Food has always been a part of hospitality services required by tourism, but it has only been recognized within tourism studies as a tourist attraction or destination since the late 1990s. Much of this work has focused on how to develop distinctive and memorable dining experiences (“culinary tourism” or “food tourism”). Scholars in New Zealand, Australia, Canada, and England have led the field, and some explore the potential impacts of tourist activities on local food cultures and cuisines. Also, scholars and businesses working with wine, agritourism, eco-tourism, and sustainable tourism are particularly interested in food.
Tourism studies is an interdisciplinary field, oftentimes professionally oriented in training students to work within the industry, but increasingly drawing upon both social sciences and the humanities to explore the practices, the impacts, and the meanings of tourism. As an academic field at educational institutions it is usually aligned with hospitality management or recreation and leisure, and frequently has a strong marketing component, although classes examining it as a cultural, economic, and political phenomen might be offered within other departments.
Food surprisingly played an insignificant role in tourism studies until the late 1990s, and is still frequently treated as simply another hospitality service that accompanies tourism. Starting in 2002, publications brought attention to food as a potential attraction and destination in its own right. The tourism industry also “discovered” food in the middle of the first decade of 2000, leading to “culinary tourism” becoming a fast-growing niche within the industry and a popular subject for research. It is also treated as part of agritourism, sustainable tourism, and cultural tourism.
People have always traveled, but historically it was out of necessity rather than pleasure and was full of hardship and danger. Food could be an object of travel in that travelers sought new food sources, trade routes for carrying food, and new foods that could be traded as a commodities. Food was central to the survival of travelers, but, unless the traveler was of a high status, it was usually treated as fuel rather than a pleasurable culinary experience. For example, the hard tack, or “ship’s biscuits,” given to British sailors in the 1700 and 1800s would barely qualify as food for most culinary tourists today.
Debates abound among tourism scholars as to when tourism started as an actual industry. Food is part of the debate since it is an integral part of the hospitality services supporting travelers. The issues around food tended to be not on food itself but on how to ensure adequate and safe supplies to fortify/nourish tourists traveling to and at their destination. Pilgrimages during the European Middle Ages, for example, encouraged the growth of inns, convent and monastery gardens and food specialties (such as cheeses, candies, breads, beer, and wine). Mass tourism is seen as beginning in the 1700s in Great Britain as a way to help the working classes escape the unhealthy industrial centers. Emphasis here was on healthy and hearty food as a necessary part of the experience rather than the focus of attention. Similarly, travel for health reasons to a climate or environment better suited for human habitation or to cure specific ailments (tuberculosis) usually included food that would be healthier, but was not the destination itself. The European Grand Tour of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries took well-to-do upper-class youth to the great sights of Europe, but travelers oftentimes ate the foods they were accustomed to rather than try new foods. In fact, eating local foods was frequently out of necessity rather than choice since there tended to be among most cultures a fear of what others eat.
It should be mentioned that a certain amount of “domestic tourism” (tourism within one’s own country) has always occurred around food, especially in places known for regional specialties. In Spain, for example, towns in the north were famous for their distinctive varieties of beans. Aficionados would travel to restaurants in season specializing in dishes made with those beans. Cheeses, meats, vegetables, and fruits with strong place associations tended to attract consumers, even though they frequently were not seen as tourism attractions per se. Even now, individuals travel to a favorite restaurant or to a region where they can obtain a particular specialty without thinking of themselves as tourists. Similarly certain countries have reputations for their cuisines, and individuals knowledgeable in those cuisines enjoy traveling there, not as tourists but as well-informed connoisseurs. France has a long history of attracting gourmands for its excellent and distinctive foods, as do Spain, Italy, Mexico, parts of China, and numerous other countries and geographic regions.
