Introduction to the Third Edition
1. Carey McWilliams, “Introduction,” in North from Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States (New York: Praeger, 1948).
2. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations that Made American People (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1951).
Chapter 1
1. New Mexico Historical Review, Vol. 16, p. 1.
2. Harry Bernstein, “Spanish Influences in the United States: Economic Aspects,” Hispanic American Historical Review 18, no. 1 (February 1938): 43–65.
3. Arthur P. Whitaker, “The Spanish Contribution to American Agriculture,” Agricultural History 3, no. 1 (January 1929): 1–14.
4. Claude B. Hutchinson, ed. California Agriculture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1946).
5. William R. Shepherd, “The Spanish Heritage in America,” Modern Language Journal 10, no. 2 (November 1925): 75–85.
Chapter 2
1. See picture-spread Los Angeles Daily News, May 7, 1947.
2. American Planning and Civic Manual (1940): pp. 260–266.
3. Arthur Campa, Spanish Folk-Poetry in New Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1946): p. 13. See Helen Zunser, “A New Mexican Village,” Journal of American Folklore, 48, no. 188 (April–June 1935): 141.
4. New York Times, June 1, August 3, 4, 8, and September 4, 1947.
5. Stetson Kennedy, Palmetto Country (Florida Historical Society Press, 1942): 269–296.
6. The Civilization of the Americas (1938): p. 116.
7. Arizona Quarterly (1946): Vol. 2, p. 34.
Chapter 3
1. The Greater Southwest (1934): p. 26.
2. J. Fred Rippy, The United States and Mexico (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1926): p. 382.
Chapter 4
1. Ruth Barker Laughlin, Caballeros (New York: Appleton-Century, 1931); see also the article by Frank Applegate, Survey-Graphic, May 1, 1931.
2. Note the article by Juan B. Rael, California Folklore Quarterly, Vol. I, p. 83.
3. Allan G. Harper, Andrew R. Cordova [and] Kalvero Oberg, Man and Resources in the Middle Rio Grande Valley (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1943), in which the process of deterioration in natural and human resources is discussed in great detail.
4. Survey-Graphic, May 1, 1931, p. 142.
Chapter 5
1. Sylvester Mowry, Arizona and Sonora: The Geography, History, and Resources of the Silver Region of North America (New York: Harper & Brother, 1864).
2. Harper’s, July, 1890.
3. The Southwest Political and Social Science Quarterly, December 1929, p. 267.
4. Frank W. Blackmar, Spanish Institutions of the Southwest (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1891).
5. John L. McCarty, Maverick Town: The Story of Old Tascosa (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1946).
Chapter 6
1. Rippy, supra, p. 296.
2. Mody C. Boatright, ed. Mexican Border Ballads (Austin: Texas Folklore Society, 1946).
3. Tracy Hammond Lewis, Along the Rio Grande (New York, Lewis Publishing Company, 1916).
4. Manuel Ugarte, The Destiny of a Continent (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1925).
5. Frederick Law Olmsted, A Journey Through Texas (New York: Dix, Edwards and Company, 1857): 455.
Chapter 7
1. New Mexico Guide, p. 14.
2. Sixty Years in Southern California, p. 140.
3. See the article by Arthur E. Hyde, Century, March 1902, Vol. 63, p. 690.
4. Recollections of a Western Ranchman (1884).
5. New Mexico Historical Review, Vol. 20, p. 202.
6. See article by C. P. Loomis, Sociometry, February 1943; and “Race Relations in New Mexico,” pp. 208–216, in Mexican Immigration to the United States by Manuel Gamio (New York: Arno Press, 1930).
7. Paul I. Wellman, The Trampling Herd (New York: Carrick, 1939).
8. For an account of a lynching in Arizona, see New Mexico Historical Review, Vol. 18; and, for Colorado, see Gamio, supra, p. 213.
9. Owen Cochran Coy, Gold Days (Los Angeles, Powell Pub. Co., 1929), 204.
10. Walter M. Fisher, The Californians (London: Macmillan, 1876).
Chapter 8
1. California Gold by Rodman W. Paul (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1947): 36.
2. Report on the Mineral Resources of the United States by J. Ross Browne, 1867, p. 21. See also T.A. Rickard, A History of American Mining (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1932).
3. Arizona by James H. McClintock (1916), Vol. I, p. 101.
4. Harper’s, June, 1863; see also “Down in the Cinnabar Mines” by J. Ross Browne, Harper’s, October, 1865.
5. Owen Cochran Coy, Gold Days (Los Angeles, Powell Pub. Co., 1929): 165.
6. Will H. Robinson, The Story of Arizona (Phoenix: Berryhill Company, 1919).
7. McClintock, supra, Vol. II, p. 421.
8. Charles Wayland Towne and Edward Norris Wentworth, Shepherd’s Empire (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1945).
9. Winifred Kupper, The Golden Hoof (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1945).
10. Campa, Spanish Folk-Poetry in New Mexico, 97.
11. Dane Coolidge, Old California Cowboys (E. P. Dutton, 1939), Chapter X.
12. Arizona Quarterly, Summer, 1946, p. 24; see also “Mexican Color Terms for Horses” by W. H. Whatley, in Mustangs and Cow Horses, publication Texas Folklore Society (1940): p. 241.
13. Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 20, p. B07; Journal of Economic History, December 1942, article by Sanford A. Mosk.
14. Edith Nicholl Ellison, The Desert and the Rose (Boston: Cornhill Company, 1921): 37.
15. French, supra, p. 133.
16. Journal of American Folklore, Vol. IX, p. B1.
Chapter 9
1. The White Scourge by Edward Everett Davis (1940).
2. Survey-Graphic, May 1, 1931.
3. Economic Geography, January 1931, p. 1.
4. The New Republic, April 7, 1947, p. 14.
5. Harry Schwartz, Seasonal Farm Labor in the United States by Harry Schwartz (New York: Columbia University Press,1945), 29.
6. Commercial Survey of the Pacific Southwest, Dept. of Commerce (1930): 224–254.
7. Lawrence Leslie Waters, “Transient Mexican Agricultural Labor” Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 22, no. 1 (June, 1941): 49–66.
8. See article by Dr. Max Handman, American Journal of Sociology, January 1930.
9. See testimony of Emelio Flores before the Industrial Relations Commission, 1915.
10. Alvin T. Steinel, History of Agriculture in Colorado (Colorado State Board of Agriculture, 1926).
11. Hearings, Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, U.S. Senate, Both Congress, March 1947, p. 24.
Chapter 10
1. Stuart Jamieson, Labor Unionism in American Agriculture (Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture, 1945).
