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A
Abraham
Abrahamic religions and importance of texts, 3–4, 240–241
monotheism and, 65, 68
Academic Philosophers, The (Augustine), 219
Adeodatus, 221–222
Aeschylus, 67
Against Apion (Josephus), 94–95
Against Celsus (Origen), 99–103
Against the Academics (Augustine), 219
Agamemnon, 67, 82
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, 30–34, 36–38
Alaric, 226
Albinus, 197
Alexander (Bishop of Alexandria), 154–155
Alexander Severus (Emperor), 61–62, 87, 129
Alexander the Great, 93
Alexandria, Egypt, 109, 113, 149
Ambrose (Bishop of Milan)
influence of, 220, 222–223
“last pagan revival” and, 200, 201–203
Symacchus and, 186–190
Valentinian II and, 199
Ammianus Marcellinus, 52, 172–173
Anastasius (Emperor), 125
Antinous, 102
Antioch, as residence of Emperors, 181
Aphrodite, temple of, 145, 146
Apollo
Constantine’s belief in, 136–137, 157
Oracle of Apollo at Didyma, 130, 173
as Roman and Greek god, 39
sacrifice rituals and, 87
temple to, 19, 27, 107
Apollonius, 86, 201
Apology (Tertullian), 78–79
Apuleius, 95
Arbogast, 199–200, 202, 226
Arcadius (Emperor), 192, 200
Arianism
Ambrose and, 186
Julian and, 166
Nicene creed and, 193
Visigoths and, 226
Aricia, sacrifice at, 81–83
Arius (priest), 149–158. See also Arianism
astrology, 93–94
Athanasius (Bishop of Alexandria), 154, 156
atheism, 97–103
Athens, sacking of, 87–88
Atropos, 31
Atta, Mohammed, 72
Atticus, 30
augury, 89–90, 91, 94–95
Augustine of Hippo
Altar of Victory and, 185
baptism of, 221
biographical information, 110, 161, 215–219
City of God, 110–111, 215, 225–233
influence of, 64–65, 211–212, 220
ordination of, 221–222
True Religion, 85
Augustus, title of (under Diocletian), 123
Augustus Caesar
Apollo promoted by, 105
Cicero’s murder and, 45
Electra legend and, 82
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares) inception, 17–20, 25–28, 43–44
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares) participation by, 30–42
Julian compared to, 174–175
legacy of, 125
Aurelian (Emperor), 122
Aurelius (Bishop of Carthage), 223
Ausonius, 189–190
B
Ba’al, 60–61
Baalbek, 127
Balbus (Stoic), 50
baptism, Constantine and, 143–144
Basil, Saint, 167
Basilina, 166
Brown, P.R.L.B., 251, 256, 257, 259
Burkert, Walter, 63–64
C
Caecilianists, 223–224
Caelestis, 110–111
Caesar. See Augustus Caesar; Julius Caesar
Caesar, title of (under Diocletian), 123
Calama (North African city), Pagan festival in, 214–216
calendar book of 354 CE (Filocalus), 205–207
Cameron, Alan, 254–256, 259
Camillus, Marcus, 89
Campus Martius, 21–24, 76
Capaneus, 1–2
Capito, Ateius, 28, 31–32
Capitoline (Rome), 16, 19, 20–21, 26, 35
Caracalla (Emperor), 127
Carmen contra paganos (Prudentius), 78
Carmen saeculare, 40–43
Carmentes, 36–37
Catholic, terminology for, 193, 224
Catiline, 46
Cato, 36, 51–52, 223
Ceionii family, 228
Celsus, 99–103
Celts of Gaul, 81. See also Gaul
Chaldean Oracles, 176
childbirth rituals, 36–37, 40
children’s roles, in ancient Rome, 40–43
Christianity
in Africa, 214–216, 223–224, 227
baptism and Constantine, 143–144
Catholic, terminology for, 193, 224
“church,” etymology of, 147
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 146