Recognition within the tourism industry that food could be an attraction in itself began in the 1990s with wine, in which connoisseurs would travel to the source of excellent wines in order to experience for themselves the origin of a wine and to taste it in its natural setting. Such tours involved not only tasting wines, but also learning about the varieties and nuances of tastes. All of this usually was directed at heightening the aesthetic pleasure of the visit and tended to lend itself to tourism as status marker. Similarly, the tourism industry had always recognized gourmet dining experiences as an “added value” to a tour, but in the early 2000s, businesses began thinking of food as a potential attraction and even destination. The focus tended to be on famous restaurants, famous chefs, and exceptional and unique fine-dining experiences, and these were marketed to tourists usually with some prior knowledge of the culinary world and characterized as having extra money that could be spent on extravagant services. Numerous organizations specializing in culinary tourism have since been established.
Meanwhile, scholars from a variety of fields were exploring the concepts of eating and otherness in tourism and suggested several terms for such tourism focused on food: “Tasting tourism” (Boniface), “food tourism” (Hall), “gastronomic tourism” (Zelinski), and “culinary tourism” (Long, 1998, 2004) and “food pilgrimages” (Long, 2006). Each term represented a slightly different approach to the subject, but the industry now most commonly uses “culinary tourism,” changing the scholarly meaning of the phrase from the original “voluntary, exploratory participation in the foodways of an Other” (Long, 2004) to “the pursuit of unique and memorable eating and drinking experiences” (Wolf, 2006).
Tourism is both an industry and a human activity. Correspondingly, tourism studies is both a professional and academic field. Theory, therefore, falls into two large categories of operation: how best to run tourism operations; and anthropological, cultural and philosophical theories exploring the meanings of the tourism experience. Both sets of scholarship deal with the motivations behind tourism as well as its impacts, but they tend to differ in that the first is concerned primarily with applied knowledge, and the second with interpretation of the activities of tourism. Also, the two approaches define tourism very differently, and those definitions then drive theory.
The tourism industry tends to define it as an activity involving travel that then requires hospitality services away from home: “[T]ourism comprises the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes” (United Nations World Tourism Organization, 1993), and a tourist is “[one] who travels away from home for a distance of at least 50 miles (one way) for business, pleasure, personal affairs, or any other purpose except to commute to work, whether he stay overnight or returns the same day” (the National Tourism Resources Review Commission, 1973). These definitions focus on the potential money spent on services needed by an individual in a new place or on services that would normally occur at home, such as eating, laundering one’s clothes, sleeping. Most tourism scholars now add that tourism is a complex phenomenon involving multiple activities and multiple players: “[T]ourism may be defined as the processes, activities, and outcomes arising from the relationships and the interactions among tourist, tourism suppliers, host governments, host communities, and surrounding environments that are involved in the attracting and hosting of visitors” (Goeldner and Ritchie, 2009: 6). Food is included as one of the activities involved in such interactions and is a physical need and therefore a service, and potentially an attraction for tourists.
Operational theories are closely aligned with business, hospitality management, marketing, travel, lodging, and food services. These theories provide models for best practices and making predictions within tourism and hospitality providers, usually with the aim of improving efficiency and profitability. There is a tendency within tourism scholarship to focus primarily on the businesses providing services, but there is a push to take into account all the players, including the tourist, tourist services, governments of host and guest cultures, and host community. Established tourism scholars and textbook writers, Charles Goeldner and Brent Ritchie, encourage a systems approach, defining a system as “a set of interrelated groups coordinated to form a unified whole and organized to accomplish a set of goals. It integrates the other approaches into a comprehensive method dealing with both micro and macro issues” (2009: 25).
Within operational theories, until the early 2000s, food was generally approached as a hospitality service with little attention paid to the cultural or symbolic meanings of that food. Seminal work was done by European, Australian, and New Zealand tourism scholars who began researching and theorizing food as an attraction and destination. Much of this work addresses the planning, implementation, and management of tourism operations around food and wine, but it also recognizes food as a cultural phenomenon.
Mitchell and Hall define food tourism as “visitation to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants, and specific locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production regions are the primary motivating factor for travel” (2001: 308). They propose that one of the unique features of this type of tourism is the association between specific foods and locales, so marketing needs to pay special attention to images attached to place.