2. Selden C. Menefee and Orin C. Cassmore, The Pecan-Shellers of San Antonio (Federal Works Agency, Works Progress Administration, 1940).
3. The Nation, May 1, 1935.
4. Clarence Raymond Niklason, Edwin Bates, Fowler Wesley Barker, Commercial Survey of the Pacific Southwest (Washington, D.C.: United States GPO, 1930): 322.
5. The Outlook, February 2, 1916; Survey, October 27, 1917, p. 97.
6. In the Matter of Miami Copper Company, Non-Ferrous Metals Commission, National War Labor Board, February 5, 1944; also, PM, July 3, 1944, p. 3.
7. James Monroe Patton, “The History of Clifton,” unpublished thesis, University of Arizona, 1945.
8. New Mexico Historical Review, Vol. 13, p. 415; also Organized Labor in Mexico by Marjorie Ruth Clark (1934): p. 11.
9. Gamio, supra, p. 44.
Chapter 11
1. See The Shadows of the Trees, by Jacques Ducharme (New York: Harper and Bros., 1943); many of his observations about French-Canadians in New England could be applied, without modification, to Mexicans in the Southwest.
2. Robert Redfield, “The Folk Society,” American Journal of Sociology 52, no. 4 (January, 1947): 293–308.
3. Fred W. Ross, Community Organization in Mexican-American Communities by Fred W. Ross (Los Angeles, American Council on Race Relations, 1947).
4. “They Fenced Tolerance In” by Dallas Johnson, Survey, July 1947, pp. 398–400.
5. American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 22, p. 391.
Chapter 12
1. See comments by Dr. George Sanchez, Common Ground, Autumn 1943, pp. 13–20.
2. See comments by Albert Deutsch, PM, June 14, 1943; Racial Digest, July 1943, pp. 3–7; New York Times, June 11, 1943.
Chapter 13
1. Los Angeles Herald-Express, June 5, 1943.
2. “Imported Mexican Workers Save Millions in Citrus Crops,” reads a headline, Los Angeles Times, June 30, 1943.
3. Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1943.
Chapter 14
1. Congressional Record, April 24, 1945.
2. The New Republic, September 30, 1946, p. 412.
3. See Betty Kirk, “Mexico’s Social Justice Party” The Nation, June 12, 1943; PM, May 21, 1944, p. 3.
4. Los Angeles Times, October 15, 1942.
5. Los Angeles Times, December 20, 1942.
6. See article by Heinz H. F. Eulau, The Inter-American, March 1944, pp. 25–28. Mr. Eulau, during the war, was chief of the Division of Propaganda Analysis, Department of Justice.
7. Los Angeles Times, September 22, 1947, Part II, p. 1.
8. Common Ground, Autumn, 1943, pp. 13–20.
9. New York Herald Tribune, February 16, 1944.
Chapter 15
1. Interpreter Releases, March 22, 1943.
2. Lloyd H. Fisher, The Problem of Violence (American Council on Race Relations, 1945): p. 18.
3. See the series of articles by Agnes E. Meyer in the Washington Post, April 22–29, 1947.
4. Nutrition and Certain Related Factors of the Spanish-American in Northern Colorado (Denver, 1943); Inter-American Short Papers, no. VII (University of New Mexico, 1943).
5. Common Ground, Spring 1947, pp. 80–83.
6. J. T. Reid, It Happened in Taos (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1946).
7. Lloyd Spencer Tireman, La Comunidad (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1943).
Chapter 16
1. California by Josiah Royce (1897): p. 226.
2. Herbert Eugene Bolton, The Pacific Ocean in History (New York: Macmillan, 1917), the chapter on “Speech Mixture in New Mexico” by Aurelio M. Espiñosa.
3. Hispania, Vol. 28, pp. 505–507.
4. From a list given me by Ruth D. Tuck; see also “The Pachuco Patois” by Beatrice Griffith, Common Ground, Summer 1947, pp. 77–84.
5. Arizona Quarterly, Summer 1946, p. 24.
6. See also, Emerson Hough, The Story of the Cowboy (New York: Appleton, 1908): 26; Ramon F. Adams, Cowboy Lingo (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1936).
7. Mary Austin, Starry Adventure (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931): 62; by J. Frank Dobie, Coronado’s Children (Dallas: Southwest Press, 1930): 361–367; Laughlin, Caballeros, 403–410.
8. Papers, Conference on Educational Problems in the Southwest, Santa Fe, August 19–24, 1943.
9. Joaquin Ortega, The Compulsory Teaching of Spanish in the Grade Schools of New Mexico (University of New Mexico Press, 1941): 9.
10. New York Times, August 10, 1947, article by Gladwin Hill.
Chapter 17
1. The terms Mexican-American and Chicano are used completely interchangeably to refer to persons of Mexican descent who were born in the United States or have made it their home. The word Chicano avoids the ambiguity of both Mexicano and Latino/Hispanic as well as the hyphenate implication some find in Mexican-American. The terms Latino and Hispanic, which refer to all persons of Spanish cultural background, are used because many statistics are collected and organized under those categories.
2. For greater detail of this experience, see Raul Morin, Among the Valiant (Los Angeles, Borden Publishing, 1963).
3. Despite the movement out of the Southwest, the 1980 census indicated that eighty-five percent of Mexican-Americans still lived in the five southwestern states.
4. Manuel P. Servin, “The Mexican-American Awakens: An Interpretation, Journal of the West 14 (October 1975): 121–130. Ricardo Romo, “The Urbanization of Southwestern Chicanos in the Early 20th Century,” New Scholar 6 (1977): 183–207.
5. For more details about this important Mexican-American organization see Allsup, Carl, The American G.I. Forum: Origin and Evolution (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982).
6. Carlos Larralde, Mexican American: Movements and Leaders (Los Alamitos, CA: Hwong Publishing, 1976). There is a chapter on Bert Corona.
7. I do not see leadership as an elitist or cacique issue. If la raza is to obtain its due in American society, it must develop organization, and organization means leadership.
8. For the early impact of the Delano Grape Strike on Chicanos see Ralph Guzmán and Joan Moore, “The Mexican Americans: New Wind from the Southwest,” Nation, Vol. CCII, May 30, 1966, pp. 645–648.
9. The UFW charges that in the recent past over three hundred field workers have been poisoned by toxic sprays, which also pose a health threat to consumers.
10. For an excellent general survey of the unionizing of farm labor see Anne Loftis and Dick Meister, A Long Time Coming: The Struggle to Unionize America’s Farm (New York: Macmillan, 1977). Ronald Taylor, Chávez and the Farm Workers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1975). One of a number of good accounts of Chávez and the grape strike.