common knowledge about, 12, 13–16
Constantine and, 121–133
Council of Nicea, 14, 149–158, 193
cross used by Constantine, 137–144
growth of, in fourth and fifth centuries, 146–148, 160, 179, 196, 209–211
Julian and, 170–176
“last pagan revival” (393–394 CE) and, 201–211, 213
Manichees and, 130, 217
miles Christi (soldiers of Christ), 160
original sin doctrine, 210
paganism concept and, 1–6, 159–164, 237–241
persecution of Christians by Romans, 129–132
Plotinus on, 116–118
Roman views of, 97–103
Symmachus and, 177–190
Cicero, 45–53
Augustine compared to, 215–216, 218–219
Catiline destroyed by, 30
conspirators of Cataline and, 46
On Divination, 50–52
home of, 21, 173
The Laws, 47–49, 50, 52
legacy of, 235
murder of, 45, 53
The Nature of the Gods, 49–50, 52
On the Republic, 231
Circus Maximus, 39
City of God (Augustine), 110–111, 215, 225–233
Claudian, 208–209
Claudius (Emperor), 43
Cloaca Maxima, 16
Clodius, 173
Clotho, 31
Commodus (Emperor), 125
Confessions (Augustine), 215, 218
Connelly, Marc, 65
Constans (Emperor), 125–126, 166
Constantine (Emperor), 121–133, 135–148
on Christianity, 137–144, 146–148
Constantinople, 18
Council of Nicea, 14, 149–158, 193
Elagabalus compared to, 126–129
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares) under, 43
Julian’s relationship to, 166
reign of, 124–125, 129–133
rise to power, 121–124, 135
on Roman gods, 135–137, 145, 146, 157
on sacrifice, 145
Saint John Lateran’s basilica built by, 232
successors of, 125–126
Constantine II (Emperor), 125–126, 166
Constantinople
building of, 145
as capital of empire, 181
dedication of, 157
Hagia Sophia, 237
Constantius (Emperor)
altar to Victory and, 181, 183, 184
common knowledge about, 14
death of, 168–169
empire shared with brothers, 125–126, 166
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares) under, 43
portrait of, 206
on sacrifice, 144
Constantius (father of Constantine the Great), 122–124
Council of Nicea, 14, 149–158, 193
Cynegius, Maternus, 194–195
D
Damasus (Pope), 204–207
Daphnis, 107
Deaths of the Persecutors (Lactantius), 139–140
Decline and Fall, The (Gibbon), 164
Delphi, 105–106
Diana
role of, 40, 42
sacrifice rituals and, 81–83
temple to, 29
Didyma, 87
Dill, Samuel, 177–178
Diocletian (Emperor), 87, 122–125, 129
Dis. See Pluto
divinitas, 138
Doliche (town), 60–61
Domitian (Emperor), 43
Donatists, 223–224
Donne, John, 93
E
“eastern” religions
common knowledge about, 12–13
concept of gods and, 56
Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius), 13
Elagabalus (Emperor), 126–129
Electra, 81–82
Eliot, T. S., 159
Enneads (Plotinus), 116
Esquiline (Rome), 19, 20–21
Eteocles, 1
ethnikoi (people of other nations), 159
Eugenius (Emperor), 200, 201–203, 226
Eusebius of Caesarea, 13, 122, 140–142, 145
Eusebius of Nicomedia, 156, 166
Exodus, 65
Ezra, 112
F
Fausta, 125
Festus, 76
Filocalus, Furius Dionysius, 205–207
Firmicus Maternus, 65, 78, 205–206
flamen dialis, 43–44
Flavianus, Nicomachus, 200, 201–203, 226
Forum (Rome)
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares) and, 28, 35
as place of business, 20, 38
Fraenkel, Eduard, 25–26
Frigidus, battle of, 15, 200, 202, 213, 226
G
Gadhimai, 72
Gaia, 107
Galerius, 123, 124, 129, 135
