpose is to explain the origins of evil. The basis of dualism is essentially ethical. The nature of the two opposing Zoroastrian spirits, Spenta Mainyu (“beneficent spirit”) and Angra Mainyu (“hostile spirit”), who are twin children of Ahura Mazda, results from the choices they made between “truth” and “falsehood,” between good thoughts, good words, and good deeds and evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds. The choices made by the two spirits lie at the root of Zoroastrian dualism and act as a prototype of the choices faced by each individual as he or she decides whether to follow the path of truth or that of untruth. It is incumbent on the faithful to choose the truth, not only so that individually they may achieve the reward of the righteous beyond death, but so that the truth may triumph in the world. Upon death, according to Zoroastrian belief, the soul of the deceased crosses the Bridge of the Separator (Chinvat), that widens to permit easy passage of the righteous and narrows to a knife-edge for the wicked so they fall into the abyss of torment below.

A representation of Ahura Mazda, a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one true God. (Vladimir Melnik/Dreamstime.com)

The tradition also associates with Ahura Mazda, in a subordinate way, and to a number of other divine figures, such as Mithra. In addition to the good entities and spirits, the tradition supposes corresponding evil spirits. From the creation through the present age to the final judgment and reordering of the universe, the events of this world are seen as a contest between the powers of good and evil. Zoroastrian ethical teachings place great stress on personal honesty and on striving for the harmony of all creatures, both in the world of nature and in human society. The world, as such, is seen as good and to be enjoyed. At the same time, there is the danger of pollution in the world; so elaborate steps are taken in Zoroastrian ritual and practice to maintain purity.

With a history of some 3,000 years, Zoroastrianism is one of the most ancient religious traditions. It is preserved by the Parsis, a community in western India. During the nineteenth century CE, Parsi traders, along with their Zoroastrian tradition, followed the sea routes of the British Empire around the Indian Ocean, settling in such major Southeast Asian ports as Rangoon and Singapore. From these centers they expanded their trade throughout the region, until today Parsi communities are to be found in Singapore, by far the largest, with smaller communities in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Brunei.

David C. Scott

Ceremonial obligations are carried out in large measure by the priests, who are always male. Eligibility for the priesthood is hereditary, as priests may marry and raise families. To become a priest, a boy learns the Avestan prayers and services, usually by rote. Prayers are said on behalf of the individual by the priest, whether or not the individual is present in the temple. Prayers are always said in Avestan—the language of Zoroastrian scripture, Avesta, from which its name derives—rather than modern vernaculars. Zoroastrians have traditionally held that the proper pronunciation of the specific Avestan sounds has a mantra-like power to make the prayer efficacious. Prayers are said by the priest on behalf of the individual.

Central to Zoroastrian worship is the maintenance of a fire as the sign of divine power, presence, and purity. In Fire Temples (Agiari), such a fire will burn perpetually, while in other prayer halls and private homes, the fire may be kindled for observances outside the temple.

Every Zoroastrian child is initiated into the duties of the religious tradition before puberty in a ceremony called Navjote (“new birth”). Boys and girls receive a white undershirt, sudreh, and a woven wool cord, kusti, to be wrapped three times around the waist. Both are to be worn constantly, except when bathing.

Zoroastrians’ funeral practices include washing the corpse, putting the sudreh and kusti on and covering it with a white sheet. After relatives and friends respectfully file past, the body is consigned to the Tower of Silence (Dakhma) for final disposal by carnivorous birds and the natural elements, so as not to pollute the earth or fire. On the third and fourth days after death, prayers are offered for safe passage of the soul across the Chinvat Bridge, to face judgment of the actions done during life on earth.

The Zoroastrian religious tradition is preserved by the Parsis, a community in western India. As their name, meaning “Persians,” indicates, they trace their ancestry to pre-Islamic Iran where, as noted above, the tradition had been the established religion of the Sasanid Empire. During the nineteenth century, the Parsi traders, along with their Zoroastrian tradition, followed the sea routes of the British Empire around the Indian Ocean, settling in such major Southeast Asian ports as Rangoon and Singapore. From these centers, they expanded their trade throughout the region. Today, Parsi communities are to be found in Singapore, by far the largest, followed by Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Brunei.

The prominent Parsi Association in Singapore was established and registered in 1954. Membership in the association is open to all Parsi-Zoroastrians residing in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and Brunei. The object of the association is to promote the welfare of Parsis resident in these countries. Some of the incidental objects of the association are the promotion of the knowledge and understanding of the Zoroastrian religion, the proper care of the Parsi Funeral Ground, and assisting the Public Trustee in the management of the Parsi Lodge Charity.

Today, Zoroastrians number scarcely more than 130,000 worldwide, chiefly in India and Iran. Nevertheless, many of the current Zoroastrians are highly educated and enjoy an influence out of all proportion to their numbers. Modern-era influences have a significant impact on individual/local beliefs, practices, values, and vocabulary, often complementing and enriching tradition but sometimes displacing tradition entirely. A sense of a need for maintenance of tradition through adaptive change, including the possible admission of non-Zoroastrian spouses to membership and certainly a sophisticated presentation of Zoroastrian belief and practice, is one of the recent contributions of overseas Parsis. With them may lie the chapters of Zoroastrian history still to be written.

David C. Scott

See also: Brunei Darussalam; Colonialism; Diaspora; Indonesia; Islam; Malaysia; Morality; Myanmar (Burma); Ritual Dynamics; Singapore; Spirit Mediumship; Thailand.

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ZOROASTRIANISM

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