11. For a sympathetic account of Gonzales’s early career see Christine Marin, A Spokesman of the Mexican American Movement: Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales and the Fight for Chicano Liberation, 1966–1972 (San Francisco: R & E Research, 1977).
12. Patricia Bell Blawis, Tijerina and the Land Grants: Mexican Americans in the Struggle for Their Heritage (New York, International Publishers, 1971). Tijerina has also written a personal account, Mi lucha por la tierra (1978).
13. Gutiérrez discusses his political ideas in La Raza and Revolution (San Francisco: R & E Associates, 1972). For a more detailed factual account of La Raza Unida party see Richard Santillan, Chicano Politics: La Raza Unida (Los Angeles: Tlaquilo, 1973).
Chapter 18
1. Note the change in statistical basis. Because many government statistics and those of private organizations are collected and organized in terms of Hispanics/Latinos rather than Mexican-Americans, it is necessary at times to use this broader category. The reader is cautioned to note these differences in statistical base and to remember that overall Mexican-Americans make up about two-thirds of all Latinos. If the statistics pertain only to the Southwest, they are a much larger percentage, of course.
2. For greater detail see Alejandro Portes and John W. Curtis, “Changing Flags: Naturalization and Its Determinants among Mexican Immigrants,” International Migration Review 21, no. 2 (Summer 1987): 352–371.
3. F. Chris García and Rudolph O. de la Garza, The Chicano Political Experience: Three Perspectives (North Scituate, MA: Duxbury Press, 1977).
4. Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers, Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration (New York, Dodd and Mead, 1988): p. 123.
5. El Plan de Santa Bárbara (1969).
6. For a broad account of the student movement, especially the 1968 walkouts, see “Chicano Student Militancy: The Los Angeles High School Strike of 1968,” by Kaye Briegel, 215–225, in Manuel P. Servín, An Awakened Minority: The Mexican Americans (Beverly Hills: Glencoe, 1974).
7. Armando Morales gives an intensely personal account of the riots in Ando Sangrando (La Puente, CA: Perspectiva Publications, 1973).
8. For an account by the founder of the Brown Berets, see Expedition Through Aztlan by David Sánchez (La Puente, CA: Perspectiva Publications, 1978). Chris Marín gives an excellent account in “Go Home, Chicanos: A Study of the Brown Berets in California and Arizona,” pp. 226–246 in An Awakened Minority: The Mexican-Americans by Manuel P. Servín (1974).
9. For greater detail see The Chicano and the Church by Antonio R. Soto (1975).
10. “Manuela Solís Sager and Emma Tenayuca: A Tribute,” by Roberto Calderón and Emilio Zamora, pp. 30–41, in Chicana Voices: Intersections of Class, Race, and Gender (1986).
11. See Occupied America: A History of Chicanos by Rodolfo Acuña (1988): pp. 332–333 and 345.
12. In addition to the books about Chicanas in the Additional Notes Section of this book, the reader might look at Chicanas Speak Out: Women, the New Voice of La Raza by Mirta Vidal (1971).
13. See The Identification and Analysis of Chicano Literature, Francisco Jiménez, editor, for a detailed study of the literary movement (1979).
14. The outstanding work on Chicano art is Mexican American Artists by Jacinto Quirarte (1973).
15. For greater detail of the bilingual issue see “Chicano Bilingualism,” by Rosaura Sánchez pp. 209–225 in New Scholar, Vol. VI (1977). Armando Rodríguez presents a forceful argument for bilingual and bicultural education in Speak Up, Chicano: The Mexican-American Fights for Educational Equality (1968).
16. For a discussion of this change see “The Chicano Movement and the Mexican American Community, 1972–1978: An Interpretative Essay,” by Richard A. García, Socialist Review, Vol. VIII, July–October 1978, pp. 117–136. See also Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas by David Montejano (1987). Chapter 13, “A Time of Inclusion” summarizes the changes that have taken place in Texas, especially in the past decade and a half.
Chapter 19
1. This figure is based on numbers apprehended and returned to Mexico, not discrete persons. This is true of all similar estimates of undocumenteds.
2. As with most words, the term bracero has several meanings. In its narrowest sense it refers to a Mexican laborer contracted to work in the United States under various government-to-government agreements, especially between 1942 and 1964. In a wider sense it may be applied to any Mexican national recruited to work in the United States, and its broadest meaning may include any Latino worker in the United States.
3. Coyotes refers to persons who organize smuggling operations at the border. A patero (“duck herder”) is a person who assists and guides people across the Rio Grande River, and a “pollero” (“chicken herder”) is a person who does the same across the land border.
4. For a scholarly sociological point of view see Los Mojados: The Wetback Story by Julian Samora (1971).
5. The reader is reminded that these numbers may include the same person several times.
6. See Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramón García (1980). It includes background to the issue.
7. For an outstanding study of the braceros by a man who was deeply involved, see Merchants of Labor: The Mexican Bracero Story by Ernesto Galarza (1965).
8. For a more detailed picture of the commuters, see The Border Crossers: People Who Live in Mexico and Work in the United Stater by David S. North (1970).
9. The Golden Door: International Migration, Mexico, and the United States by Paul Ehrlich, et al. (1979).
10. For greater detail see chapters 5, 6, and 7 in Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration by Leonard Dinnerstein and David M. Reimers (1988).
11. Wayne Cornelius is an outstanding specialist in Mexican migration studies. See his Mexican Migration to the United States: Causes, Consequences, and the U.S. Response (1978).
12. The reader is cautioned that U.S. Census statistics are not strictly comparable, as the decennial censuses have been based on different criteria to identify Mexican-Americans. Statistics on the immigration of Mexicans to the United States vary from source to source, even among U.S. government agencies, and must be used with caution.
13. For further discussion of commuters, see Hired Hands: Seasonal Farm Workers in the United States by Steven H. Sosnick (1978).
14. Estimates of the I&NS and other agencies have gone as high as twelve to fifteen million. The 1980 census counted approximately two million. A 1978–1979 Mexican Labor Ministry poll indicated that there were about one million sojourners, plus 250,000 to 350,000 “permanent” undocumenteds in the United States, about seventy-five percent of them in California and Texas.
15. For an excellent survey of undocumented migration see Building the Cactus Curtain: Mexican Migration and U.S. Responses, from Wilson to Carter by Wayne Cornelius (1980). See also Mexican Illegal Alien Workers in the United States by Walter Fogel (1978).
16. The reader is again cautioned that the same person may be apprehended several times and thereby become three or four people in the statistics.
