Chapter 7
Quotation Marks
The primary goal of what Americans call quotation marks, and the British inverted commas, is integrity. Quotation marks allow writers to be honest: to give credit to the original speaker or writer when his or her words are reproduced. Quotation marks also permit fiction writers to designate lines of dialogue. Finally, these punctuation marks set off titles of some works and distance writers from any slang or jargon they may employ.
Because British and American traditions are almost directly opposite when it comes to quotation marks, each section in this chapter contains two explanations. The first describes the American rule, and the second discusses the British rule. In brief, the double quotation marks of the American system are single in Britain; similarly, the single quotation marks of the American system are nearly always doubled in Britain. (British newspapers sometimes use double quotation marks.) The placement of most commas and periods is reversed as well. Take note of the custom of your own side of the Atlantic as you read this chapter and as you write.
DIRECT QUOTATIONS IN SENTENCES
Quotation marks indicate that the words you are writing are not your own; in nonfiction they indicate that you are repeating exactly what someone else wrote or spoke. In fiction, quotation marks indicate the words spoken or written by a character. The material inside quotation marks may stand alone as separate sentences or may be tucked inside a sentence. A “speaker tag”—a little label that tells the reader the source of the quoted material—is attached to some quotations, and not to others.
Quoting with a Speaker Tag
A speaker tag identifies the person who said or wrote the material inside the quotation marks. The speaker tag may appear before, after, or in the middle of the quotation. These examples all follow the American custom of double quotation marks:
Gilwell replied, “I am not interested in political poetry.” (speaker tag = Gilwell replied)
“I much prefer to read romantic poems,” he added. (speaker tag = he added)
“To see the force of human emotion,” continued Gilwell, “is my motivation in reading any poetry at all.” (speaker tag = continued Gilwell)
In the British system, these same sentences would be punctuated differently:
Gilwell replied, ‘I am not interested in political poetry’.
‘I much prefer to read romantic poems’, he added.
‘To see the force of human emotion’, continued Gilwell, ‘is my motivation in reading any poetry at all’.
You may notice that the location of the commas and period in the British and American sentences also varies. The rules for comma and period placement are explained in the sections that follow.
Speaker Tag at the Beginning
In the American system a speaker tag preceding a quotation is followed by a comma, and the first word of the quotation is capitalized. If the quotation concludes the sentence and makes a statement or issues a command, the period goes inside the closing quotation mark. An example:
She muttered, “This test is impossible.”
If the sentence continues on and a comma is needed to separate parts of the sentence, the comma appears inside the closing quotation mark:
She muttered, “This test is impossible,” but her voice was so soft that the teacher couldn’t hear her.
In the British system, the period or comma is placed outside the quotation:
She muttered, ‘This test is impossible’.
She muttered,’This test is impossible’, but her voice was so soft that the teacher couldn’t hear her.
If a parenthetical source citation is included, the citation is placed within the sentence but not within the quotation. Both American and British styles are alike in this placement. These examples follow American style:
As Oliver wrote, “No single organism can survive that sort of assault” (56).
Oliver wrote, “No single organism can survive that sort of assault” (56), but this microbe proved him wrong.
If the quotation or sentence is a question or exclamation, the rules are slightly different. Questions and exclamations are addressed a little later in this section.
Speaker Tag at the End
In the American system, the speaker tag at the end of a sentence is followed by a period. A quotation that makes a statement or issues a command is separated from the speaker tag by a comma, which is placed inside the closing quotation mark.
In the British system, the comma goes outside the closing quotation mark. If the quotation asks a question or makes an exclamation, the question mark or exclamation point is placed inside the closing quotation mark (both systems). Some examples in American style:
“The antibacterial soap is no help when it comes to viruses,” stated the doctor firmly.
“Is the antibacterial soap a waste?” asked the patient.
“That sort of soap will not help you!” declared the doctor with some annoyance.
Examples in British style:
‘The antibacterial soap is helpful in this outbreak’, explained the public health officer.
‘Is the antiviral soap available?’ asked the nurse.
‘I told you to buy some last week!’ exclaimed the nursing supervisor.
