PART I
1. Mario Vargas Llosa, El comercio, May 20, 1991, B4. The translation into English in the text is mine.
2. Ibid.
3. Personal interview with Dora de Vargas, Lima, May 22, 1991.
4. Vargas Llosa, A Fish in Water, 10.
5. Vargas Llosa, “On Being Nine and First Seeing the Sea,” 58.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. Vargas Llosa, Historia secreta de una novela, 19.
9. M. J. Fenwick, Dependency Theory and Literary Analysis: Reflections on Vargas Llosa’s The Green House, 42.
10. Ibid., 65.
11. Vargas Llosa, Historia secreta de una novela, 15–16.
12. Vargas Llosa, El pez en el agua, 56.
13. This experience, his experience at the newspaper La Crónica, and his experience as a presidential candidate were the three times in his life that he had the special opportunity to view intensely all levels of Peruvian society.
14. José Miguel Oviedo, Mario Vargas Llosa: La invención de una realidad, 23.
15. Vargas Llosa makes a strong statement about both his childhood trauma and his lifelong campaign against all forms of authoritarian power (which tends to refer to his authoritarian father) in an article published in Salmagundi in 2007: “I reject with my whole being the barbarism represented by military caudillos and strongman dictatorships—all of them, without exception of the right or the left—; and stupid machismo; and nationalism, the great smokescreen behind which governments justify their own arms race mania and the abundant thievery it sanctions” (“Latin America from the Inside Out,” Salmagundi 153–154 [Winter–Spring 2007]: 32–41).
16. Vargas Llosa, A Writer’s Reality, 43.
17. Fenwick, Dependency Theory and Literary Analysis, 55–76.
18. Vargas Llosa, El pez en el agua, 104.
19. Since writing that first play during his senior year in high school, Vargas Llosa has created eight plays in all: La señorita de Tacna (1981); Kathie y el hipopótamo (1983); La Chunga (1986); El loco de los balcones (1993); Ojos bonitos, cuadros feos (1996); Odiseo y Penélope (2007); Al pie del Támesis (2008); Las mil noches y una noche (2009). In the productions of these plays, which have been performed in several nations, Vargas Llosa has taken a variety of roles, including that of actor. The thematic content of these plays elaborates on topics discussed in his fiction, such as the fundamental importance of storytelling for human beings.
20. Fenwick, Dependency Theory and Literary Analysis, 55–76.
21. Vargas Llosa, La verdad de las mentiras, 135.
22. See David Aberbach on trauma and writing: Aberbach, Surviving Trauma: Loss, Literature, and Psychoanalysis.
23. Vargas Llosa, “Prólogo,” Los jefes, 9.
24. Ibid., 4–6.
25. Vargas Llosa described this experience in an interview with Elena Poniatowska: “Al fin, un escritor que le apasiona escribir, no lo que se diga de sus libros,” 2–3.
26. Todd Millicent, Peru: A Land of Contrast, 247.
27. Ibid., 289.
28. Vargas Llosa, Historia secreta de una novela, 48.
29. Ibid., 49.
30. Deslumbrado is the exact word Vargas Llosa has used in Spanish to describe how he felt; I am translating this as “stunned” in English.
31. I quote this statement by Carlos Fuentes as it appears in Oviedo, Mario Vargas Llosa: La invención de una realidad, 36.
32. Gene Bell-Villada has studied the specific passage in part II, ch. 8 of Madame Bovary; see “The Inventions and Reinventions of Mario Vargas Llosa,” Salmagundi 153–154 (Winter–Spring 2007).
33. Vargas Llosa, The Green House, 249.
34. Ibid., 347
35. Ibid., 347
36. The 1960s “Boom” resulted from the international recognition of the writing of Carlos Fuentes, Mario Vargas Llosa, Gabriel García Márquez, Julio Cortázar, and José Donoso; I will offer further details later in part I. See my further elaboration in The Twentieth-Century Spanish American Novel and The Writings of Carlos Fuentes, as well as José Donoso’s Historia personal del “Boom”.
37. Vargas Llosa’s conflict with García Márquez in 1974 led to his decision not to allow the publication of any new editions or translations of this book. Decades later, the only extant edition of García Márquez: Historia de un deicidio is the first one.