In 2000 Hall, Sharples, Cambourne, and Macionis edited Wine Tourism Around the World: Development, Management and Markets, giving cross-displinary perspectives from business, the social sciences, and policy studies. Hall, Sharples, et al. edited Food Tourism Around the World: Development, Management and Markets in 2003, exploring motivations for food tourism, models for developing and managing it, strategies for connecting it to regional economic development, and the implications of tourism for culinary identity. Similar to earlier tourism scholarship, they attempt to develop typologies – of culinary tourists, of attractions, of dining experiences. Although some of the authors in this volume address cultural issues and questions of authenticity and identity, most of the articles offer models for applying the research to developing and managing tourism. In the introductory chapter, for example, Hall and Sharples state that food is significant in tourism because it represents a large percentage of expenditures, it is useful for marketing, and it “can be used as a means of differentiation for a destination in an increasingly competitive global marketplace” (2003: 5). Hall and Sharples later edited a third volume, Food and Wine Festivals and Events Around the World, in 2008, which continues their earlier work but brings in a new emphasis on ecological concerns surrounding tourism events. Consistent with trends within tourism studies and the tourism industry towards sustainability, the authors promote models that are collaborative, community based, environmentally friendly, and encouraging of local economic development.
Another significant volume was edited by Anne-Mette Hjalager and Greg Richards in 2002. Gastronomy and Tourism is also directed towards the application of theory, but it brings in a more cultural perspective, examining both tourism and gastronomy as impacted by globalization. They point out that both fields have always been dynamic, and that a holistic understanding of them together will enable tourism policy makers and operators to develop programs that will allow for creative change while simultaneously encouraging regional cuisines. The authors also offer an epistemological framework for gastronomic tourism, and outline the types of knowledge that are needed to further develop the field. This volume includes articles going beyond impact studies to discuss food as intellectual property, as representing regional and national identities, and as a force in globalization and localization as well as a major tool in economic development.
The anthropology of tourism explores the meanings of the tourism. It emerged as a field in the mid-1970s when anthropologists recognized that tourism was both culturally shaped and an activity involving cultural implications. Definitions were introduced that focused on tourism as a type of mind-set or attitude of the tourist rather than just physical movement away from home. Valene Smith defined a tourist as “a temporarily leisured person who voluntarily visits a place away from home for the purpose of experiencing a change” (1997: 1) and developed typologies of types of tourists as well as forms of tourism. Another seminal scholar, Dean MacCannell, stated that “touristic consciousness is motivated by its desire for authentic experience” (1999: 277). Tourists accordingly were fleeing modernity and seeking a feeling of connection with nature, other people, and even themselves that was thought to exist outside the industrialized world. He explored how sites became “sacralized” into a tourist attraction, and how authenticity was “staged” so that tourists had the illusion of experiencing another culture. Similarly, Nelson Graburn defined the tourist experience as a journey from the profane to the sacred in that tourism is a way in which people “embellish and add meaning to their lives” (1989: 22). John Urry took these notions further in his concept of the “tourist gaze” as essentially different from “everyday looking” (2002): “[T]he potential objects of the tourist gaze must be different in some way or other. They must be out of the ordinary. People must experience particularly distinct pleasures which involve different senses or are on a different scale from those typically encountered in everyday life” (Urry, 2002: 45).
These anthropological definitions and theories did not address food per se, but they called for more nuanced understandings of culture in general, laying the foundation for food to be recognized as part of the experience of tourism—and tourism as a way of experiencing the world. Several tourism scholars recognized the potential of food as a subject for understanding tourism as a cultural experience. Priscilla Boniface takes this approach in her Tasting Tourism: Travelling for Food and Drink (2003). She recognizes that culture defines and shapes tourism and the forms it takes. What one group of people see as tourism may then be perceived differently by another group. She then suggests that food and drink have recently become tourist attractions in their own right because tourism itself has changed. Tourism now overlaps with everyday life, and difference is no longer important in defining an experience as a touristic one. Instead, tourism acts as a medium through which society works out issues and concerns. Tourism offers “liminal” spaces, in which individuals feel out of the ordinary. This then frees them to experiment and explore not only another culture, but their own identities, beliefs, and practices.
