Introduction
The world needs metallurgists! The continued supply of the elements, most of which are metals, is critical for the sustainability of our technologically-based society. We need an industry that can deliver these resources, and we need educated people to design and efficiently operate the many, varied and complex production processes that make up the industry.
So, what do we expect of the metallurgists of the future? What knowledge, skills and attributes should our future metallurgy graduates have? How can our educational systems deliver these outcomes? I have used the word “Metallurgist” to this point because some in the profession have Applied Science qualifications; most metallurgist now graduate as Metallurgical Engineers. The following discussion is focussed on metallurgical engineering.
Looking back, in the late 19th century Schools of Mines were established close to major mining operations to specifically educate the workforce on the technologies used in these operations; most of these mines and associated Schools have closed, those Schools that have survived have significantly changed focus and diversified into other fields of education. Minerals processing is by necessity undertaken at the mine site but practices have changed, metallurgists are now recruited from a broader geographical areas nationally and internationally. By the early 20th century, with the rapid increase in fundamental knowledge and understanding of physical systems, and the expansion of mass manufacturing technologies, metallurgical engineering education in Europe and North America covered a wide range of topics from mineral processing to the thermal treatment and manufacturing of steel . Primary metal production has peaked in these countries and Europe has embraced recycling and secondary metal production in a resurgence of activities to reshape their economies. In China, undergraduate education at individual Universities until recent years was based on the industry focus, e.g. Mineral Processing , Iron and Steel , Non-Ferrous Metallurgy ; the offerings have broadened so these specialisations now only form a small part of individual university profiles. There has been a significant growth in the number of students and the proportion of the population undertaking tertiary education in most countries around the world, but these trends have not necessarily been reflected uniformly across the globe in metallurgy science or engineering.
Looking to the future, in 2000 [1] predicted that the coming years will see, (i) A proliferation of information, (ii) Multi-disciplinary technological development, (iii) Globalised markets, (iv) Endangered environment , (v) Emerging social responsibility, and, (vi) Rapid change. There was another factor, (vii) Participatory corporate structures, while there is no clear evidence of that the latter has been achieved, however, the rest of the points seem to be well made and remain valid today [2]. We might add, (viii) the Digital revolution that is changing all aspects of technology and everyday life in a way and extent not previously envisaged.
What educational programs do we need to develop for future metallurgists for the roles they may play in these scenarios? These are questions we need to ask before we design educational programs for the next generation and develop strategies to achieve these outcomes.
What?
What will be the principal careers, career paths and roles for metallurgists in the future?
As pointed out by [1], “the system of education is closely woven into the fabric of the society in which it operates”. For this reason the answers given to these questions will differ depending on when, where and who you ask.
Conventional career and learning pathways taken by metallurgical engineers over time
Starting at the first degree, most students study full time but are required to obtain some experience (usually in the long break between semesters) for a minimum time under the supervision of a professional engineer. Some undergraduate programs are structured to provide work experience through parallel cadetships or through COOP programs to provide opportunities for students to more fully develop graduate attributes and become more familiar with engineering practice. There are at present a limited number of “on line” rather than residential certificate and associate degree programs on offer but in general further study is required before full engineering accreditation is given to those following this path.
The overall aim of most ME degrees currently offered is to provide advanced skills in a specific branch of engineering. These degrees are to prepare for technical roles in industry in design and operations.
Single major Metallurgical engineering programs generally provide sufficient knowledge and skills levels for students to join the industry directly after graduation. Graduate training programs within companies generally provide a range of experiences in different parts of the operations to provide recent recruits with a broader appreciation of the business, and relationships between and interdependence of the different parts of the operation.
It is desirable that new graduates receive mentoring, advice, guidance and instruction from Professional engineers within the company. Updates on industry trends and practice are usually provided in the form of continuing professional development (CPD); the extent to which this is undertaken depends critically on the company and management practice.
Metallurgists seeking a career in industry research and development (R&D), consultancies and applied research in industry or at tertiary Institutions usually undertake a research higher degree (MPhil, PhD) to develop high-level specialist knowledge, and advanced technical and critical thinking skills.
It is clear from these pathways that learning does not stop at the Uni gate. Again quoting from [1] “The education that succeeds will be the one that facilitates lifelong learning equipping students with the skills they will need to adapt to change”.
A challenge for education providers and employers of the future is to integrate the career needs to options for educational advancement consistent with life-long learning models. This investment brings advantage to industry through establishing and retaining the corporate memory, providing career pathway and enhancing rates of retention of well-motivated employees.
How?
Turning to the question of how can engineers develop the knowledge, skills, attributes and values for these roles?
Knowledge As pointed out in a previous review [1, 2], over recent decades the “Knowledge base has grown so much that it is impossible for a single engineering curriculum to cover all and for graduate engineers to learn everything they before they graduate.” In addition, “engineers of tomorrow will work in a wide range of process operations throughout their careers”.