17. See chapter 6 in The Border Economy by Niles Hanson (1981).
18. For interesting details of the law and its passage, see “The Albatross of Immigration Reform: Temporary Worker Policy in the United States,” by Vernon Briggs, International Migration Review, Vol. XX, Winter 1986, pp. 995–1019.
19. For greater detail, see Through the Maze: An Interim Report on the Alien Legalization Program by David S. North (1988).
Chapter 20
1. Although Canada shares a border with the United States, the number of Canadian immigrants is vastly smaller than that of Mexicans.
2. Mexicans often refer to the United States as El Norte—“the North.”
3. Preceding this period of immigration, Mexicans lived in the upper regions of Mexico [the Southwest] until the United States defeated Mexico in the U.S.-Mexican War of 1848. Most Mexicans stayed, but many lost their lands and access to political power.
4. Tomás R. Jiménez, Replenished Ethnicity: Mexican American, Immigration and Identity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010): 31–65. The term “native-born” refers to the general non-Mexican population in the United States.
5. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002): 3. The Uprooted was first published in 1951 and won the 1952 Pulitzer Prize in history.
6. The U.S. Census Bureau defines “foreign born” as anyone who is not a U.S. citizen at birth, a naturalized U.S. citizen, a legal permanent resident, a temporary migrant, a humanitarian migrant or an unauthorized migrant. The term “unauthorized immigrant” replaces terms such as “illegal” to refer to immigrants entering a country, in this case, the United States, without legal papers. The term native refers to people residing in the United States who are U.S. citizens in one of three categories: (1) people born in one of the 50 states or the District of Columbia, (2) people born in the U.S. insular areas such as Puerto Rico or Guam, or (3) people born abroad of a U.S. citizen parent.
7. Alma M. García, Narratives of Second Generation Mexican American Women: Emergent Identities of the Second Generation (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004): 45.
8. “The Foreign-Born Population in the United States, 2010,” U.S. Census Bureau, accessed August 10, 2014, http://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/acs-19.pdf.
9. Mark Granovetter, “The Strength of Weak Ties,” American Journal of Sociology 78, no. 6 (1973): 1360–1380. For a critique of Granovetter’s theory of social capital see Alejandro Portes, “The Downside of Human Capital,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 111, no. 52 (2014): 18407–18408.
10. García, Narratives,103–104.
11. Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Knopf, 1972).
12. “The Rise of Asian Americans,” Pew Research Center, June 19, 2013, accessed July 10, 2015, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/; Xue Lan Ron and Russell Ron, Asian American Education: Identities, Racial Issues and Languages (Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, 2011).
13. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, October 9, 2014, accessed January 4, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-immigrants-united-states/.
14. Zong and Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants.”
15. Sierra Stoney and Jeanne Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, February 28, 2013, accessed October 2, 2014, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/mexican-immigrants-united-states-2.
16. Stoney and Batalova, “Mexican Immigrants in the United States.”
17. Lyndon B. Johnson, The State of the Union Address, January 8, 1964, accessed on August 12, 2014, http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/640108.asp.
18. Steven A. Camarota, “Immigrants in the United States, 2010: A Profile of America’s Foreign-Born Population,” Center for Immigration Studies, August 2012, accessed February 10, 2015, http://www.cis.org/sites/cis.org/files/articles/2012/immigrants-in-the-united-states-2012.pdf.
19. Drew Desilver, “Who’s Poor in America? 50 years into the ‘War on Poverty,’ a Data Portrait,” Pew Research Center, January 13, 2014, accessed February 1, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/01/13/whos-poor-in-america-50-years-into-the-war-on-poverty-a-data-portrait/.
20. Aaron Terrazas, “Immigrants in New-Destination States,” Migration Policy Institute, February 8, 2011, accessed October 2, 2014, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/immigrants-new-destination-states#15.
21. Terrazas, “Immigrants in New-Destination States.”
22. “Garret Warner, “Working Hands in Vermont’s Borderlands: A Guide to Resources for Migrant Workers in Addison County, Vermont,” Migrant Resources, accessed December 18, 2014, http://sites.middlebury.edu/migrantresources/.
23. “Migration to Vermont,” Peace and Justice Center, August 24, 2014, accessed July 8, 2015, http://vtdigger.org/2014/08/24/peace-justice-center-statement-response-shooting-michael-brown-racism-vermont/.
24. Marcela Mendoza, David H. Ciscel, and Barbara Ellen Smith, “Latino Immigrants in Memphis, Tennessee: Their Local Economic Impact,” Working Paper Series Center for Research on Women 15 (2001): 1–16; N. E. Cantu, “Report on Latino Culture and Traditional Arts in Tennessee,” Tennessee Arts (1999): 40–51.
25. Nestor Rodríguez, “New Southern Neighbors: Latino Immigration and Prospects for Intergroup Relations between African-Americans and Latinos in the South,” Latino Studies 10 (Spring 2012): 18–40.
26. Mary E. Odem and Elaine Cantrell Lacy, eds., Latino Immigrants and the Transformation of the U.S. South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009): ix.
27. Carl l. Bankston, “New People in the New South: An Overview of Southern Immigration,” Southern Cultures 13 (Winter 2007): 24–44.
28. Bankston, “New People,” 35.
29. Ronald Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth Century Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
30. Mary E. Odem, “Our Lady of Guadalupe in the New South: Latino Immigrants and the Politicas of Integration in the Catholic Church,” Journal of American Ethnic History 24 (Fall 2004): 26.
31. The Catholic Church faced a similar situation when the Irish arrived in the East in such places as New York and Boston, a migration triggered by the Irish potato blight beginning around 1850 and continuing well into the early twentieth century.
32. Odem, “Our Lady of Guadalupe in the New South,” 27.
33. Interestingly, the majority of African-Americans were Protestants but a small minority were Catholics. They were forced to practice their religion in racially segregated churches and schools; Odem, “Our Lady.”
34. Odem, “Our Lady,” 30; Daniel Ramirez, “Borderlands Praxis: The Immigrant Experience in Latino Pentecostal Churches,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 67 (September 1999): 573–596; Arlene M. Sánchez-Walsh, Latino Pentecostal Identity: Evangelical Faith, Self, and Society (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003).
35. Odem, “Our Lady,” 50.
36. Jens Manuel Krogstad and Jeffrey S. Passel, “5 Facts About Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, July 24, 2015, accessed October 10, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/07/24/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/.
37. Stoney and Batalova, “Mexican Immigration in the United States.”
38. Jeffrey H. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, “Why Wave of Mexican Immigration stopped,” Online CNN Special Report, April 26, 2012, accessed May 2, 2015. http://www.cnn.com/2012/04/26/opinion/passel-cohn-mexican-immigration/.