38. I studied at Washington State from 1968 to 1972; years later, well after Vargas Llosa’s departure from the campus, I listened to faculty comments on Vargas Llosa’s presence in the department in 1968, particularly his passion for Flaubert; see epilogue for more details.
39. Jean Franco, “Conversations and Confessions: Self and Character in The Fall and Conversation in The Cathedral” 67.
40. See Mary Davis, “Mario Vargas Llosa: The Necessary Scapegoat.”
41. Raymond L. Williams, Vargas Llosa: Otra historia de un deicidio, 53.
42. Under the criteria I am using, Vargas Llosa has produced five “entertainments” and six “total” novels.
43. Vargas Llosa, Conversación en La Catedral, 73. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
44. With respect to the Postboom, Donald Shaw’s Nueva narrativa hispano-americana: Boom, Postboom, Postmodernismo, chs. 8 and 19. Shaw observes the reaction against technical experimentation.
45. Vargas Llosa, Captain Pantoja and the Special Service (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 14. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
46. Vargas Llosa’s prizes in this period were as follows: Premio Príncipe de Asturias de las Letras, in Spain, 1987; Premio Ritz París Hemingway, in France, 1985; Premio de Periodismo Ramón Godó Lallana, in Spain, 1979; Premio de la Crítica, in Argentina, 1981; Premio del Instituto Italo-Latinoameriano, in Italy, 1982.
47. See parts II and III for further discussion of demons and trauma in Vargas Llosa’s work.
48. Oviedo, “A Conversation with Mario Vargas Llosa about La tía Julia y el escribidor,” 155.
49. Julia Urquides Illanes, Lo que Varguitas no dijo [What Vargas Llosa didn’t say] (La Paz: Khana Cruz, 1985).
50. Vargas Llosa, Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, trans. Helen R. Lane (New York: Avon, 1983). Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
51. For a discussion of readers and writers in this novel, see Carlos Alonso, “La tía Julia y el escribidor: The Writing Subject’s Fantasy of Empowerment,” PMLA 106 (Jan. 1991), and Williams, “La tía Julia y el escribidor: Escritores y lectores,” Texto crítico 5.13 (April–June 1979): 179–209.
52. Ricardo Setti, Diálogo con Vargas Llosa y otros ensayos y conferencias de Vargas Llosa, 83.
53. Ibid., 39.
54. Ibid., 40.
55. Interview with Mario Vargas Llosa, Washington Post, Oct. 1, 1984, B2.
56. Ibid.
57. Ángel Rama, “La guerra del fin del mundo: Una obra maestra del fanatismo artístico.”
58. Robert Stone, “Revolution as Ritual,” New York Times Book Review, Aug. 12, 1984, 1 and 24.
59. Bruce Allen, Christian Science Monitor Book Review, Oct. 5, 1984, B1.
60. Vargas Llosa, “The Latin-American Novel Today,” Books Abroad 44.1 (Winter 1970): 8.
61. Euclides da Cunha, Rebellion in the Backlands, 143.
62. Alfred MacAdam has compared the two texts in “Euclides da Cunha y Mario Vargas Llosa: Meditaciones intertextuales,” Revista Iberoamericana 126 (Jan.–March 1984): 157–164. See also Leopoldo Bernucci, A imitação dos sentidos: Prógonos, contemporâneos e epígonos de Euclides da Cunha.
63. Vargas Llosa, “Inquest in the Andes,” New York Times Magazine, July 31, 1983, 18–23.
64. Jorge Salazar, “La nueva novela de Mario Vargas Llosa,” Caretas, Nov. 19, 1984, 31.
65. Ibid.
66. Sara Castro Klarén, Understanding Mario Vargas Llosa, 206–222.
67. Álvaro Vargas Llosa, El diablo en campaña, 15.
68. Ibid., 19.
69. Diario de Irak (2003, with photographs by Morgana Vargas Llosa). Published only in Spanish and yet to be translated into English, this book consists of a series of journalistic accounts that the author wrote in Iraq from June 25 to July 6, 2003. These pieces appeared originally in newspapers in Europe and Latin America in August 2003. Throughout this book, Vargas Llosa comments upon a topic that has always interested him: the potential for creating a modern, democratic state with full protection of human rights in Latin America. Vargas Llosa uncovers the mechanisms for Saddam Hussein’s dictatorship in Iraq and notes that often they are similar to what he had learned about the dictatorship of Trujillo in the Dominican Republic, the focus of the novel La fiesta del Chivo.