Folklorist Lucy Long (1998, 2004, 2006) also drew from this literature in developing her culinary tourism model, which has been adopted by much of the tourism industry. She applied Urry’s concept of “tourist gaze” to food and eating, emphasizing tourism as a type of experience based on curiosity and perception of otherness in food. Otherness can be more than another culture; it can be a time, age, region, religion, socioeconomic class, or any other category that is perceived as being out of the norm for an individual. This means that tourism can occur in a number of venues without a person actually traveling away from home—cookbooks, films, fiction, etc. The definition also expands the range of activities that are involved in culinary tourism, moving from food to foodways, the total system of activities and conceptualizations surrounding eating (procurement, preservation, preparation, product, consumption, disposal, performance). This connects culinary tourism to other varieties of tourism—agri-, heritage, eco-, sustainable—and also to a food culture as a whole.
Tourism scholarship is continuing to incorporate more interdisciplinary perspectives on food and tourism. It is refining operational models, developing criteria for successful implementation, conducting case studies, and exploring the potential for channeling culinary tourism for sustainability. A perusal through tourism and hospitality journals demonstrates that food is now a serious subject in scholarship. Two major questions drive much of this work: The motivations of tourists and the impacts of tourism.
The anthropological theories that tourism is actually a search for authenticity have also been applied to culinary tourism. Accordingly, tourists go to other places to consume the food of that place because it offers an authentic experience of food connected to place. This then gives the tourist a sense of connection, of being whole and integrated. It also gives an “added value” to the food in that it is unique to that place, requires physical travel, and therefore an out-of-ordinary experience. Others theorize that the motivation is a desire for memorable dining experiences or unique ones that give the tourist a higher status. Long (2004) posits that curiosity is the basic motivation, and that the curiosity can be about the food or the culture behind the food. Boniface (2003) identified five “driving motivations: anxiety over food safety, the need for comradeship in uncertain times and the need for comfort and escape; a need to show distinction, affluence and individualism; curiosity and the wish for knowledge and discovery; the need to feel grounded amid globalization; and the need for sensory and tactile pleasure.” Sharples offers a typology of culinary tourists based on the depth of interest in food. Most scholars recognize that motivations can be mixed, and that individual tourists may change motivations at any time.
A second general trend of theory in tourism scholarship explores the impacts of tourism on host communities. This can be done from a social science perspective, measuring economic, health, safety, and social “costs and benefits” arising from tourism. Costs are the negative results of tourism, while benefits are the positive ones, and ideally benefits would outweigh the costs of any tourist activity. Problems arise in the interpretation of what is a cost and to whom.
Erik Cohen and Nir Avieli claimed that food could actually be an obstacle to tourism. Unpleasant food experiences could lead to cultural misunderstandings, and treating food as an attraction could have harmful effects on the host culture (2004). Many tourism scholars, however, see food in tourism as beneficial by affirming culinary identities and providing a market base for the continuation of culinary traditions. Priscilla Boniface, in Tasting Tourism: Travelling for Food and Drink (2003) sees food tourism as actually stimulating local cuisine rather than stifling it, since such tourists are seeking authentic experiences through food. A number of articles in Food Tourism Around the World suggest similar conclusions; food tourism is partially responsible for the development of regional cuisines.
Another theory interpreting the impacts of tourism tends to see it as an inherently colonialist enterprise. Coming primarily from Marxist-influenced cultural studies, these scholars see tourism as representing an unequal power structure in which hosts must cater to guests for their approval and financial “gifts.” In economic terms, this creates dependency on the tourism industry, which is often controlled by players outside the actual tourism destinations. In cultural terms, it creates shame and embarrassment within the tourist culture and, rather than encouraging cultural understanding, perpetuates stereotypes of both the host and guest cultures. Food plays a role by representing culture, so that eating the food of an Other can symbolically be a domination, even annihilation of that other. While that interpretation may seem extreme, tourism does put cultures on display for the entertainment or edification of tourists, as anthropologist-folklorist Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett points out in Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (1998). In such displays, the host culture performs itself self-consciously to the audience, shaping itself according to the perceived expectations of that audience. Restaurants catering to tourists similarly design their menus and recipes with tourist tastes in mind. Whether that is colonialism or simply good marketing on their part depends on the amount of agency and choice they feel they have in making their decisions.
