References to sidebars’ pages are listed in bold type
Ader, Clement, 238n3
aerodromes, 106–7, 120, 124. See Langley, Samuel P.
aerodynamics: in airplanes, 103–4, 105, 110, 114, 115, 116, 119, 122, 127–28, 208–9; in automobiles, 93, 203, 204; in bridges, 169, 172, 249n28. See also streamlining
Airflow car. See Chrysler Airflow
airplane. See aviation
Alexanderson, Ernst, 135
alkylation, 78. See also oil refining
alternating current (A.C.), 11, 13, 14, 16, 25–34. See also electric circuits; electric power; Steinmetz, Charles; Tesla, Nikola; Westinghouse, George
American Chemical Society, 71
American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T), 33, 51, 54; and long-distance telephony, 51–53; and radio, 53, 141, 143; regulation of, 54. See also Bell Telephone Company
Ammann, Othmar, 11, 160, 161; and campaign for George Washington Bridge, 161–63; and design of George Washington Bridge, 159, 163–65, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170–71; later bridges of, 169, 172–75, 249n28. See also George Washington Bridge
Ampère, André-Marie, 14
amplitude modulation (AM), 135–36, 137. See also Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey; radio; radio transmission
angle of attack, 103, 105. See also aviation, principles of
antenna coupler, 139, 143. See also radio reception
arc lighting, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 224n7, 225n10. See also electric lighting
Armstrong, Edwin Howard, 12, 143, 145, 152, 153–54; and frequency modulation (FM), 153; patent litigation of, 149–51, 153–54; and the regenerative circuit, 143, 144, 147, 150; and the superheterodyne receiver, 144, 145–46, 147, 151, 245n25. See also de Forest, Lee; Sarnoff, David
Ardmore, Pennsylvania, thin-shell roof, 197
assembly-line manufacturing. See Ford, Model T: manufacturing of,
AT&T. See American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)
audion. See de Forest, Lee; triode
automobile (gasoline-powered), xv, 6, 78, 79; early cars, 65, 80, 82–83, 86–87; engine, four-stroke cycle in, 79, 81; Ford Model T, 65, 79, 87–88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100; fuel needs of, 57, 65, 75; later innovations in, 83, 100–101, 201–3, 204, 205; production of (U.S.), 79, 95, 203; streamlining of, 203, 204, 205. See also Chrysler, Walter P.; Chrysler Corporation; Ford, Henry; Ford Model T; Ford Motor Company; General Motors Corporation; Sloan, Alfred P. Jr., See also electric cars; steam cars. See also specifically listed individual cars.
aviation, xv, 103; Boeing, William, and, 209–10; Cayley, Sir George, and 103–4, 110; Douglas, Donald, and, 206–8, 210–13, 216; early attempts to fly, 104; formulas for, 104, 105, 113, 115; fuel needs of, 75; Langley, Samuel P., and, 106–7, 120, 124, 127–28; Lilienthal, Otto, and, 104, 106; principles of, 103–4, 105, 108, 110; streamlining and, 199, 200, 208–11; Wright, Orville and Wilbur, and, 108–14, 115, 116–18, 119, 120–21, 122, 123–28; Wrights, innovations after, 124, 126, 207. See also specifically listed individual airplanes
Baldwin, Matthias, 6
Bear Valley Mutual Water Company, 181
Bell, Alexander Graham, xvii, 8, 35, 38, 50; aviation research in later life, 124; courtship and marriage to Mabel Hubbard, 45; Gray, Elisha, rivalry with, 47–48, 49; hearing and sound, Bell’s interest in, 36, 40; patents and patent litigation of, 45, 47–48, 49, 50, 225n13, 229n17; Salem lecture of (1877), 46; and science, 43, 54; as teacher of the deaf, 36–37, 40; telegraph research of, 40, 41, 42–43, 44; telephone research of, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 229n18. See also Bell, Alexander Melville; Hubbard, Gardiner