39. “Testimony of Jeffrey H. Passel–Unauthorized Immigrant Population,” Pew Research Center, March 26, 2015, accessed October 15, 2015. http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/03/26/testimony-of-jeffrey-s-passel-unauthorized-immigrant-population/.
40. Mark Hugo Lopez and Paul Taylor, “Latino Voters and the 2012 Election,” Pew Research Center, November 7, 2012, accessed April 10, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/11/07/latino-voters-in-the-2012-election/.
41. Ana Gonzalez-Barrera and Jens Manuel Krogstad, “U.S. Deportations of Immigrants Reach Record High in 2013,” Pew Research Center, October 2, 2014, accessed March 25, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/02/u-s-deportations-of-immigrants-reach-record-high-in-2013/.
42. Gonzalez-Barrera and Krongstad, “U.S. Deportations.”
43. Stoney and Batalova, “Mexican Immigration in the United States.”
Chapter 21
1. La Frontera (“the frontier”) is used by Mexicans to refer to the border between the United States and Mexico.
2. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, Act V, Scene I:
O, wonder!
How many goodly creatures are there here!
How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world.
That has such people in’t!
3. Méjico is Spanish for Mexico. El Norte translates as “the North,” but is used by Mexicans to refer geographically to the United States.
4. Oscar Handlin, The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1959).
5. Ronald Takaki, Strangers from a Distant Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little and Brown, 1998).
6. Ernesto Galarza, Barrio Boy (South Bend, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1971): 183.
7. Francisco Jiménez, The Circuit: Stories From the Life of a Migrant Child (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997): 1.
8. Gloria Anzaldúa, Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (San Francisco: Aunte Lute Books, 1987); Ana Castillo, The Mixquiahuala Letters (Binghamton, NY: Bilingual Press, 1986).
9. Prior to landing, in 1630, John Winthrop addressed the others aboard the Arabella in an effort to regain their enthusiasm after the Atlantic crossing that had sorely tested them. Winthrop used the term “city on a hill,” which is originally found the Christian gospel’s story of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. Winthrop used this as a metaphor rally to capture the spirit of the Puritan’s goal: to bear witness to the world that they were creating a new society to be emulated by others.
10. See Kenneth Stampp, The Peculiar Institution: Slavery in the Ante-Bellum South (New York: Knopf, 1956); Guadalupe San Miguel, Let Them All Take Heed: Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equity in Texas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987); Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1991); George Horse and Duane Champagne, American Indian Nations: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2007); Ellen Carol Dubois, Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997).
11. Norma Iglesias, The Most Beautiful Flower of the Maquiladoras: Life Histories of Women Workers in Tijuana, 2nd ed., trans. Michael Stone and Gabrielle Winkler (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1997).
12. Iglesias, The Most Beautiful Flower of the Maquiladoras.
13. Douglas S. Massey, Jorge Durand, and Nolan J. Malone, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors: Mexican Immigration in an Era of Economic Integration (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003); Lisa Breglia, Promises, Peaks and Declines on Mexico’s Gulf Coast, (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2013).
14. Alma M. García, The Mexican Americans (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002): 47–49.
15. Warren R. Leiden and David L. Neal, “Highlights of the U.S. Immigration Act of 1990,” Fordham International Law Journal 14 (1990): 328–339; Massey, Beyond Smoke and Mirrors, 91–93.
16. Massey, Smoke and Mirrors, 91–93.
17. George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics, revised and expanded ed. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2006).
18. “Plyler v. Doe,” Legal Information Institute, accessed March 10, 2015, http://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/457/202.
19. Jerry Brown Jr. served as governor of California during 1975–1983 and was elected again in 2011. He won reelection in 2014 to an unprecedented fourth term.
20. Martin Miller, “Proposition 187: Fund-Raiser by Supporters Draws 100 in Orange County,” Los Angeles Times, October 29, 1994.
21. B. Drummond Ayres Jr., “The 1994 Campaign: California; Minorities Join California Fight.” The New York Times, November 1, 1994.
22. Patrick J. McDonnell and Robert López, “L.A. March Against Prop. 187 Draws 70,000: Immigration: Protesters Condemn Wilson for Backing Initiative That They Say Promotes ‘Racism, Scapegoating,’” Los Angeles Times, October 17, 1994.
23. McDonnell and López, “L.A. March Against Prop. 187.”
24. McDonnell and López, “L.A. March Against Prop. 187.”
25. Mario T. García and Sal Castro, Blowout: Sal Castro & the Chicano Struggle for Educational Justice (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011).
26. Amy Pyle and Beth Shuster, “10,000 Students Protest Prop. 187,” Los Angeles Times, November 3, 1994.
27. Brett Tam, “Marchers Call “Save Our “State Initiative Racist,” Daily Bruin, March 1, 1994.
28. David G, Gutiérrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Lina Yvette Newton, “Why Latinos Supported Proposition 187: Testing the Economic Threat and Cultural Identity Hypotheses,” Social Science Quarterly 81 (2000).
29. See the organization’s website at http://lulac.org/about/history; See also San Miguel, 1987; Cynthia E. Orozco, No Mexicans, Women, or Dogs Allowed: The Rise of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009).
30. García, The Mexican Americans, 120–121.
31. Ignacio M. García., Viva Kennedy: Mexican Americans In Search of Camelot (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2000).
32. Melanie Mason and Patrick McGreevy, “Latino Lawmakers Move to Reverse Decades of Anti-Immigration Legislation,” Los Angeles Times, June 22, 2014.
33. García, The Mexican Americans, 120–121.
34. “Unauthorized Immigrant Population Trends for States, Birth Countries and Regions.” Pew Research Center, December 11, 2014, accessed March 24, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2014/12/11/unauthorized-trends/.
35. The Yearbook of Immigration Statistics, Department of Homeland Security, last modified September 3, 2015, http://www.dhs.gov/yearbook-immigration-statistics#. According to the Department of Homeland Security website, “The Yearbook of Immigration Statistics is a compendium of tables that provides data on foreign nationals who, during a fiscal year, were granted lawful permanent residence (i.e., admitted as immigrants or became legal permanent residents), were admitted into the United States on a temporary basis (e.g., tourists, students, or workers), applied for asylum or refugee status, or were naturalized. The Yearbook also presents data on immigration enforcement actions, including alien apprehensions, removals, and returns. The Yearbook tables are released as they become available. A final PDF is released in September of the following fiscal year.”
36. For the complete text of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, see http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/14thamendment.html.
37. Jens Manuel Krogstead and Jeffrey S. Passel, “5 Facts about Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, November 18, 2014, accessed January 30, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/11/18/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/.