Gallus
execution of, 166
exile of, 126
portrait of, 206
“games of the century” (ludi saeculares), 17–44
Augustus’ inception of, 17–20, 25–28, 43–44
under Claudius, Domitian, Septimius Severus, Constantine, Constantius, 43
legend of Valesius and, 22–24
ludi, defined, 25
rituals of, 30–42 (see also sacrifice)
Rome’s topography and layout, 20–22
saeculum, defined, 24–25
Sibylline books and, 26–28
timing and location of, 28–34
Gaul
Christianity in, 210
gods of, 2, 3, 136
Gratian and, 184
invasion of Rome (390 BCE) by, 89, 227
Julius Caesar in, 59, 81
Roman control of, 137, 168–169, 172, 199
sacrifice by, 81
Gibbon, E., 164
“Gnostics,” 117
gods, 55–69
defining, 55–56
ethical precepts and, 66–68
festivals of, 56–57
identity of, 58–59
narratives about, 58
perceived as real, 1–2, 60–66 (see also paganism)
purpose of, 57
representation of, 57–58
Roman and Greek concepts of, 59–60
Roman knowledge sources about, 89–95
Roman perception of monotheism, 97–103, 115–118
temples to, 56
worship of, 57
Gods and the World, The (Sallustius), 73
Golden Ass, The (Apuleius), 95
Grannus, 136
Gratian (Emperor), 183–184, 192, 198, 199
gratitude, obligation of, 47–48
Greek language
Christian literature and, 161
Hellenes, 163–164
Greek religion
gods of, 106–113
Roman and Greek concepts of gods, 59–60
on sacrifice, 74, 87–88
Gregory Nazianzen, Saint, 167
guts, haruspicy and, 90–91
H
Hadrian (Emperor)
Antinous and, 102
common knowledge about, 11
legacy of, 125
tomb of, 22
Hagia Sophia, 237
hajj, 71–72
Harrison, Jane, 62
haruspex, 33
haruspicy, 90–91
Hecate, 94
Helena (Constantine’s mother), 146
Heliopolis, 127
Hellenes, 163–164
Hercules
battle of Frigidus and statue of, 202
narrative about, 58
temple to, 16
Herodian, 127–128
Herodotus, 80, 107
Heruls, 87
Hesiod, 74
Hinduism, on sacrifice, 72
Hispellum (town), 157
Homer, 80, 105, 117–118
homoousios, homoiousios, 149
Honorius (Emperor), 192, 200, 226
Horace (Horatius Flaccus), 40
Human and Divine Antiquities (Varro), 53
Hymn to Helios (Julian), 168
I
Iamblichus (philosopher), 175–176
Iliad (Homer), 80, 105
imperator, defined, 191–192
Iphigeneia, 67
Isis, 95, 108
Islam
hajj, 71–72
inception of, 240
on sacrifice, 71–72
Jeremiah, 100
Jerome, 161, 197, 204–207, 220
Jerusalem
as holy land, under Constantine, 146
temple rebuilt by Julian, 174
Jesus
Celsus on, 101–102
Constantine’s worship of, 141
as divine, 149–158
teachings of, 220
John Chrysostom, 222
Josephus, 94–95
Josiah (King of Judah), 111–112
Jovian (Emperor), 171
Judaism
Christianity and heritage of, 148
common knowledge about, 12
forced baptism of Jews (fourth and fifth centuries), 210
Greeks and, 111–113
rabbinic Judaism and importance of texts, 240–241
on sacrifice, 74–75
temple in Jerusalem and, 70, 174
Julia (Augustus’ daughter), 30, 37
Julia Maesa, 127
Julian (Emperor)
Altar of Victory and, 183
Caecilianists and, 223–224
Christian legacy of, 170–176
common knowledge about, 14–15
Constantine’s exile of, 126
growth of Christianity and, 179
rise to power, 165–170
Julius Caesar
assassination of, 18, 22, 25
Cicero and, 49, 51
as divine, 18, 144
in Gaul, 59, 81
Juno, 37
Jupiter
battle of Frigidus and, 202
Capaneus and, 1–2
Constantine and, 138
Jupiter Dolichenus, 60–61, 63