Bell, Alexander Melville, 35, 36, 37
Bell Laboratories, 33
Bell System. See American Telephone and Telegraph Company; Bell Telephone Company
Bell Telephone Company, 45, 48, 50–51; and conflict with Western Union, 48, 50. See also American Telephone and Telegraph Company
Benz, Karl, 80
Big Creek Dams (Eastwood design), 181, 187
Billington, David P. Sr., 2, 253n39
Billington, James H., 2
Boeing, William Edward, 209–10
Borden, Bill, 253n39
Boston University, 37
brake horsepower, 88, 118, 122, 236n15
Bréguet, Louis-Charles, 208
bridges, xv, 8, 9, 10–11; aesthetics, 173–75; arch bridges, 156, 157, 169; cable bridges, 156, 157, 169, 172; deflection theory and, 165, 168, 169, 249n26; early modern bridges, in iron and steel, 155–56; safety factors and traffic loads for, 164-65, 166, 167. See also George Washington Bridge; see also other specifically listed individual bridges
Brook Hill Dairy Exhibit roof, 187
Brooklyn Bridge, 156, 158, 173
Bronx-Whitestone Bridge, 175
Brush, Charles F., 17
Buick, David, 98
Burton, William M., 11, 57, 65, 66, 71, 78; patent, 69, 70, 232n22; and science, 71–72; thermal cracking research, 65–66, 68–69. See also Burton process; oil refining: thermal cracking; Standard Oil Company; Standard Oil of Indiana
Burton process, 57; control-volume analysis, as example of, 71–72; development of, 65–69, 70, 72, 78; limitation of, as batch process, 72; stills in operation, 73
camber (in airplane wings), 110, 112
Campbell, George A., 52; and inductive loading, 52–53, 54, 56, 230n26; and wave filter, 53
capacitance, 52; in Hertz experiment, 131–32, 243n4; in radio tuning, 138, 139. See also electric circuits
Cape Canaveral, Vertical Assembly Building at, 198
car. See automobile
carbon telephone transmitter, 7, 48. See also Edison, Thomas Alva
Cardozo, Benjamin, 151
carrier wave, 135–36, 137. See also radio, reception
catalytic cracking, 75–76, 77, 78, 233n34; fixed-bed, 78; moving-bed, 78
Cayley, Sir George, 103–4, 110
Central Pacific Railroad, 178
Century of Progress World’s Fair (Chicago, 1933–34), 187
Chanute, Octave, 108, 113, 118
Chevrolet, Louis, 99
Chrysler, Walter P., 201–2; and Chrysler Motors, 201–3; and Zeder-Skelton-Breer group, 201–2
Chrysler Airflow, 199, 201, 205; aerodynamic design of, 203, 204, 205; commercial failure of, 205
Chrysler Corporation, 11–12, 201–3
Chrysler Six, 202. See also Chrysler Corporation
Cincinnati Bridge (now the John A. Roebling Bridge), 156
circuits. See electric circuits
Clermont, 5
coal gas: in lighting, 13, 14, 58; in Otto engine, 6, 79, 81
coherer, 132. See also radio reception
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), 147
Columbian Exposition (Chicago, 1893), 30
concrete, 177. See also reinforced concrete
control-volume analysis, 71–72
Coolbaugh, John and Kenneth, 149
Coolidge, William D., 33
Corliss, George, 4
Craigellachie Bridge, 156
Daimler, Gottlieb, 80
dams: arch, 178, 180; earth, 178, 180; “flat slab,” 178; gravity, 178, 180; multiple-arch, 178, 181–82, 183, 185–86. See also Eastwood, John; Freeman, John. See also specifically listed individual dams
Davy, Sir Humphrey, 14
deflection theory, 165, 168, 169, 248n23, 249n26. See also George Washington Bridge; Tacoma Narrows Bridge
de Forest, Lee, 53, 138, 140, 143; patent conflicts of, with Armstrong, 150–51; —, with Fessenden, 140, 244n15; triode (audion), development of, 138, 140, 141, 142. See also radio reception; radio transmission
Delaware River Bridge, 164
design. See innovation
De Soto car, 203. See also Chrysler Airflow; Chrysler Corporation
Detroit Automobile Company, 84
diode, 141, 142. See also Fleming, J. A.