70. Efraín Kristal, Temptation of the Word, 191.
71. Vargas Llosa, La utopía arcaica, 248 (“the restoration of a past mythically embellished with elements assimilated from the ‘dominant’ culture and the creative fantasy of writers and artists”; my translation).
72. Anonymous, “íEs aquí el Paraíso?,” Revista de Libros 76 (June 2003).
73. El viaje a la ficción is his book on Juan Carlos Onetti, his admired friend from the 1960s. Among the Latin American writers whom Vargas Llosa has admired his entire adult life—a list that would include Jorge Luis Borges, Juan Rulfo, and Alejo Carpentier—Julio Cortázar and Juan Carlos Onetti have a special place. On the basis of his early short stories, Cortázar had come to be admired throughout Latin America by the 1950s, and became amply recognized and translated beginning in the 1960s as part of the 1960s Boom. The Uruguayan Onetti, however, lived most of his life as a relatively obscure and unrecognized writer, despite having produced a body of work, beginning in the late 1930s, that has been quietly admired by many writers and, eventually, by a growing number of critics and scholars. Vargas Llosa’s book on Onetti appeared in 2008 and has not been translated into English. The real “crater” of the book, to use Vargas Llosa’s term for the unforgettable moment of a book, appears in the first section, “El viaje a la ficción.” In it, Vargas Llosa reveals more details about his 1958 trip to the Amazon, when he first heard about an hablador, a storyteller from a Machiguenga tribe. From this anecdote, Vargas Llosa claims that Onetti, like the hablador, had this special gift for telling exceptionally powerful stories.
74. Vargas Llosa made this declaration on national television in Mexico on Aug. 30, 1990. Octavio Paz had invited Vargas Llosa to a summit of intellectuals titled “Encuentro Vuelta, el Siglo XX: La experiencia de la libertad”; this statement shook the Mexican political establishment, including President Carlos Salinas de Gotari.
75. Public dialogue, Mario Vargas Llosa with Raymond L. Williams, Instituto Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico, May 12, 2000.
76. I offer a more detailed narrative of Vargas Llosa’s Nobel week in the epilogue.
PART II
1. Los cuadernos de don Rigoberto is among the lighter of his “entertainments”; I will attempt to demonstrate that Travesuras de la niña mala is a more substantive entertainment than most of the novels in this category.
2. Jean Franco has discussed Borges as a writer interested in “privatized” experience in “The Utopia and the Tired Man,” in Critical Passions.
3. Vargas Llosa, Death in the Andes, 55.
4. Misha Kokotovic, “Vargas Llosa in the Andes: The Racial Discourse of Neoliberalism,” 158.
5. Deborah Cohn, “The Political Novels: The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta and Death in the Andes,” 94.
6. See Jonathan Culler, The Literary in Theory; Vargas Llosa, Cartas a un joven novelista; Vargas Llosa, La tentación de lo imposible: Víctor Hugo y Los Miserables.
7. See ch. 8, “Omniscience,” in Culler’s The Literary in Theory. Subsequent quotations are cited parenthetically.
8. Kristal, Temptation of the Word, 187–188.
9. Ibid., 188.
10. Roy C. Boland, “Ni de derecha ni de izquierda: La visión moral en las novelas de Mario Vargas Llosa,” 236.
11. Ibid., 237.
12. Cohn, “The Political Novels: The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta and Death in the Andes,” 93.
13. See Williams, “The Dynamic Structure of El otoño del patriarca.”
14. Vargas Llosa, The Feast of the Goat, trans. Edith Grossman (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 2001), 3. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
15. See Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative, and History; Sigmund Freud, Beyond the Pleasure Principle (The Standard Edition), trans. James Strachey (New York: Liveright, 1961); Arthur W. Frank, The Wounded Storyteller: Body, Illness, and Ethics; Aberbach, Surviving Trauma: Loss, Literature, and Psychoanalysis; Judith Hehrman, Trauma and Recovery.