Jupiter Tonans, 19, 26–27, 35, 37, 43–44
Justina, 184
Justinian (Emperor), 237, 239
K
Kazimierz, Jan (King of Poland), 233
Kinks, The, 46
L
Lachesis, 31
Lactantius, 129, 139–140
lares (tutelary deities), 19–20
Laws, The (Cicero), 47–49, 50, 52
lectisternium, 25
Lepidus, 19, 44
Lewis, J. L., 174
Libanius, 145, 195
Licentius, 137
Licinius, 138, 155–156
Life of Constantine (Eusebius), 122, 140–142, 145
Livia (Augustus’ wife), 37
Livy, 89
Lucian, 75, 86
lucus (stand of trees), 161
ludi, defined, 25. See also “games of the century” (ludi saeculares)
M
MacMullen, Ramsay, 246,249, 252, 255, 257
Macrobius, Ambrosius Theodosius, 233–235
Macrobius Longinianus, Flavius, 197
Magna Mater, 38
Magnus Maximus, 184, 199
Manichees, 130, 217
Marcellinus, 227–228
Marcus Aurelius (Emperor), 99, 125, 126
Marcus Marcellus (Emperor), 52
Marius, 26
Mark Antony, 18
Mars Ultor
animal sacrifice and, 76
field of (see Campus Martius)
temple to, 19
Maxentius (Emperor), 137–143
Maximian, 123, 124
Maximinus, 132
Melanie the younger, 228
Melitius (Bishop of Lycopolis), 150
Milan, as residence of emperors, 181, 186, 226
miles Christi (soldiers of Christ), 160
Miletus, 87
Miller, M., 145
Milvian Bridge, battle of, 137–143
Mocius, Saint, 157
Moerae, 31
Monnica, 221
monotheism. see also Christianity; Islam; Judaism
inception of, 65, 68
as viewed by Romans, 97–103, 115–118
Moses, 100
Mosollamus (Jewish soldier), 94–95
Mostel, Z., 67
N
Nature of the Gods, The (Cicero), 49–50, 52
Nectarius, 215–216, 219
Nero (Emperor), 35, 107, 191
Nicene creed (Council of Nicea), 14, 149–158, 193
Nonnus of Panopolis, 209
numen, 47
O
“October horse,” 76
On Divination (Cicero), 50–52
On Sacrifices (Philostratus), 86
On the Republic (Cicero), 231
“On the Savior” (Claudian), 208–209
Oracle of Apollo at Didyma, 130, 173
oracles, belief in, 91, 105–106
Orestes, 81–83
Origen, 99–103
original sin doctrine, 210
Orosius, Paulus, 229
Ossius (Bishop of Cordoba), 152–153, 156
Ovid, 18, 40
P
paganism. See also Gaul; Greek religion; Roman religion
as Christian perception, 1–6, 159–164, 237–241
continued practices in fifth century, 213–216
Council of Nicea and Christian hegemony, 154, 158
fall of Rome and, 225–227
“last pagan revival” (393–394 CE) and, 201–211, 213
paganus, etymology, 159–162
“triumph” of, 191–200
vestal virgins, 32, 128, 198–199
Palatine (Rome), 16, 19, 20–21, 38
Pantheon, 11, 20
Parcae, 42
Parilia festival, 76
Patricius, 218
Paul (Apostle), 71, 101
Pausanias, 106–107
Pelikan, Jaroslav, 251
Peter (Bishop of Alexandria), 149–150
Phanias of Lesbos, 80
Phemonoe, 107
Philostratus, 86
Phokikon, 107
piety, religion versus, 68–69
Plato, 49, 100, 116, 175, 231
Pliny the Elder, 95
Pliny the Younger, 182, 220
Plotinus, 115–118
Plutarch, 46, 80, 95, 109
Pluto, 23–24, 25, 28
Polynices, 1
polytheism, concept of, 164. See also gods; paganism
pomerium (border), 21
Pompey, 21–22, 51
pontifex maximus
Augustus as, 19, 44
Gratian as, 183–184, 198
“pontiff” and significance of, 235
Porphyry, 83, 86, 116
Praetextatus, Vettus Agorius, 180, 185, 186, 197–198, 203–204
Proserpina, 23–24, 25, 28
Prudentius (Spanish Christian poet), 78, 188, 202–203
Ptolemy, Claudius, 93
Ptolemy (King of Egypt), 109
Punic wars, 24, 38, 52