direct current (D.C.), 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 25–26, 28, 29–30, 131; direct-current motor, 31. See also Edison, Thomas Alva; electric circuits; electric power
Dischinger, Franz, 251n23
Dodge, Horace, 202
Dodge, John, 202
Dom Pedro (emperor of Brazil), 4
Douglas Aircraft Company, 208. See also Douglas, Donald Wills
Douglas, Donald Wills, 205, 207; aircraft company of, 208; and DC-1, 210–12, 213; and DC-2, 212; and DC-3, 212–13, 216; and Douglas World Cruisers, 208, 209. See also Douglas DC-3; streamlining, airplanes
Douglas DC-1 and DC-2, 212
Douglas DC-3, 199, 206, 216; design of, 210–13, 214; performance of, 213, 214, 215, 216
Douglas Skysleeper Transport (DST). See Douglas DC-3
Douglas World Cruisers, 208, 209
drag, 92, 93, 104, 105, 115, 199, 200; on Chrysler Airflow, 203, 204; on Douglas DC-3, 214, 215; on Ford Model T, 92, 93; form drag, 199, 200; friction drag, 200; on airplanes, 105, 114, 115; on Wright Flyer, 114, 115, 116, 119; on Wright gliders, 111–12; on automobiles, 92, 93, 204. See also lift
Dubbs, Carbon Petroleum, 72. See also oil refining
Dubbs, Jesse, 72
DuPont, Pierre S., 99
Durant, William C., 98–99, 201
Duryea, Charles, 80
Dyckerhoff & Widmann, 186, 251–52n23
dynamo, 16, 17. See also Edison, Thomas Alva, dynamo of
Eads, James B., 156
Eastwood, John, 11, 175, 176–78, 179; Big Bear Dam, 181; conflict with Freeman, 185, 186; Hume Lake Dam, 181, 182, 183; later dams, 185–86; Mountain Dell Dam, 185, 251n17; multiple-arch designs of, 181–82; safety record of, 186
Edison, Thomas Alva, 6–7, 8, 11, 13, 18, 84, 135, 206; and alternating current, 30; carbon telephone transmitter of, 7, 48, 49; dynamo of, 23, 24, 25, 220–22; and “Edison effect,” 140–41; engineering approach of, 34; incandescent electric light research of, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22; incandescent light bulb (1879), 22, 23; Joule’s Law, use of, 19; Ohm’s Law, use of, 17, 19, 21; parallel circuit of, 17, 19, 20; Pearl Street power plant and network, 25; phonograph of, 7, 17; power transmission, difficulties of, 22, 25–26, 29–30; and science, xvii, 19, 34, 220–22; telegraph inventions of, 7–8, 17, 40. See also Edison General Electric Company; electric lighting; electric power; Westinghouse, George; Westinghouse Electric Company
Edison General Electric Company, 25, 30. See General Electric Company; Westinghouse Company
Edwards, Nelson, 197
electric circuits, xix, 14, 15; alternating current (A.C.), 11, 13, 14, 16, 25–28, 29, 29–31, 131, 226n21; in automobiles, 90; capacitance and inductance, 52, 131–32, 138, 139, 243n4; direct current (D.C.), 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 25, 28, 31, 131; parallel circuit, 17, 19, 20, 22, 220–22; in radio, 129, 130, 131, 132, 139, 142, 143, 144; resistance, 14, 15, 19, 21, 22; resonance, 138, 139; series circuit, 17, 20; in telegraphy, 37–38, 39, 41; in telephony, 43, 48, 49; in transformers, 28–29. See also electric lighting; electric power; electromagnetism
electric lighting, xv, 6, 13, 14; arc lighting, 14, 17, 20; incandescent lighting, 14, 17, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 30; high-resistance filament in, 19, 21, 22; high-vacuum bulb in, 22; later improvements to, 33. See also arc lighting; Edison, Thomas Alva; incandescent lighting; Swan, Sir Joseph; Westinghouse, George
electric power, xv, 13; alternators, 16, 135; dynamos, 16, 17, 23, 24, 25; generation of, 14, 16, 17, 24, 25; Edison (direct-current) system, 23, 24, 25–26, 29–30; transformers and, 28, 29; Westinghouse (alternating-current) system, 25–30.
electric (electric-arc) welding, 72
electromagnetism, 14, 15; in generating electricity, 14, 16, 17, 28; Henry and, 37, 39; in telegraphy, 37–38, 39, 40, 41; in telephony, 43, 48, 49, 52–53; in radio waves, 129, 130, 131–32
engine. See internal-combustion engine; steam engine
engine knock, 73
engineering: as design, xvii; as four great ideas (structures, machines, networks, processes), xvi, 8–10; as narrative of great works, xviii; as normal and radical design, xvii. See also innovation; science
English Visible Speech (Bell), 36
Ethyl Corporation, 74