38. David Gutierrez, Jeanne Batalova, and Aaron Terrazas, “The 2012 Mexican Presidential Election and Mexican Immigrants of Voting Age in the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, April 26, 2012, accessed November 10, 2014, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/2012-mexican-presidential-election-and-mexican-immigrants-voting-age-united-states#4.
39. “Mexico Passes Law on Dual Citizenship,” New York Times, December 12, 1996, accessed June 10, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/12/12/world/mexico-passes-law-on-dual-citizenship.html.
40. Jennifer Mena, “Mexican Election Heating Up in the U.S.,” Los Angeles Times, May 13, 2004, accessed February 26, 2015, http://articles.latimes.com/print/2004/may/13/local/me-mexte13.
41. Jennifer Mena, “Mexican Election,” Los Angeles Times, May 13, 2004, accessed February 10, 2015, http://articles.latimes.com/print/2004/may/13/local/me-mexvote13.
42. Mena, “Mexican Election.”
43.Mena, “Mexican Election.”
44. Aurelia Fueros, “Absentee Voter Registration Begins for Mexicans in the U.S.,” Huffington Post Latino Voices, October 5, 2011, accessed July 14, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/04/mexico-absentee-voter-registration_n_995188.html.
45. “Mexico Election: Mexican Immigrants Shocked, Wary of PRI Victory,” Fox News Latino, July 3, 2012, accessed July 10, 2015, http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/politics/2012/07/03/immigrants-express-shock-at-return-mexico-pri/.
46. Gutiérrez, Batalova, and Terrazas, “The 2012 Mexican Presidential Election.”
47. “H.R. 4437 Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005,” Congressional Budget Office, December 13, 2005, accessed December 12, 2014, https://epic.org/privacy/surveillance/spotlight/0406/cbo4437.pdf.
48. F. Arturo Rosales, Chicano: A Documentary History of the Mexican American Struggle for Civil Rights (Houston: Arte Público Press, 1997); Carlos Muñoz, Youth, Identity, Power: The Chicano Movement (New York: Verso, 1989); Alma M. García, Francisco Jiménez, and Richard A. Garcia, eds., Ethnic Community Builders: Mexican Americans’ Struggle for Justice, Power and Citizen Rights (Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2007).
49. Ted Wang and Robert C. Winn, “Groundswell Meets Groundwork: Building on the Mobilization to Empower Immigrant Communities,” in Rallying for Immigrants Rights: The Fight for Inclusion in 21st Century America, ed. Kim Voss and Irene Bloemraad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011): 44–59.
50. Roberto Suro, “Out of the Shadows into the Light: Questions Raised by the Spring of 2006,” in Rallying for Immigrants Rights: The Fight for Inclusion in 21st Century America, ed. Kim Voss and Irene Bloemraad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
51. Gary McGoin, Sanctuary: A Resource Guide for Understanding and & Participating in the Central America Refugees’ Struggle (Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985): 14–29.
52. Roger Mahony, “A Nation That Should Know Better,” Los Angeles Times, June 1, 2005.
53. García and Castro, Blowout.
54. Wang and Winn, “Groundswell Meets Groundwork.”
55. Irene Bloemraan, Kim Voss, and Taeku Lee, “The Protests of 2006: What Were They, How Do We Understand Them, Where Do We Go?” in Rallying for Immigrants Rights: The Fight for Inclusion in 21st Century America, ed. Kim Voss and Irene Bloemraad (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), 3–43.
56. Bloemraan, Voss and Lee, “The Protests of 2006,” 32.
57. García and Castro, Blowout.
58. Alfonso Gonzales, Reform Without Justice: Latino Migrant Politics and the Homeland Security State (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
59. Gonzales, Reform Without Justice.
60. Gonzales, Reform Without Justice.
61. See Jonathan Fox and Xóchil Bada, “Migrant Civic Engagement,” Research Paper Series on Latino Immigrant Civic and Political Participation, no. 3 (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars, 2009), http://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Fox%20%26%20Bada%20-%20Migrant%20Civ%20Engagement%202008.pdf.
62. Denise A. Segura and Patricia Zavella, eds., Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007); Vicki L. Ruiz, From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Patricia Zavella, I’m Neither Here Nor There: Mexicans’ Quotidian Struggles with Migration and Poverty (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011).
63. Monica Boyd and Elizabeth Griego, “Women and Migration: Incorporating Gender into International Migration Theory,” Migration Policy Institute, March 1, 2003, accessed March 10, 2015, http://migrationpolicy.org/article/women-and-migration-incorporating-gender-international-migration-theory, 2.
64. Eithne Luibheid, “Looking Like a Lesbian: The Organization of Sexual Monitoring at the United States-Mexican Border,” in Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands, ed. Denise A. Segura and Patricia Zavella (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 106–133.
65. The word bracero derives from brazo, the Spanish word for “arm,” and is used to refer to a Mexican laborer admitted to the United States especially for seasonal contract labor in agriculture.
66. Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo and Ernestine Avila, “I’m Here, but I’m There: The Meanings of Latina Transnational Motherhood,” In Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands, ed. Denise A. Segura and Patricia Zavella (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 388–412. Similar trends can be seen in the migration of domestic workers in the Middle East and Europe.
67. Boyd and Griego, “Women and Migration.”
68. Denise A. Segura and Patricia Zavalla, eds., Women and Migration in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007); Silvia Pérez, “Women and Migration: The Social Consequences of Gender,” Annual Review of Sociology 17 (1991): 303–325; Marta Tined and Karen Booth, “Gender, Migration and Social Change,” International Sociology 6 (1991): 51–72.
69. Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila, “I’m Here, but I’m There.”
70. Hondagneu-Sotelo and Avila, “I’m Here, but I’m There.”
71. Mark Ensalco, “Murder in Ciudad Juárez: A Parable of Women’s Struggle for Human Rights,” Violence Against Women 12 (2012): 41–440.
72. Jessica Livingston, “Murder in Juárez: Gender, Sexual Violence, and the Global Assembly Line,” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 25 (2004): 60–61.
73. Livingston, “Murder in Juárez.”
74. Emma O’Connor, “Mexico’s Cuidad Juárez Is No Longer the Most Violent City in the World,” Time, October 15, 2012, accessed April 21, 2015, http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/10/15/mexicos-ciudad-juarez-is-no-longer-the-most-violent-city-in-the-world/.
75. O’Connor, “Mexico’s Cuidad Juárez.”
76. Anahi Rama and Lizbeth Díaz, “Violence against Women Is a Pandemic in Mexico,” Reuters, May 7, 2014, accessed April 20, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/07/us-mexico-violence-women-idUSBREA2608F20140307.