16. Clive Griffin, “The Dictator Novel: The Feast of the Goat,” 117–118.
17. Bell-Villada, “Sex, Politics, and High Art: Vargas Llosa’s Long Road to The Feast of the Goat” in Vargas Llosa and Latin American Politics, ed. Juan E. De Castro and Nicholas Birns (New York: Palgrave, 2010), 139–157
18. Griffin, “The Dictator Novel: The Feast of the Goat” 120.
19. Vargas Llosa, El paraíso en la otra esquina (Madrid: Aguilar, 2003): “Los marquesanos eran más espontáneos y libres que los tahitianos en asuntos sexuales” (339).
20. Vargas Llosa, The Way to Paradise, trans. Natasha Wimmer (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2003), 59; El paraíso en la otra esquina, 67–68.
21. Vargas Llosa, The Way to Paradise, 162.
22. Kristal, “From Utopia to Reconciliation,” in The Cambridge Companion to Mario Vargas Llosa, ed. Kristal and John King (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 139.
23. Ibid.
24. It is Kristal who has called Ricardo “apolitical.” This does not correspond exactly with my characterization of him, as indicated in the body of this chapter; rather, I argue that Ricardo is in some ways apparently “apolitical,” but with nuances in his political interests. See Kristal, “From Utopia to Reconciliation.”
25. This quotation in the original Spanish reads as follows: “Cada uno de nosotros es, sucesivamente, no uno, sino muchos. Y estas personalidades sucesivas, que emergen las unas de las otras, suelen ofrecer entre sí los más raros y asombrosos contrastes.”
26. Vargas Llosa, El sueño del celta (Madrid: Aguilar, 2010), 43. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
27. Liesl Schillinger’s review of The Dream of the Celt, “Traitor, Martyr, Liberator,” New York Times Book Review, June 24, 2012, 11.
28. The key to Vargas Llosa’s understanding of the character came from Joseph Conrad’s biography of Casement. Some titles available to Vargas Llosa in his portrayal of Roger Casement include Robert Kee, The Green Flag: A History of Irish Nationalism (New York: Penguin, 2001); W. J. McCormack, Roger Casement in Death; or, Haunting the Free State (Ireland: University College Dublin Press, 2003) (see this for an ample bibliography of additional titles). Soon after the appearance of El sueño del celta, Vargas Llosa’s publisher (Alfaguara) came forth with a volume of essays on the Congo, translated from the writings of G. W. Williams, Roger Casement, Arthur Conan Doyle, and Mark Twain. See La tragedia del Congo: George W. Williams, Roger Casement, Arthur Conan Doyle, and Mark Twain (Madrid: Alfaguara, 2010).
29. Schillinger, “Traitor, Martyr, Liberator,” 11.
30. Kristal, “From Utopia to Reconciliation: The Way to Paradise, The Bad Girl, and The Dream of the Celt” 142.
31. Ibid., 145.
32. Ibid., 146.
PART III
1. See Williams, “Two Organizing Principles in Pantaleón y las visitadoras.”
2. Carlos Fuentes and Gabriel García Márquez have written on Cervantes in numerous essays, as well as speaking about him in numerous interviews. Fuentes wrote a book on Cervantes, Cervantes; o, La crítica de la lectura (Mexico: Joaquín Mortiz, 1976). Juan Carlos Onetti and García Márquez have written and spoken repeatedly on Faulkner.
3. Vargas Llosa, “Prólogo,” Joanot Martorell, Carta de batalla por Tirant lo Blanc, 9.
4. Martorell, Tirant lo Blanc, ed. Rosa Giner and Joan Pellicer (Valencia: Eliseu Climent, 2005). The book originally appeared in Spanish in 1511, in Italian in 1538, and in English in 1984.