Euler, Leonhard, 127
Evans, Harold, xvi
ExxonMobil, xv. See Standard Oil of New Jersey
Farquharson, F. B., 249n27
Federal Communications Commission, 148
Federal Radio Commission, 148
Federal Trade Commission, 149
Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey, 135, 136, 138, 143; and amplitude modulation (AM), 136; and broadcasting, 136, 147; and carrier wave, recognition of need for, 135; and heterodyning, 145–46; and high-frequency alternator, 135; patent conflict with de Forest, 140, 244n15
filament. See electric lighting
Finsterwalder, Ulrich, 251n23
first law of thermodynamics, 68
Fleming, John Ambrose, 140–41, 142
Flügge, Wilhelm, 251n23
Ford, Henry, 11, 65, 79, 83, 85; and aviation, 208; early companies and car models, 84–87; and Ford Model T, 87–88, 92, 95; and labor, 95, 96–97, 236n21; and moving assembly line, 92, 95; “quadricycle” and racecars, 84; rigidity and anti-Semitism in later years, 11–12, 100; rivalry with General Motors, 98, 100; Selden patent, opposition to, 95–96; Taylorism, Ford methods opposed to, 101; Wright brothers, opposition to, 126. See also Ford Model T; Ford Motor Company
Ford Foundation, 100
Ford Lincoln Zephyr car, 205, 206
Ford Model T, 6, 11, 65, 87; affordable cars, Ford’s vision of, 86–87; basic design of, 87–88, 89; chassis, 89, 95; fuel system, 88, 90; engine, 10, 88, 91; horsepower, 88, 91, 92, 93, 235n14, 236n15; ignition, 88, 90; manufacturing of, 72, 92, 95, 97, 101; production and sales of, 95; transmission, 88, 92, 94; speed, 88, 94, 201; termination of, 100
Ford Motor Company, xv, 84–87; and dealership system, 85–86; early cars of, 86–87; Ford Model T car, 87–95; labor relations in, 95, 96–97, 236n21; Lincoln Zephyr car, 205, 206; moving assembly line in, 92, 95, 97, 101; production and sales of, 86–87, 95, 98, 100, 236n19; in rivalry with General Motors, 100; static assembly in, 92, 96, 101. See also Ford, Henry; Ford Model T; General Motors Corporation
Ford Trimotor airplane, 208
form: in airplane design, 103, 105, 110, 208–9, 211; in automobile design, 203, 204, 205; in bridge design, 172–75, 177–78, 249n28; in dam design, 178, 180, 181; in roof design, 186–90, 197–98; in reinforced concrete, 176. See also mass vs. form
formulas: simplicity of, xvii–xviii; use of, in book, 10–11
Fortune 500 (2004), xv
Frasch, Herman, 63–64, 71; Frasch process, 63–65, 71
frequency modulation (FM), 136, 137, 153
Frye, Jack, 210
Fulton, Robert, 5, 84; 1909 Fulton Centennial, 124
Futurama Ride. See General Motors Futurama Ride
Garabit Viaduct, 156
gas lighting, 13–14, 25, 30, 58
gasoline, 6, 11, 57, 58, 65; from catalytic cracking, 75–76, 77, 78; from distillation (simple), 58, 60, 65; from thermal cracking, 65–69, 70, 71–73; lead added to, 73–74, 101, 233n28; octane rating of, 74–75, 76, 233n33; production (U.S.) of, 72. See also oil refining
Gaulard and Gibbs, 226n20
General Electric Company (GE), xv, 30–31; and radio, 135, 146, 149, 153; research laboratory of, 33; and Steinmetz, Charles, 31-33. See also Edison, Thomas Alva; Edison General Electric Company
General Motors Corporation (GM), xv, 11–12, 79, 97, 201; and air-cooled engine, 101–2, 237n27; divisions of, 100; Durant, Will, founding by, 98–99; and leaded gasoline, 102; Sloan, Alfred P. Jr., reorganization and management by, 99–101. See also Sloan, Alfred P. Jr.
General Motors Futurama ride, 1, 3. See also New York World’s Fair (1939)
generators. See electric power, alternators; electric power, dynamos
George Washington Bridge, 8, 11, 12, 155, 174, 176; aesthetics of, 173–75; costs of, 159, 162, 169, 173; deflection theory, influence on design of, 165, 168, 169; design of, 159, 163–65, 166, 167, 169, 170, 171, 173–74; need for, 158, 160–61; public campaign for, by Ammann, 162–63; steel calculations for, 165, 167; traffic load estimate for, 164–65, 166, 173. See also Ammann, Othmar
Gibbs, Josiah Willard, 138; Josiah Willard Gibbs Medal, 71
Gibson, James, 188
GM. See General Motors Corporation (GM)
Gould, Jay, 50
Gramme, Zénobe Théophile, 17
Grant, Ulysses S., 4
Gray, Elisha, 47, 54; patent conflict with Bell, 47–48, 50, 229n17; telephone of, 47–48, 49. See also Bell, Alexander Graham; Western Union