Speaker Tag in the Middle
Following the American system, the first half of a split quotation concludes with a comma, which is placed inside the closing quotation mark. The speaker tag is followed by a comma, unless the second half of the quotation is a new sentence, in which case the speaker tag is followed by a period:
“I need to visit the mall,” said Aunt Emma, “to pick up some party supplies.”
“I need to visit the mall,” said Aunt Emma. “The party is tomorrow, but I have no balloons.”
The British system moves the comma and the concluding period to the outside:
‘I need to visit the mall’, said Aunt Emma, ‘to pick up some party supplies’.
‘I need to visit the mall’, said Aunt Emma. ‘The party is tomorrow, but I have no balloons’.
Comma Splice Quotations
The fact that material is quoted is no excuse for ignoring the normal punctuation rules on comma splices—two complete sentences joined only by a comma. Two complete sentences may be joined only by a conjunction (and, or, but, nor, etc.) or a semicolon. If the quotation runs for more than one sentence, the punctuation must reflect that fact. The examples below follow American style.
Wrong: “I have no change for the bus,” stated Will, “I will take a cab home instead.”
Why it is wrong: The quoted material includes two complete sentences: I have no change for the bus and I will take a cab home instead. These two sentences cannot be joined by a comma, such as the one after Will.
Right: “I have no change for the bus,” stated Will. “I will take a cab home instead.”
Quotations Without Speaker Tags
Quotations are often tucked into a sentence without an identifying tag. In this sort of sentence the word that frequently leads into the quotation. In quotations without speaker tags, no comma precedes the quotation. No punctuation is placed at the end of the quotation unless the sentence needs an endmark or some other punctuation. These sentences in American style illustrate how to punctuate a quotation without a speaker tag:
Descas declared that “liberty and death” were the only options.
The novel, which the critics said was “enlightening,” is now a bestseller. (Comma needed to set off which the critics said was “enlightening”—not because “enlightening” is in quotation marks)
“Overrated” is what he called the novel his sister sent him.
The novel his sister sent him was deemed “overrated.”
Alistair thinks “peanuts, popcorn, and fly balls” are part of every baseball game.
Notice that the preceding sentences do identify the speaker, but the identification is woven into the sentence, not separated in an expression such as “he said” or “Oliver declared.”
Sometimes a proverb or well known statement appears in a sentence as an appositive—an equivalent term placed next to another. The quoted proverb is set off by commas if it appears as extra information. It is not set off by commas if it acts as an essential identification. See the examples below.
Extra: Benjamin Franklin’s famous proverb about foresight and planning, “a stitch in time saves nine,” is good advice.
Essential: The saying “a stitch in time saves nine” offers good advice.
In the first example above the proverb is identified by the author (Franklin) and the subject (foresight and planning), so the proverb itself is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Hence it is set off by commas. In the second example, saying is vague, and the quotation serves as an essential identifier. As such it is set off by commas.
Questions and Exclamations
If the quoted material or the sentence in which the quotation appears is a question or an exclamation, special rules apply. Fortunately, the British and American systems mostly match in this regard, though the British custom of using single quotation marks still differs from the American double quotation marks.
The general rule here is quite logical. If the quotation is a question or an exclamation, the question mark or exclamation point is placed inside the quotation marks. If the quotation is not a question or an exclamation, but the sentence in which the quotation appears is, the endmark goes outside. Some examples, all with American double quotation marks:
“Have you had lunch?” inquired the chef. (quotation is a question)
Did the chef really say, “No one eats in my restaurant unless I say so”? (quotation not a question)
“I can’t eat a thing!” shouted the dieter. (quotation is an exclamation)
I can’t believe the dieter said that the food was “carbohydrate-free”! (quotation not an exclamation)
If both the sentence and the quotation are questions, place the question mark inside. Treat exclamations the same way. Don’t use two endmarks for the same sentence. (Both British and American styles agree on this point.) For example:
Wrong: Did the chef really ask, “Have you had lunch?”?
Right: Did the chef really ask, “Have you had lunch?”
Wrong: I can’t believe the chef screamed, “Fire!”!