Continue to offer single-major specialised programs e.g. this is appropriate if there is a strong and sustained demand for a particular specialisation, e.g. Metallurgical Engineering. Primary metal production starts at the mine site and the International Mineral Processing Council (IMPC) has produced a road map recommending the suite of courses and skills that are desirable for degrees in Mineral Processing [3]. In some countries, particularly South America, Russia, parts of Asia, the standard model is 5–6 year BE, giving genuine breadth and depth to the programs.
- Combine core engineering skills with other closely related degree specialisations in the form of dual major or dual degree programs. A range of options for these is illustrated in Fig. 2 showing potential relationships with related disciplines. An important feature of this option from a metallurgical engineering perspective is maintain the process metallurgy focus to the degree so that metallurgy is offered as a genuine major; to sustain this model strong internal support and collaboration within particular educational institutions is required. If metallurgy becomes a minor with limited breadth and depth, or is only available in introductory courses, the experience to date is that the program will struggle to survive in the long term in the University system; relying on the efforts of one or two academics is unstable and unsustainable. The aim should be to retain a critical mass; an academic complement with sufficient specialist skills and expertise to be able to genuinely offer a major program; this latter point is recognised in professional engineering criteria (see discussion below).
Fig. 2Combinations of complementary and closely related fields of engineering knowledge and skills with metallurgy at the core
Produce generalist scientist/engineers BSc/BE (3 or 4 years) having core science and engineering fundamentals but with abilities to interact with, and be informed by, other disciplines. In this model , metallurgy would be only offered at the introductory level as part of a suite of electives. This provides preparation for subsequent coursework masters programs in specialist areas including Metallurgical Engineering if the student wishes to subsequently pursue further studies in depth. The danger here is that the ME program becomes effectively a re-labelled undergraduate program rather than providing genuine Masters level studies, creating confusion about the real level of competence attained. Some observations on the impact of the Bologna Model on mineral processing education are provided by [4].
Skills/Attributes
To be able to design appropriate curricula to meet these needs it is useful to understand what has changed in engineering curricula over time—perhaps even since current practicing engineers graduated themselves.
- (1)
from hands-on and practical emphasis to engineering science and analytical emphasis;
- (2)
to outcomes-based education and accreditation;
- (3)
to emphasizing engineering design;
- (4)
to applying education, learning, and social behavioural sciences research;
- (5)
to integrating information, computational, and communications technology in education.”
Significant efforts have been made to define the skills and graduate competencies required by engineers. Typically the accreditation of engineers is overseen by Professional societies, e.g. American (ABET) [6], Engineers Australia (EA) [7], Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) [8], China Engineering Education Accreditation Association (CEEAA) [9].
The criteria used in accreditation have changed overtime from rigid and prescriptive approaches, requiring originally definition of when and how learning takes place, to an “outcomes-based” accreditation approach—“using an outcomes-oriented graduate capabilities standard against which the program is considered for accreditation; it does not specify the means by which these standards are met, giving the education provider freedom to design and execute programs” [7].
Similarly, the IChemE’s accreditation decisions are currently based an evidence-based assessment of the learning outcomes delivered by the degree programme and the levels at which these are achieved.
- (a)
an ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering,
- (b)
an ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data,
- (c)
an ability to design a system, component, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, manufacturability, and sustainability ,
- (d)
an ability to function on multidisciplinary teams,
- (e)
an ability to identify, formulate, and solve engineering problems,
- (f)
an understanding of professional and ethical responsibility,
- (g)
an ability to communicate effectively,
- (h)
the broad education necessary to understand the impact of engineering solutions in a global, economic, environmental, and societal context,
- (i)
a recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in life-long learning,
- (j)
a knowledge of contemporary issues,
- (k)
an ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for engineering practice.”
Other attributes include, problem solving, critical and creative thinking, interpersonal and teamwork communication skills, integrative and systems thinking and change management skills [1].
As metallurgical engineers we understand and appreciate that the technological processes we operate are complex, and potentially can cause harm if they are not designed and controlled appropriately. Given the importance of these issues, understanding how to think about safety; environmental, personal and economic risk, impact and risk management, professional responsibility and ethics, and how to decide on appropriate actions and outcomes associated with the issues, I personally believe should be part of graduate engineering education in the 21st century.
The future will see greater quantitative description of processes using the rapidly increasing computing capacity and speed. This opens the possibility of further improvement of process efficiencies through better control and optimisation. All process plants are complex networks of process streams. To be able to understand and describe in quantitative terms the interrelationships between processes, and the dynamic systems in which they operate, points to the need to integrate specialist metallurgy skills and expertise with the “systems thinking” approach developed in chemical engineering. The systems approach and with it the ability to analyse and model process flow sheets adds an important new dimension to metallurgy programs. A dual BE major in Chemical and Metallurgical engineering provides the core engineering science, and process engineering knowledge and skills associated with conventional chemical and metallurgical engineering programs; this is the approach that has been adopted at The University of Queensland [10].
Post-graduation education and enhancing the competencies of practising professionals is a more difficult area to summarise and one that remains uncertain since there are a wide variety of career pathways.