“Great Aerodrome” (of Langley), 120, 124
Great Western Power Company, 181
Grove, Sir William, 14
Harris, King and Lawrence, 55
Harlem Board of Commerce, 163
harmonic telegraph: Bell’s, 40, 41, 42–43; Gray’s, 47. See also Bell, Alexander Graham, telegraph research of; Gray, Elisha
Harvard University, 37
Hayden Planetarium, 187–88, 189
Heaviside, Oliver, 53
Hell Gate Bridge, 158, 160, 161
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 36
Henry, Joseph, 131; and Bell, Alexander Graham, 43; and electromagnetic telegraph, 37, 39. See also electromagnetism
Hershey Arena, 188–90; construction of, 190–91, 193–96; costs of, 252n31; design of, 190; labor, Hershey chocolate workers used for, 189–90, 193; forces and stresses in, 191, 192, 253n33. See also Tedesko, Anton
Hertz, Heinrich, 129, 130, 131–32, 154
heterodyning (in radio), 144, 145–46, 245n25. See also Armstrong, Edwin Howard; Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey
Hibbing, Minnesota, thin-shell domes, 197
Holland, Clifford, 160
Holland Tunnel, 160
Hong, Sungook, 243n6
Hooper, Stanford, 146
horizontal force (in structure), 10–11, 156, 157; in George Washington Bridge, 167, 250n31; in Hershey Arena, 191, 253n33
horsepower (hp), 10-11, 88, 92, 120; in Chrysler Airflow, 204; in Douglas DC-3, 214, 215; in Ford Model T, 88, 91, 92, 93; formulas for: brake hp, 88, 92, 236n15; —: indicated hp, 10, 11, 88, 91, 235n14; —: thrust hp (airplanes), 117–18, 119, 122, 214, 215; —: traction hp (cars), 92, 93, 204, 236n16; in Wright Flyer, 117–18, 119, 122, 215
Houdry, Eugene, 57, 72, 75–76, 78
Houdry process, 75–76, 77, 78. See also Houdry, Eugene; oil refining
Hubbard, Gardiner, 40, 42, 45, 50
Hubbard, Mabel, 40, 42, 45, 50; marriage to Alexander Graham Bell, 45
Huber, Walter, 186
Hudson, Henry, 124
Humphreys, Robert E., 65, 67; Burton process and, 65–66, 68–69, 71
hydrocarbons. See oil, chemistry of
incandescent (electric) lighting, 7, 14; Edison and, 17–19, 22; Swan and, 22. See also electric lighting
indicated horsepower, 10, 11, 88, 91, 235n14
inductance, 52; in Hertz experiment, 131–32, 243n4; in inductive loading, 52–53, 230n26; in radio tuning, 138, 139. See also electric circuits
innovation: as normal and radical design, xvii. See also innovations (normal); innovations (radical)
innovations (normal): in automobile design, 100–1; —, in aviation, 126, 207; —, in electric power and light, 32–33; in oil refining, 72–73; —, in radio, 153; —, in telegraphy, xvii, 40, 41; —, in telephony, 48, 52–54
innovations (radical): in automobile design, 87–89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95; in aviation, 108–14, 115, 116–18, 119, 120–21, 122, 123, 210–13, 214, 215, 216, 219; in bridge design, 155–56, 163–65, 166, 177–78; in electric power and light, 17–19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25–30; in oil refining, 65–69, 70, 71–72, 75–76, 77; in radio, 132–36, 137, 138, 139, 140–41, 142, 143, 144, 145–46; in reinforced concrete dam design, 181, 183; in reinforced concrete roof design, 186–91, 191, 192, 193–96; in telephony, xvii, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 54
Innovators, The (Billington), xv
Institute of Radio Engineers, 146, 150
internal-combustion engine, 81; air-cooled engine, 100–101, 237n27; in Douglas DC-3, 214; in Ford Model T, 88, 91; four-stroke cycle in, 79, 81; Otto engine, 6, 79–80, 81; in Wright Flyer, 117–18, 119, 122
Internet, the, xix
Inventing America (Maier et al.), xvi
iron, 155–56; in early modern bridges, 156. See also steel
Jablochkoff, Paul, 17
Jones, Sir Bennett Melvill, 208–9
Josiah Willard Gibbs Medal. See Gibbs, Josiah Willard
Joule, James, 19
“Jumbo” dynamo, 25
Kalinka, John, 197
kerosene: for lighting, 6, 14, 30, 58, 63, 65; refining of, 58, 60, 61, 64–65, 68
Kettering, Charles F., 33; and electric self-starter, 83; and engine knock, 73
Langley, Samuel P., 106; aviation research of, 106–7, 120, 127–28, 241n28; failure of “Great Aerodrome,” 120, 124, 241n29; Wright brothers and, 108, 240n20. See also aviation; Wright, Orville and Wilbur
Langley Aeronautical Laboratory, 127
Langmuir, Irving, 33