Tourism scholarship and policy has attempted to address the issues of costs and benefits and inequalities by developing the concept of sustainable tourism, tourism that wisely uses environmental, economic, social, and cultural resources so that they will be available in the future. Food can play a significant role in sustainability since it easily links the various tourism components and has obvious ties to the environment and culture. Furthermore, Rosario Scarpato argues that tourism should be able to support a “sustainable gastronomy” by providing economic and social support for local foods (in Hall and Sharples et al., 2003: 132–53).
Tourism studies emphasizes social science and quantitative methods of research. Data are collected through surveys, questionnaires, observation, and brief interviews, and are interpreted using statistics and methods. Case studies are a common tool for examining the implementation of theories.
These methods are then applied to the specific approach and concerns of the researcher. Applied researchers focusing on improving tourism as an industry utilize models for efficiency and profitability, including the economics of tourism – amounts of money spent and on what services, multiplier effects (other businesses benefiting from tourism dollars), and distribution of profits. A productive method is to “follow the money” to see who actually benefits financially from tourism. Consumer behavior is studied in order to determine who responds to what marketing efforts, as well as to identify clientele for specific tourism activities. Environmental impacts of tourism are easily measured, and the affects of tourism on social institutions, demographics, crime, and public cultural practices and expressive forms are also quantifiable subjects. These measurements are crucial to the assessment of “costs” and “benefits” in tourism to all the “stakeholders” (tourist, host community, host government, host environment, and tourism businesses).
Interpretation of data frequently involves developing typologies addressing the spectrum of tourism components: Tourists (motivations, primary interests, place of origin, socioeconomic characteristics), tourist activities (shopping, eating, sleeping, visiting sites, etc.), destinations and attractions (types of sites, popularity, length of time spent there), and impacts (particularly economic and environmental). Typologies can then be utilized in marketing, planning of tourism programs and in making public policy decisions concerning tourism. They also allow for the application of models with different variables and for objective evaluation of the efficacy of models. Relevant to food in tourism is a typology of food tourists based on their depth of interest in food (Hall and Sharples et al., 2003). Similarly, Boniface offers five motivations for food tourism, and Long suggests typologies of “otherness,” venues for tourism, and strategies for negotiating exoticness and familiarity in the culinary tourism experience.
Qualitative research methods tend to be used by those tourism scholars coming from anthropological and humanities perspectives. They approach tourism as a cultural and social construction, reflecting and shaping cultural beliefs and worldviews as well as social values and identity. These intangible aspects of tourism require research methods that help to identify perceptions of individuals as well as collective understandings. This type of ethnography allows individuals to speak for themselves, recognizing that behavior stems from perception, but places those individuals within the larger historical, economic, political, social, and cultural context. It frequently addresses the experience of tourism and how that affects the ways in which that individual might see the world.
By 2010, much tourism scholarship recognized the need to integrate quantitative and qualitative methods, and to recognize the cultural and experiential aspects of tourism. The sub-field of sustainable tourism, although frequently focused on economic and ecological sustainability, encourages collaborative and integrative research and assessments.
It recognizes that tourism is both an economic enterprise and a cultural one and attempts to develop approaches that allow for a holistic understanding of how all components work together.
As one of the largest industries in the world, tourism offers numerous directions for further research. Tourism studies is becoming increasingly multi- and interdisciplinary, and the cultural aspects of the field are more recognized among both professionals and scholars. It now makes room for more input from scholars from a variety of humanities and social science disciplines.
Culinary tourism is currently seen as a positive force in economic development. Initiatives have developed throughout the world that use food to attract tourist dollars. The best of these create networks between food producers (farmers), processors (chefs, artisinal preservation and preparation), and distributors (shops, restaurants), so that tourists gain a broader perspective on where their food comes from and who is involved. They also tend to feature local production, strengthening local food businesses and creating stable markets for small-scale farmers. Some culinary tourism initiatives also promote local foodways and food cultures, such as preparation methods, everyday foods, or eating styles and contexts (think of Amish suppers). More research is needed in order to identify foodways, but the local and everyday does not always fit the criteria of gourmet, unique, or exotic.