77. Livingston, “Murder in Juárez.”
78. Katie L. Acosta, “Lesbians in the Borderlands: Shifting Identities and Imagined Communities,” Gender & Society 22 (2008): 639. See also Emma Pérez, “Sexuality and Discourse: Notes from a Chicana Survivor,” in Chicana Lesbians: The Girls our Mothers Warned Us About, ed. Carla Trujillo (Berkeley, CA: Third Woman Press, 1991).
79. Acosta, “Lesbians in the Borderlands.”
80. Rigoberta Menchu, Elisabeth Burgos-Debray, I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala, 2nd ed. (New York: Verso, 2010); Elvia Alvarado, Don’t Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks from The Heart: The Story of Elvia Alvarado, trans. Medea Benjamin (New York: Harper Perennial, 1989).
81. Ensalco, “Murder in Ciudad Juárez.”
82. “Señorita Etraviada: Film Description,” PBS, accessed March 25, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/pov/senoritaextraviada/film_description.php.
83. William Paul Simmons, Cecelia Menjivar, and Michelle Téllez, “Violence and Vulnerability of Female Migrants in Drop Houses in Arizona: The Predictable Outcome of a Chain Reaction of Violence,” Violence Against Women (2015): 552–570.
84. Simmons, Menjivar and M. Téllez, “Violence and Vulnerability.”
Chapter 22
1. Alma M. García, Narratives of Second Generation Mexican American Women: Emergent Identities of the Second Generation (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004).
2. Mary Waters, Ethnic Options: Choosing Identities in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
3. García, Narratives.
4. Joane Nagel, “Constructing Ethnicity: Creating and Recreating Ethnic Identity and Culture.” Social Problems 41(1994): 152–176.
5. García, Narratives
6. García, Narratives.
7. García, Narratives.
8. Nazli Kibria, Family Tightrope: The Changing Lives of Vietnamese Americans (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993); Pyong Gap Min, Second Generation: Ethnic Identity among Asian Americans (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002); Rubén Rumbaut and Alejandro Portes, eds. Ethnicities of Children of Immigrants (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).
9. García, Narratives, 56
10. Vicki L. Ruiz, From Out of the Shadows: Mexican American Women in Twentieth Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). Used by permission.
11. “The Mexican-American Boom: Births Overtake Immigration,” Pew Research Center, July 14, 2011, http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/reports/144.pdf.
12. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration to the United States,” Migration Policy Institute, February 26, 2015, accessed July 27, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states.
13. Guadalupe San Miguel, Let Them All Take Heed: Mexican Americans and the Campaign for Educational Equality in Texas, 1910 to 1981 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1971).
14. Michael L. Olivas, No Undocumented Child Left Behind: Plyler v. Doe and the Education of Undocumented School Children (New York: New York University Press, 2012).
15. Michael A. Olivas, “Plyler v. Doe: Still Guaranteeing Unauthorized Immigrant Children’s Right to Attend U.S. Public Schools,” Migration Policy Institute, September 9, 2010, accessed September 1, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/plyler-v-doe-still-guaranteeing-unauthorized-immigrant-childrens-right-attend-us-public.
16. Olivas, “Plyer v. Doe.”
17. Olivas, “Plyler v. Doe.”
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19. “Plyler v. Doe,” Legal Information Institute.
20. Walter J. Nicholls, The DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013).
21. Nicholls, The DREAMers, 7.
22. Nicholls, The DREAMers, 13–14.
23. Nicholls, The DREAMers, 53.
24. United We Dream, http://unitedwedream.org.
25. United We Dream, http://unitedwedream.org.
26. William A. Schwab, Right to Dream: Immigration Reform and America’s Future (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2013).
27. The White House, “The Dream Act: Good for the Economy, Good for our Security, Good for our Nation,” accessed September 12, 2015, https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/DREAM-Act-WhiteHouse-FactSheet.pdf.
28. Elise Foley, “Dream Act Fails in Senate,” Huffington Post, December 18, 2010, accessed October 1, 2015.
29. Jeffrey Passel, “Latino and Asian Voters in the 2004 Election and Beyond,” Migration Policy Institute, November 1, 2004, accessed September 17, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/latino-and-asian-voters-2004-election-and-beyond.
30. Passel, “Latino and Asian Voters.”
31. Matt Barreto and Gary M. Segura, Latino America: How America’s Most Dynamic Population Is Poised to Transform the Politics of the Nation (New York: Public Affairs, 2014): 3
32. Barreto and Segura, Latino America.
33. Leslie Wayne, “Richardson Drops Out of Democratic Race,” New York Times, January 10, 2008, accessed September 17, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/10/us/politics/10cnd-richardson.html?_r=0.
34. Susan Minushkin and Mark Hugo Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote in the 2008 Democratic Presidential Primaries,” Pew Research Center, March 7, 2008, accessed September 18, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2008/03/07/the-hispanic-vote-in-the-2008-democratic-presidential-primaries/.
35. Mark Hugo Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote in the 2008 Elections,” Pew Hispanic Center, November 7, 2008, accessed September 18, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2008/11/05/the-hispanic-vote-in-the-2008-election/.
36. For a slide show of newspaper headlines after Barack Obama won the 2008 presidential election, see http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/11/05/obamas-victory-on-newspap_n_141311.html.
37. Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote.”
38. Luis R. Fraga, John A. Garcia, Rodney E. Hero, Michael Jones-Correa, Valerie Martinez-Ebers, and Gary M. Segura, “Su Casa Es Nuestra Casa: Latino Politics Research and the Development of American Political Science,” American Political Science Review 100, no. 4 (2006): 515–522.
39. Lopez, “The Hispanic Vote.”
40. Barreto and Segura, Latino America; Ricardo Ramírez, Mobilizing Opportunities: The Evolving Latino Electorate and the Future of American Politics (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013).
41. Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez, ed., Mexican Americans and World War II (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005); Richard Griswold del Castillo, ed., World War II and Mexican American Civil Rights (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010).
42. Hector Amaya, “Dying American or the Violence of Citizenship: Latinos in Iraq,” Latino Studies 5 (2007): 3–24.
43. Barreto and Segura, Latino America.
44. “Survey on Latino Attitudes on the War in Iraq,” Pew Research Hispanic Trends Project, February 7, 2005, accessed September 17, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2005/02/07/survey-on-latino-attitudes-on-the-war-in-iraq/.
45. Barreto and Segura, Latino America.
46. “Inside Obama’s Sweeping Victory,” Pew Research Center, November 5, 2008, accessed September 20, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/2008/11/05/inside-obamas-sweeping-victory/.