Latimer, Lewis, 225n13
Leland, Henry, 84
Levassor, Emile, 80
lift, 103–4, 105, 114, 115; in Wright gliders, 110–12; in Wright Flyer, 114, 115, 116, 119, 215; in Douglas DC-3, 214, 215. See also drag
Lilienthal, Otto, 104, 106, 108, 114, 116, 127
“Lima-Indiana” oil, 63–65. See also Frasch, Herman; Frasch process
Lincoln Zephyr car, 205
Lindenthal, Gustav, 158, 161; and design for Hudson River bridge, 158, 159, 160
“liquid” telephone, of Bell, 48; of Gray, 48, 49. See Bell, Alexander Graham, telephone research; Gray, Elisha
Lloyds of London, 134
Lowell, Francis, 4
magnetism. See electromagnetism
Manly, Charles, 107, 120, 241n28
Marconi, Guglielmo, 132–35, 138, 147, 154
Marconi Company, 140, 143; in the United States, 146, 147
mass vs. form, 176–78. See also form
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 37
Maxim, Sir Hiram, 238n3
Maxwell, James Clerk, 129, 131, 132, 230n25
Maxwell Motors, 201–2. See also Chrysler Corporation
Mayer, Julius M., 150
Menai Straits Bridge, 156, 173
mercury vacuum pump, 22
Midgley, Thomas, 73. See also gasoline
Model T. See Ford Model T
modulation: of amplitude, 136, 137; of frequency, 136, 137, 153
Molke, Eric, 197
Monomail airplane. See Boeing Monomail
Moreell, Lieutenant-Commander Ben, 196
Morrow, Dwight, 163
Morse, Samuel F. B., 7, 37–38, 39
Mountain Dell Dam, 185
Murray, Sally, 197
Museum of Modern Art (New York), 177
National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA), 210–11
National Broadcasting Company (NBC), 147
Natchez, Mississippi, barrel-shell roof, 197–98
Navier-Stokes equations, 127
New York World’s Fair (1939), 1, 2, 3, 218, 219; General Motors Futurama ride, 1, 3; General Motors pavilion, 1, 3, 219
Newcomen, Thomas, 4
Newkirk, Jane, 82
Noble, Alfred, 182
normal innovation. See innovation; innovations (normal)
Northrop, Jack, 211
Ohm, Georg, 14
Ohm’s Law, 14, 15, 19, 21, 34, 48
oil refining, xv; 6, 57; alkylation, 78; early history of, 58; catalytic cracking (Houdry process), 75–76, 77, 78; — (moving-bed processes), 78; distillation, simple (straight-run), 58, 60, 61, 65; Frasch process, 63–65; production (U.S.), 61, 64–65, 72, 74, 233n34; thermal cracking (Burton batch process), 65–69, 70, 71–72; — (Dubbs continuous process), 72–73; reforming, 78
Olds, Ransom, 98
Orsted, Hans Christian, 14
Orsdel, Josiah van, 150
Otto engine, 79–80; and four-stroke cycle, 81
Packard Eight, 204
Paley, William S., 147
parallel circuit, 17, 19, 20, 22, 220–22. See also Edison, Thomas Alva; electric circuits
Passer, Harold, 220
Patent Office. See U.S. Patent Office
patents: and airplanes, 123, 126; and automobiles, 95–96; and oil refining, 69, 70, 73; and radio, 133, 138, 140, 141, 147, 148–49, 149–51, 153; and telegraphy, 38, 40; and telephony, 45, 47, 48, 50, 53. See also U.S. Patent Office
Pennsylvania Railroad, 6, 8, 27, 158
Perisphere, 218, 219. See also New York World’s Fair (1939)
petroleum. See oil, chemistry of; oil refining
Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition (1876), 4–8, 9
Philadelphia Skating Club and Humane Society, 197
phonograph, 7, 17. See Edison, Thomas Alva
PLAN formula. See horsepower, indicated
Plymouth car, 203. See also Chrysler Corporation
Port of New York Authority, 162, 163
Portland Cement, 177
Prandtl, Ludwig, 128
Progress in Flying Machines (Chanute), 108
radical innovation. See innovation; innovations (radical)
radio, xv, 53, 129; Armstrong and, 143, 144, 145–46; de Forest and, 138, 140–41, 142; Fessenden and, 135–36, 138, 140, 145–46, 147; Fleming and, 140–41, 142; Hertz’s experiments in, 129, 130, 131–32, 243n4; Marconi and, 132–35; Maxwell’s theory and, 129, 131–32; patent disputes in, 149–151, 153–54; popularity and public regulation of, 147–49; RCA and, 146–51, 153–54; regenerative circuit in, 143, 144, 146; Sarnoff and, 146–47, 148, 149–151, 153; superheterodyne receiver in, 144, 145–46; television and, 153–54; wireless telegraphy, 132–35. See also amplitude modulation; Armstrong, Edwin Howard; de Forest, Lee; electromagnetism; Fessenden, Reginald Aubrey; Fleming, John A.; frequency modulation; Hertz, Heinrich; radio reception; radio transmission; Sarnoff, David.