Research on the impacts of food tourism is crucial. Tourism oftentimes introduces new ingredients, dishes, and cuisines to both hosts and tourists. In what ways might that shape individual experiences and perceptions of the other? Can food be an entrée into understanding another culture, or is it simply entertainment or fuel? Also, tourism may cause some established food traditions to be overshadowed, even obliterated, by the new foods. How do such changes affect the local food culture (the beliefs and practices surrounding food) and food system (system of production, distribution, and consumption)? Tourism may actually bring seemingly beneficial changes, encouraging healthier eating habits, more environmentally friendly production methods with local foods, and a stronger sense of pride in food traditions. What is the long-term effect of these benefits, however? They may shift cultural values and perceptions in ways that affect other aspects of that culture in unforeseen ways.
Another area of research concerns issues surrounding intangible heritage and intellectual property in tourism. Food studies can contribute to a better understanding of these concepts, partly because food’s ubiquitousness and materiality make it productive to “think with.” Everyone can participate in discussions about food, and everyone can participate in the consumption of it. Also, specific cuisines and dishes are now being designated as UNESCO world heritage items, turning them into official tourism attractions. What are the implications?
Sustainable tourism is a growing trend within the tourism industry, and food can play a part in encouraging sustainability. Research can help push the role of food beyond its obvious connections to economies and environments to help promote social and cultural sustainability as well. Culture is not fully understood in much sustainable tourism and tends to be perceived as simply artistic forms or everyday practices of a group of people. An understanding of the complexity of culture as a worldview and ethos as well as practices can be developed through the study of food as a cultural phenomenon.
Similarly, scholars and professionals are recognizing that tourism can shape perceptions of others and interactions between cultures and even nations. Anthropological and folkloristic approaches to culinary tourism tend to emphasize ways in which it can be channeled towards education, cultural understanding, and peaceful relations between diverse groups of people. Much more work is needed in this area.
Tourism involving food also offers employment opportunities for individuals trained in food studies or culinary arts. Along with working in food services, such backgrounds are an “added value” in planning, developing, and executing tourism programs.
Tourism degrees are offered at both the undergraduate and graduate level at universities throughout the world. Frequently connected with travel, hospitality, leisure or recreation, the degree is a professional one preparing students for work in the tourism industry. Depending on the program, students can specialize in tourism administration, programming, management, and policy. Some programs offer an emphasis in sustainable or “responsible” tourism. The PhD in tourism tends to emphasize research that can be applied to the profession. Tourism programs in the US and China tend to emphasize the business and marketing aspects of the field, while Canadian, European, and Australian/New Zealand ones recognize its interdisciplinarity and require courses in anthropology, sociology, and psychology.
Tourism classes are also offered in other disciplines, particularly anthropology, folklore, and cultural studies. Many food studies programs frequently include a class or lectures on culinary tourism.
There are numerous tourism organizations, both professional and scholarly. At the global level, there are two primary organizations: The United Nations World Tourism Organization, which aims to insure that tourism contributes to economic development, international understanding, and peace, and the World Travel and Tourism Council, made up of industry leaders and highlighting the positive benefits of tourism. This division between promotion of the tourism industry and oversight of tourism activities is then seen at the national, regional, and even town level. Many of these are connected to the travel and tourism industry, and frequently every country, region, and even town has its own organization to promote and oversee tourism within its boundaries. A number of organizations specialize in culinary tourism, and these tend towards promotion of the tourism industry: The International Culinary Tourism Association (based in the US), the Ontario Culinary Tourism Alliance and BC Culinary Tourism Society (Canada), and Australia on a Silver Platter. There also are numerous scholarly organizations for tourism study, and culinary tourism is included as a subject within those.
There are no journals dealing specifically with culinary tourism, but articles about the subject appear in peer-reviewed academic journals, including the Journal of Travel Research, Tourism Management, Tourism Economics, Journal of Leisure Research, Tourism Geographies, and Annals of Tourism Research. A journal that addresses tourism from an interdisciplinary perspective, including cultural studies, as part of a larger treatment of strangers and newcomers, was established in 2011, Hospitality & Society.
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