47. Barreto and Segura, Latino America.
48. Barreto and Segura, Latino America.
49. Arizona, Senate Bill 1070 (2010), http://www.azleg.gov/legtext/49leg/2R/bills/SB1070S.pdf.
50. Arizona, Senate Bill 1070.
51. Rogelio Saenz, “Latinos, Whites, and the Shifting Demography of Arizona.” Population Reference Bureau, September 20, 2010, accessed September 23, 2015, http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2010/usarizonalatinos.aspx.
52. Tanya Maria Golash-Boza, Immigration Nation: Raids, Detentions in Post-9/11 America (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2012).
53. Arizona, Senate Bill 1070.
54. Golash-Boza, Immigration Nation.
55. Golash-Boza, Immigration Nation.
56. Jeremy Duda, “Clergy Group Files First Suit Against SB 1070,” Arizona Capitol Times, April 29, 2010, accessed September 23 2015, http://azcapitoltimes.com/news/2010/04/29/clergy-group-files-first-suit-against-s1070/.
57. Article 2 Section 2 of the Arizona Constitution reads, “All political power is inherent in the people, and governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed, and are established to protect and maintain individual rights.” accessed September 3, 2015, http://www.azleg.gov/Constitution.asp?Article=2
58. “Arizona v. United States,” Legal Information Institute, Cornell University, accessed September 24, 2015, https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/11-182.
59. Mark Hugo Lopez, Rick Morin, and Paul Taylor, “Illegal Immigration Backlash Worries, Divides Latinos,” Pew Hispanic Center, October 28, 2010, accessed September 22, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2010/10/28/illegal-immigration-backlash-worries-divides-latinos/. This report does not disaggregate Latino groups but, given all demographic profiles, Mexicans and Mexican-Americans make up the majority of undocumented immigrants.
60. Lopez, Morin and Taylor, “Illegal Immigration Backlash.”
61. Interview with high school students (anonymous) by Alma M. García, August 10, 2014.
62. Nicholls, The DREAMers.
63. Nicholls, The DREAMers.
64. “Top 10 of 2012—Issue #2: Obama Administration Action Benefitting DREAMERers a Game-Changer in U.S. Immigration Debate,” Migration Policy Institute, December 1, 2012, accessed September 29, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/top-10-2012-issue-2-obama-administration-action-benefitting-dreamers-game-changer-us/.
65. “Top 10 of 2012—Issue #2: Obama Administration Action Benefitting DREAMERers.”
66. “Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals,” Department of Homeland Security, accessed October 3, 2015, http://www.dhs.gov/deferred-action-childhood-arrivals.
67. Jeanne Batalova and Michelle Mittelstadt, “Relief from Deportation: Demographic Profile of the DREAMers Potentially Eligible Under the Deferred Action Policy,” Migration Policy Institute, August, 2012, accessed October 1, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/DACA-deferred-action-DREAMers.
68. Mark Victor Hugo, “Latino Voters in the 2012 Election,” Pew Research Center, November 7, 2012, accessed September 14, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/11/07/latino-voters-in-the-2012-election/.
69. Cindy Y. Rodriguez, “Latino Vote Key to Obama’s Re-election,” CNN online, November 9, 2012, accessed July 10, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2012/11/09/politics/latino-vote-key-election/.
70. Rodriguez, “Latino Vote.”
71. Hugo, “Latino Voters.”
72. Hugo, “Latino Voters.”
73. Hugo, “Latino Voters”; Mark Hugo Lopez and Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, “Inside the 2012 Latino Electorate: II. Dissecting the Latino Electorate,” Pew Research Center, May 31, 2013, accessed October 1, 2015, www.pewhispanic.org/2013/05/31/ii-dissecting-the-latino-electorate/.
74. Margie McHugh, “Diploma, Please: Promoting Educational Attainment for DACA- and Potential Dream Act-Eligible Youth,” Migration Policy Institute September 14, 2014, accessed October 1, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/diploma-please-promoting-educational-attainment-daca-and-potential-dream-act-eligible-youth.
75. McHugh, “Diploma Please.”
76. Jerry Markon and Sandhya Somashekhar, “Obama’s 2012 DACA Move Offers a Window into Pros and Cons of Executive Action,” Washington Post, November 11, 2014, accessed September 10, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/obamas-2012-daca-move-offers-a-window-into-pros-and-cons-of-executive-action/2014/11/30/88be7a36-7188-11e4-893f-86bd390a3340_story.html.
77. “Fixing the System: President Obama Is Taking Action on Immigration,” White House, November 20, 2014, accessed October 4, 2015, https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/immigration/immigration-action#.
78. “Executive Actions on Immigration, Department of Homeland Security, accessed October 11, 2015, http://www.uscis.gov/immigrationaction.
79. Drew Desliver, “Executive Actions on Immigration Have Long History,” Pew Research Center, November 11, 2014, accessed October 29, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/11/21/executive-actions-on-immigration-have-long-history/.
80. Eileen Patten, “How Obama’s Executive Action Will Impact Immigrants, By Birth Country,” Pew Research Center, November 21, 2014, accessed October 29, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/11/21/how-obamas-executive-action-will-impact-immigrants-by-birth-country/.
81. Julia Preston, “Federal Panel Lets Injunction Against Obama’s Immigration Actions Stand,” International New York Times, May 26, 2015, accessed October, 8, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/27/us/fifth-circuit-court-of-appeals-rules-on-obama-immigration-plan.html.
82. “Executive Actions on Immigration.”
83. Matt Ford, “A Ruling Against the Obama Administration on Immigration,” The Atlantic, November 10, 2015, accessed November 11, 2015. http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/fifth-circuit-obama-immigration/415077/.
84. Rachel L. Swarns, “Long Banned, Mortgage Bias Is Back an Issue,” New York Times, October 31, 2015.
85. Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Children 12 and Under Are Fastest Growing Group of Unaccompanied Minors at U.S. Border,” Pew Research Center, July 22, 2014, accessed November 1, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/07/22/children-12-and-under-are-fastest-growing-group-of-unaccompanied-minors-at-u-s-border/.
86. Jens Manuel Krogstad, Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, and Mark Hugo Lopez, “At the Border, a Sharp Rise in Unaccompanied Girls Fleeing Honduras, Pew Research Center, July 25, 2014, accessed November 1, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/07/25/at-the-border-a-sharp-rise-in-unaccompanied-girls-fleeing-honduras/.
87. “The Rise of Asian Americans,” Pew Research Center, June 19, 2012, accessed November 1, 2015, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/.