radio reception, 132, 138, 139; rectifiers (detectors), early, 135–36; regenerative circuit, 143, 144, 244n21; superheterodyne receiver, 144, 145–46, 245n25; triode as amplifier, 138, 140–41, 142
radio transmission, 132, 135–36, 137; amplitude modulation (AM), 135–36; broadcasting, 136, 147; frequency modulation (FM), 136, 137, 153; high-frequency alternators, early use in, 135; triodes, later use in, 147; wireless telegraphy, 132–35
Radio Act (1927), 148
Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 146–49; Sarnoff and, 146–51, 153, and patent conflicts with E. H. Armstrong, 149–51, 153–54
radio frequency spectrum, 133
railroads, 5–6, 61, 156, 158; external-combustion engines used with, 6, 81
reactances. See electric circuits
refining of oil. See oil refining
reforming. See oil refining
regenerative circuit, 143, 144, 244n21
reinforced concrete, xv, 175, 176; in dams, 181–82, 183, 184–86; mass versus form in, 177–78; in thin shells, 186–191, 191, 192, 193–98
Reis, Philip, 43
resonance (in radio), 138, 139; in Hertz experiments, 131–32
Righi, Augusto, 132
Ritter, Wilhelm, 160
Roberts and Schaefer Company, 187, 188, 197
Rockefeller, John D., 6, 57, 62; consolidation of refining industry by, 61, 63; controversy about, 63; innovation and, 64
Rockne, Knute, 210
Rogers, F. M., 65
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 196
Roosevelt, Franklin, 196
Roosevelt, Theodore, 63
Rüsch, Hubert, 251n23
St. Francis Dam, 186
Salginatobel Bridge, 178
San Joaquin Electric Company, 178
Sanders, George, 37
Sarnoff, David, 146–47, 148, 151; broadcasting, vision of, 147; conflicts with Armstrong, 149–51, 153–54; television and, 153
Schuyler, James D., 182
Schwertner, Charles, 197, 253n39
science: as discovery, xvii; and engineering education, xviii; contributions following radical innovation, 32–33, 52–53, 54–55, 128, 208–9; efforts to model engineering as, xviii, 32–33, 101, 173; lack of stimulus to radical innovation, 34, 78, 127–28, 220–22; radio as applied science, 154, 243n6
“scientific management,” 101. See Taylor, Frederick W.
Scientific American, 124
Sherman Antitrust Act (1890), 63, 149
Silliman, Benjamin Jr., 58
Skelton, Owen, 201
Sloan, Alfred P. Jr., 79, 97; General Motors, reorganization by, 99–100; innovation, cautious approach to, 100–101
Smeaton, John, 114; Smeaton coefficient, 114, 115, 116, 240n20
Smith, Al, 163
Smithsonian Institution, 106, 108; Henry’s advice to Bell, 43; Langley’s aviation research, 106–7, 120; dispute with Wright brothers, 11, 127
Standard Oil Company, 6, 57; breakup (1911), 63, 64; consolidation of, 61; early innovation in, 63–65; opposition to Burton process, 11, 69; reorganizations of, 63, 69, 232n11. See also Standard Oil of Indiana
Standard Oil of Indiana (later Amoco, now BP America), 65, 69, 72; and support for Burton process, 69
Standard Oil of New Jersey (later Exxon, now ExxonMobil), 63, 72, 76
Stanley, William, 28
Stanley steamers. See steam cars
Statue of Liberty, 125
steam engine, xix, 4–6; Corliss engine, 4; and dynamos, 17, 25; Newcomen engine, 4; in railway locomotives, 5–6, 79; in steamboats, 5; in steam-powered automobiles, 82; Watt engine, 4, 11
steel, 8, 57; in bridges, 155, 156; in the Ford Model T, 87-88; in George Washington Bridge, stress calculations for, 165, 167. See also iron; Ammann, Othmar; George Washington Bridge Steinmetz, Charles, 31–32, 227n30; contributions to alternating-current engineering, 31–33
Stephenson, George and Robert, 5–6
streamlining, 199, 200; of airplanes, 208–9; of automobiles, 201; in Chrysler Airflow, 203, 204, 205; in Douglas DC-3, 210–13, 214, 215, 216, 219; metaphor of American society in 1930s, 219; metaphor of engineering, 219. See also Chrysler Airflow; Douglas DC-3
Studebaker Corporation, 201
Sturgeon, William, 14
Sun Oil Company (Sunoco), 76
superheterodyne receiver, 144, 145–46, 147, 151, 245n25
Swan, Sir Joseph, 22
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, 12; collapse of, 169, 172, 186
Tarbell, Ida, 63
Tate, Bill, 111
Taylor, Frederick Winslow, 101
technology. See engineering
Tedesko, Anton, 175, 176–77, 186–87, 188, 196; Brook Hill Dairy Exhibit roof, 187; Hayden Planetarium dome, 187–88, 189; Hershey Arena roof, 188–91, 195–96; shells after Hershey Arena, 197–98; Z-D Shell Roofs and, 186–87. See also Hershey Arena
Telefunken (now AEG Telefunken), 143
telegraph, 7–8, 35, 37–38, 39; Bell’s harmonic telegraph, 35, 40, 41, 42–43; Edison’s quadruplex and other inventions, 7, 17, 40; Henry’s electromagnetic telegraph, 37, 39; Marconi and wireless (radio), 132–35; Morse and, 7–8, 37–38, 39; Stearns duplex, xvii, 40. See also Cornell, Ezra; Western Union; radio
telephone, xv; business and social uses of, 54; development of, by Bell, 8, 35–36, 40, 41, 42-43, 44, 45, 46, 47–48, 49, 229n18; Edison’s carbon transmitter, 49; exchanges and operators, 51, 52; Gray’s telephone, 47–48, 49; inductive loading, 51–53; long-distance calling, 48, 50, 51–53, 54; patents for, 45, 47–48, 50, 51, 53; Reis telephone, 43, 48; triode, use to amplify long-distance calls, 53, 141. See also Bell, Alexander Graham; Gray, Elisha; Campbell, George A.