Pyrrhus of Epirus, 183
Pythias, 106
Q
quindecemviri (senior statesmen), 26–27, 29, 30–31, 42
Quintus, 50
Quirinal (Rome), 19, 20–21
R
Ravenna, as residence of emperors, 226
Republic (Plato), 176, 231
Rhampsinitus, 102
Roman religion, 17–44. See also gods; paganism
Constantine and, 121–133
early Christianity on gods of, 64–65
knowledge sources of, 89–95
Latin literature, preservation, 161
Plotinus and, 115–118
Roman and Greek concepts of gods, 59–60 (see also gods)
sacrificial ritual events, 25, 30–42, 75–76, 81–83, 87–88 (see also “games of the century” (ludi saeculares))
Rome. See also Roman religion; individual names of emperors
City of Gods (Augustine) on, 110–111, 215, 225–233
topography and layout, 16, 20–22
Visigoths and fall of, 199, 225–227
Romulus, 19
Rufinus, 195–196
S
sacrifice, 71–88
animal sacrifice, ancient accounts, 72–79
Constantine on, 145
“games of the century” rituals (ancient Rome), 25, 30–38 (see also “games of the century” (ludi saeculares))
human sacrifice, ancient accounts, 79–83
by Julius Caesar, 51
modern-day practices, 71–72, 74
prohibition of, 83–88, 144, 195–196
repetition required for, 90–91
taurobolium (bull slaying), 77, 202–203
saeculum, defined, 24–25. See also “games of the century” (ludi saeculares)
Saint John Lateran’s Basilica, 232
Saint Peter’s Basilica, 189, 232
Salamis, battle of, 80
Sallustius, 73
Salutius, Saturninus Secundus, 171–172
Samaritans, 74
Saturn, 24
Saturnalia (Macobius), 233–235
Saxons, 182
sellisternium, 25, 37
Septimius Severus (Emperor), 43, 126
Serapis, 108–109
Servius, 83
Seven Books of History Against the Pagans (Orosius), 229
Severus II, 37. See also Alexander Severus (Emperor); Septimius Severus (Emperor)
Shapur (Emperor of Persia), 62
Sibylline books, 26–28, 91, 146
Socrates, 49, 51, 52, 176
Soliloquies (Augustine), 219
Stilicho, 226
Stoics, 49–50
Sulla, 26
Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius, 177–190
attempt to restore Victory’s altar by, 183–188
legacy of, 177–183, 188–190
on statue to Praetextatus, 197–198
Synesius of Cyrene, 167
T
Tacitus, 191
Tagaste, Augustine at, 221
Tanit, 109–110
Tarentum, 22–24
taurobolium (bull slaying), 77, 202–203
taxation, Julian on, 169
temples, to gods, 56
Terminalia, feast of, 130
Terra Mater, 38, 42
Tertullian, 78–79, 100
Theater of Pompey, 21–22
Theodoret (Bishop of Cyrrhus), 171, 195
Theodosius (Emperor)
death of, 213
legacy of, 125
reign of, 171, 184, 191–200
Visigoths and, 226
Theophrastus, 75, 86
theurgy, 176
Thyestes, 80
Tiberius (Emperor), 30, 82
Titus, 74
Trajan (Emperor), 125, 182, 220
Trier, as residence of emperors, 181, 205
True Religion (Augustine), 85
True Word, The (Celsus), 99
Tyler, B., 58
V
Valens (Emperor), 192, 225
Valentinian (Emperor), 125, 171, 179, 192
Valentinian II (Emperor), 184, 187, 192, 199
Valentinus, 205–207
Valesius, legend of, 22–24
Varro, Marcus Terentius, 52–53
Venus Genetrix, 19
Vergil, 40, 83, 230
vestal virgins, 32, 128, 198–199
Via della Consolazione, 23–24
via sacra, 35
Victory, 136–137, 183–188
Viminal (Rome), 19, 20–21
Visigoths, 199, 225–227
Volusianus, Rufius Antonius Agrypnius, 228
W
Williams, D., 97
women’s roles, in ancient Rome, 25, 28, 36–37
Y
YHWH, 111–112
Z
Zalmoxis, 102