5. Martorell, Tirant lo Blanc, trans. David H. Rosenthal (New York: Schocken Books, 1984), 19. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
6. See the work of Cathy Caruth, David Aberbach, Judith Hehrman, and others on trauma and healing.
7. See Vargas Llosa, Viaje a la ficción, for the most detailed description of his first trip to the Amazon.
8. Major critics of the 1960s novels of Fuentes, García Márquez, Cortázar, and Vargas Llosa have generally eschewed ecocritical approaches. Important studies of Cien años de soledad include Josefina Ludmer, Cien años de soledad: Una interpretación (Buenos Aires: Tiempo Contemporáneo, 1972); George McMurray, Gabriel García Márquez (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1977); McMurray, ed., Critical Essays on Gabriel García Márquez (Boston: Hall, 1987); Ricardo Gullón, “Gabriel García Márquez and the Lost Art of Storytelling,” Diacritics 1.1 (1971): 27–32; Emir Rodríguez Monegal, “Novedad y anacronismo en Cien años de soledad,” Revista Nacional de Cultura 29 (1968); Vargas Llosa, García Márquez: Historia de un deicidio (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1971); Suzanne Jill Levine, El espejo hablado: Un estudio de Cien años de soledad (Caracas: Monte Avila, 1975); and Edward Waters Hood, La ficción de Gabriel García Márquez: Repetición e intertextualidad (New York: Lang, 1993).
9. The rise of ecocriticism is fundamentally a phenomenon of the 1990s, but can be traced back to the 1960s and works such as Rachel Carson’s classic Silent Spring, originally published in 1962. Important critical bibliography of key works for ecocritical readings of literature include Leo Marx’s early study, The Machine in the Garden (1964); Joseph Meeker, The Comedy of Survival: Studies in Literary Ecology (1974); Annette Kolodny, The Lay of the Land: Metaphor as Experience in American Life and Letters (1975); Leonard Lutwack, The Role of Place in Literature (1984); Steven Rosedale, The Greening of Literary Scholarship (2002). The third and most recent book by Lawrence Buell on this subject, The Future of Environmental Criticism (2005), and other recent books, such as Practical Ecocriticism (2003) by Glen A. Love, are indicators that ecocriticism is a growing field. The aim of Love’s book is to initiate a more biologically informed ecocritical dialogue about literature and its relationship to nature and environmental concerns.
10. Early ecocriticism of the 1980s and early 1990s (now referred to as the “first wave”) placed emphasis on the nonhuman over the human. The definition of ecocriticism offered by the editors of the special issue of New Literary History is as follows: “challenges interpretation of its own grounding in the bedrock of natural fact, in the biosphere and indeed planetary conditions without which human life, much less humane letters, could not exist. Ecocriticism thus claims as its hermeneutic horizon nothing short of the literal horizon itself, the finite environment that a reader or writer occupies thanks not just to culturally coded determinants but also to natural determinants that antedate these, and will outlast them” (Herbert F. Tucker, “From the Editors,” New Literary History 3 [1999]: 505).
11. Jennifer French, Nature, Neocolonialism, and the Spanish American Regional Writers, 7.
12. See McMurray, “The Role of Climate in Twentieth-Century Spanish American Fiction,” in Climate and Literature: Reflections on the Environment, ed. Janet Pérez and Wendell Aycock (Lubbock: Texas Tech Press, 1995), 55–72.
13. Patricia Struebig, “Nature and Sexuality in Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude” Selecta: Journal of the Pacific Northwest Council on Foreign Languages 5 (1984): 60.
14. I have studied Cien años de soledad in the context of the modern in A Companion to Gabriel García Márquez.
15. See Ursula K. Heise, “Local Rock and Global Plastic: World Ecology and the Experience of Place,” Comparative Literature Studies 41.1 (2004): 126–152.
16. Bell-Villada, Gabriel García Márquez: The Man and His Work (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990).
17. The two books discussed here are Alexander Von Humboldt’s Personal Narrative (New York: Penguin, 1996) and Cosmos (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1850). All quotations are from these editions.
18. Gabriel García Márquez, Cien años de soledad (Buenos Aires: Sud-americana, 1970), 68. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
19. Vargas Llosa, The Green House, 19. All subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
20. Cohn, “The Political Novels: The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta and Death in the Andes” 88–92.
21. Jonathan Tittler, “Ecological Criticism and Spanish American Fiction,” in Adrian Taylor Kane, ed., The Natural World in Latin American Literatures: Ecocritical Essays on Twentieth-Century Writing (North Carolina: McFarland, 2010), 11–36.