tetraethyl lead (gasoline additive), 73–74, 101
Texas Company (Texaco), 72
thermal cracking: Burton (batch) process, 65–69, 70, 71–72; Dubbs (continuous) process, 72–73; octane ratings of thermally-cracked gasoline, 74–75, 76
They Made America (Evans), xvi
thin shells, 176; Brook Hill Dairy Exhibit roof, 187; Hayden Planetarium, 187–88, 189; Hershey Arena, 186–191, 191, 192, 193–96; later Tedesko shells, 197–98. See also Tedesko, Anton
Thomson, J. Edgar, 6
Thomson-Houston Company, 30
Throgs Neck Bridge, 175
thrust horsepower, 117–18, 119, 122
thrust, 104, 105, 117–18, 119, 122. See also horsepower; formulas
Tjaarda, John, 205
traction horsepower, 88, 92, 93, 204
Transcontinental and Western Airlines (TWA), 210
transformers, 28; in electric power transmission, 28–29, 29, 30; magnetic loss in, 31–32; See also electric power
traffic load estimates: Ammann’s, 164–65, 166, 173; Waddell’s, 164. See Ammann, Othmar; George Washington Bridge; Waddell, J.A.L.
triode (audion), 53, 138, 140–41, 142, 147, 150. See also de Forest, Lee; radio reception; radio transmission
Trylon, 218, 219. See also New York World’s Fair (1939)
United States International Exhibition. See Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 163–64
U.S. Army Signal Corps, 207
U.S. Circuit Court (District of Columbia), 150
U.S. Court of Appeals (New York), 150
U.S. District Court (Southern District of New York), 150
U.S. Naval Academy, 206
U.S. War Department, 107
vacuum bulbs. See electric lighting
vacuum tubes. See diode; triode
Vail, Alfred, 50
Verrazano Narrows Bridge, 172, 175
vertical force (in structure), 156, 157; in George Washington Bridge, 167
“visible speech,” 35–36. See Bell, Alexander Melville
Volta, Alessandro, 14
Walcott, Charles, 127
Watson, Thomas A., 42, 43, 45, 53
Watt, James, 4, 11, 88, 235n14
watt (electric unit), 25, 225–26n15
wave filter, 53
Webber Creek Dam, 185
Western Electric Company, 47, 50
Western Society of Engineers, 114
Western Union, 7-8, 39, 40; acquisition and divestiture by AT&T, 54; patent dispute with Bell Telephone Company, 48, 50
Westinghouse, George, 11, 13, 25–28; air brake of, 26–27; alternating current, use of, 28–30, 226–27n22
Westinghouse Electric Company, 28; Edison General Electric, rivalry with, 30; and radio, 147, 149; research laboratory, 33
whale oil, 58
Williams, Charles, 42
Wills, C. Harold, 85
Willys-Overland, 201
World Cruisers. See Douglas World Cruisers
World’s Fairs. See Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition (1876); New York World’s Fair (1939–40)
Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 11, 12, 103, 109; basic ideas of, 108, 110; design of 1903 Flyer, 116–18, 119, 240n26; first powered flight (1903), 120–21, 122, 123; gliding research, 110–14, 116, 117, 239n14; kite experiment, 110; later flights of, 123, 124–25, 205; patent (1906), 123, 126; and Smithsonian Institution, 108, 127; and theoretical aerodynamics, 127–28; wind tunnel tests, 114, 115, 116, 240n18. See also Wright Flyer
Wright Flyer (1903), 103, 123, 127; comparison to Douglas DC-3, 213, 215, 216; design of, 114, 115, 116–18, 119, 240n26, 241n28; engine of, 117–18, 119, 122, 240n24; performance of, 120–21, 122, 123, 241n31; propeller difficulties of, 118, 120, 240n26
Wright gliders and kite, 114; 1899 kite, 110; 1900 glider, 110–12, 239n14; 1901 glider, 112–13; 1902 glider, 116, 117
Zahm, Albert, 127
Z-D (Zeiss-Dywidag) Shell Roofs, 187
Zeder, Fred, 201