Despite the availability of jobs in industry, there have been shortages in personnel with metallurgical technical skills over the past several decades. The shortages have been addressed by the industry in various ways [11], some more successful than others. In addition to encouraging increased BE enrolments options for further education include; Coursework Masters general (certification); Coursework Masters focussed on particular industry sectors (certification); Conversion courses for engineers without metallurgy background (certification); Short course formats (attendance); Conference (certification) [7]. These approaches address to some extent the short-term needs of industry and plant operations; but they do not necessarily go to the heart of developing expert skills and professional competency. In particular, whilst short course format enables the transfer of information it does not provide the opportunity for practice and feedback, which are essential elements for “deep learning”, and long term retention of and competence in the subject matter. This limitation should be recognised by industry- short term fixes can be deceptive and are not always the best solution.
The very significant decline in the number of experienced process engineers at operating sites is a serious constraint on the extent to which young professionals can develop under the guidance of experienced engineers, even though some of the larger corporations have well-structured generic graduate programs.
Develop a clear understanding of the Relevant Parties to and Other Stakeholders in the Engineering Task and the relationships between them.
Consult and agree with the Responsible Person the objectives and extent of the Engineering Task.
Assess and apply the competencies and resources appropriate to the Engineering Task.
Identify and respond to relevant statutory requirements and public interest issues.
Develop and operate within a Hazard and Risk Framework appropriate to the Engineering Task.
Seek to use engineering innovation to enhance the outcomes of the Engineering Task.
Apply appropriate engineering task management protocols and related standards in carrying out and accomplishing the Engineering Task.
Ensure that any contract or other such evidence of agreement governing or relevant to the Engineering Task is consistent with the provisions of this PPIR Protocol.”
Using these guidelines may help individuals identify the professional engineering attributes that are necessary for their practice.
Where?
Where can you study metallurgical engineering? The short answer is, in relatively few Universities in industrialised countries, and the coverage is not uniform across the globe.
There was a significant decline in the number of metallurgical engineering programs in Europe and North America in the late 20th century in parallel with changes to the industry profile; as primary metal production in those countries decreased, and the investment and teaching resources were moved to materials science. Iron and steel production expanded in Asia progressively through Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, China. After an initial decline there has been a recent renaissance in Europe with the impetus provided by the changes in industry profile, the need for resource security and sustained supply of new elements/materials, recycling , reprocessing and the implementation of new process technologies to address environmental issues [13].
In Australia, despite the major contributions to the economy by the minerals industry there are low domestic student enrolments in metallurgy. Recent decades have seen a decline in metal processing and refining , and an increased reliance on mineral concentrate exports. Recruitment into undergraduate metallurgy programs in Australia has been shown to be directly related to metal price, and subject to the wild fluctuations of the business cycle.
With the expansion of participation in tertiary education and increases in standards of living across the globe the numbers of international students undertaking engineering studies in North America, Europe and Australia have dramatically increased. A recent National Foundation for American Policy survey [14, 15] found that in the USA “International students make up the large majority of full-time students in many graduate science- and engineering-related programs, and their numbers have been rising much faster than the number of domestic students”. International students were found to make up 50% of enrolments at undergraduate engineering programs, and even greater proportion at coursework Masters and PhD levels. These trends are also increasingly reflected in metallurgical engineering programs.
Whilst there have been declines in metallurgy programs in industrialised counties elsewhere, where mineral exports have increased, the establishment of new metallurgy programs has taken place; governments have actively promoted employment of local workforces rather than expatriates workers, which was the predominant model for many years. In China, there have been major investments in education infrastructure and capability in all branches of science and engineering in parallel with the expansion across all aspects of this economy [16].
It is one thing to design appropriate programs, it is another to persuade students that metallurgical engineering is the career for them. In an age where choice of degree programs on offer has blossomed, it is difficult to attract students into the discipline; key factors influencing enrolments are Careers, Pay, Relevance, Flexibility.
Just as individual degree programs are tailored to meet academic and technical requirements finding and establishing a profile that is attractive to prospective students is a major issue. Teaching academics work hard at attracting students into their programs. Strange as it may seem publicity for metallurgy programs are not always actively supported by University administrations, who see the advantages of economies of scale associated with large class sizes in other major disciplines. In Australia, the exaggerated boom/bust commodity price cycles associated with primary metal production constantly erode student and parent confidence in the industry; over the past six decades undergraduate enrolments in mining and metallurgical engineering are a clear function of metal price and graduations have been out of cycle in almost all cases. This is not a good way to operate a process and not an efficient method of developing a high quality, skilled professional workforce. It is my view, that the industry needs to demonstrate its commitment and ongoing support over the longer term, and provide sustained and attractive career opportunities if it is to attract the educated workforce it needs for its future.
Summary
Just has the profile of the metallurgical industry has changed over the years so too has metallurgical education in terms of the places that provide these learning opportunities, the curricula offered, the approaches to learning and connections to industry.
What specialist knowledge and skills, and attributes are we looking for in the metallurgists of the future?
What level of qualification are we seeking? Graduate BE, or advanced standing Masters, PhD, and /or other?
How can industry help to provide and sustain these educational opportunities?
How to best attract these potential employees into the profession?