22. See Buell, Environmental Imagination, ch. 9.
23. Fiona J. Mackintosh, “Innocence and Corruption: Who Killed Palomino Molero? and The Storyteller,” in Kristal and King, 80.
24. Tittler, “Ecological Criticism and Spanish American Fiction,” 29.
25. Vargas Llosa, El hablador (Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1987), 94. Subsequent quotations are from this edition and are cited parenthetically.
26. When I speak of “orality,” I refer to “primary orality” as defined by Walter Ong in Orality and Literacy, ch. 2.
27. Vargas Llosa, El sueño del celta, 59.
28. My ecocritical reading of Vargas Llosa has been improved by discussions in a graduate seminar on modern Latin American fiction (selected texts of Vargas Llosa and Mexican writers) offered at the University of California, Riverside, in fall 2012. Graduate students Diana Dodson Lee and Charles Stuart provided useful insights for this ecocritical rereading.
29. The term novela total was popularized in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s by numerous critics, but important early sources were Fuentes’s La nueva narrativa hispanoamericana (1969) and Vargas Llosa’s own García Márquez: Historia de un deicidio (1971).
30. Personal interview with Mario Vargas Llosa, Madrid, July 4, 2011. See the appendix.
31. Fredric Jameson, “Foreword,” Jean-Francois Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, xvii.
32. Steven Conner, Postmodernist Culture: An Introduction to Theories of the Contemporary (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 107
33. Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act, 36.
34. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, 39.
35. Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism, 49.
36. See Angela McRobbie, Postmodernism and Popular Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994).
37. Keith Booker, Vargas Llosa among the Postmodernists, 23.
38. Rosemary Geisdorfer Feal and Carlos Feal, Painting and the Page, 197
39. Ibid., 21.
EPILOGUE
1. My first book-length critical study was in English, Mario Vargas Llosa (1986). The second book, Vargas Llosa: Historia de un deicidio (2000), began as a biography and was started in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Instead of being a biography, however, in its final form it was a book in Spanish modeled after Vargas Llosa’s García Márquez: Historia de un deicidio. This was also my first attempt at writing about Vargas Llosa using some of his own critical concepts. The present study in English is a follow-up, focusing on the twenty-first century but with that same idea. Thus I have mentioned some of Vargas Llosa’s concepts, such as “crater,” “communicating vessels,” and the like, as well as utilizing concepts from narratology and readings in trauma and literature.
2. This conversation appeared in print under the title “Mario Vargas Llosa on D.H. Lawrence: An Interview,” by Fletcher Fairey, in Williams, ed., The Novel in the Americas, 151–156.
3. Participants in this faculty seminar at Washington University in St. Louis included William H. Gass, David May Distinguished University Professor, Philosophy and English, whose most recent book at the time of the faculty seminar was Habitations of the Word (1985); Michel Rybalka, professor of French, who taught contemporary French literature, writing extensively on Vargas Llosa’s former idol, Jean-Paul Sartre, as well as on Boris Vian and Alain Robbe-Grillet; Richard Watson, professor of philosophy and author of philosophical studies and creative work; and Richard J. Walter, professor of Latin American history.
4. Much of the conversation in the faculty seminar was recorded and published later as an interview; see “The Boom Twenty Years Later: An Interview with Mario Vargas Llosa.”
5. Ibid., 205.
6. Jean O’Bryan-Knight, “Let’s Make Owners and Entrepreneurs: Glimpses of Free Marketeers in Vargas Llosa’s Novels,” in Vargas Llosa and Latin American Politics, ed. J. E. DeCastro and Nicholas Birns (New York: Palgrave, 2010), 47–68.
7. For this observation on Hayek, I am indebted to retired professor of philosophy Arthur Flemming (unpublished interview, Dec. 1, 2012).
8. Williams, “Mario Vargas Llosa Interviewed on the Mississippi: Pilgrimage to Oxford.”
9. García Márquez explains his use of a single image for structuring his novels in Williams, “The Visual Arts, the Poetization of Space, and Writing: An Interview with Gabriel Gárcia Márquez,” PMLA 104 (1989): 131–140.