Right: I can’t believe the chef screamed, “Fire!”
Semicolons and Colons with Quotations
If the part of a sentence containing quoted material is followed by a semicolon or colon, those punctuation marks appear outside the quotation in both the British and American systems:
Maria deemed the lemon “large enough”; I thought it was a bit too small for that recipe. (American)
Maria told us all about her “culinary vacation”: She spent two months in a French cooking school. (American)
Maria thought the mince pie was ‘top notch’; I threw mine away. (British)
Maria says that my ideas about food are ‘strange’: She thinks mince pie goes perfectly well with soda pop, and I don’t. (British)
If the quoted material contains a semicolon or a colon, keep the punctuation mark where it is, with one exception. If the material you are quoting ends with a colon or a semicolon, replace those marks with a period. For example:
Original: The festival of Tiwala was held in the mountains; that setting relieved some of the effects of the summer heat.
Quoted in a sentence: Hember thinks that Tiwala festivals took place “in the mountains.” (period replaces the semicolon)
Single Quotation Marks
In the American system, double quotation marks are always the first choice, and single quotation marks enclose quotations embedded in other quotations. (The British, in general, reverse this practice.) A common misconception is that the size of the quotation determines the type of quotation mark used; many writers think that short quotations need single marks and longer quotations double marks. Not true! The location, not the length, is key. Note this example, in American style:
Wrong: He sighed and replied, ‘Yes, I will.’
Why it is wrong: The quotation is not embedded in another quotation so single quotation marks are not called for.
Right: He sighed and replied, “Yes, I will.”
Quotation Within a Quotation
The punctuation of quotations becomes even more complicated when one quotation is nested inside another. Two sets of quotation marks are called for. In the American system, a single mark designates the embedded quotation, contrasting with the double marks for the larger quotation. The British system is reversed: Double quotations reside within the single marks. Here are some examples:
“I think that he said, ’Go now,’ but I may be wrong,” mused Elizabeth. (American system, embedded quotation = Go now)
Spencer replied, “No, what he really said was, ‘Stay for an hour if you can.’” (American system, embedded quotation = Stay for an hour if you can)
‘The Queen’s comment that “war is never less than tragic” was widely reported’, commented Adler. (British system, embedded quotation = war is never less than tragic)
Adler commented that he detested stories about ‘tragedy, or what the citizens called “misfortune”’. (British system, embedded quotation = misfortune)
Notice that the rules described earlier in this chapter on placement of commas and periods apply here as well. In the American system the comma or period is placed inside both sets of quotation marks if they fall in the same place. In the British system the reverse is true.
Quoting Poetry
If you quote a substantial amount from a poem, block the quotation according to the rules described later in this chapter. If you quote only a few lines, tuck the quotation into the text as if it were any other type of quotation. The only special aspect of quoting poetry is line breaks. To show the reader where the lines of the original poem end, insert a forward slash with a space before and after. For example:
Shakespeare asks whether he should “compare thee to a summer’s day / Thou art more lovely and more temperate.”
Quotations of Several Sentences or Paragraphs
The closing punctuation mark follows the last bit of quoted material in a quotation of more than one sentence. Take a look at these examples:
According to Oliver, “This year’s newest color is red with a hint of orange in it. The skirts will drop almost to the floor, and pencil skirts will make a comeback. The wise buyer will invest in satin knits.” (American)
According to Oliver, ‘This year’s newest color is red with a hint of orange in it. The skirts will drop almost to the floor, and pencil skirts will make a comeback’. (British)
Alice responded, “I have come to work. I will not waste your time. Where is the workroom?” (American)
Alice responded, ‘I have come to work. I will not waste your time. Where is the workroom?’ (British)
“No one is in the workroom. How are we supposed to finish on time?” asked Ben. (American)
‘No one is in the workroom. How are we supposed to finish on time?’ asked Ben. (British)
If the quotation extends over more than one paragraph, each new paragraph begins with an opening quotation mark, but only the last paragraph ends with a closing quotation mark:
Carmen related her story. “I was born in a farmhouse in Western Spain. When I was only a child, I was enrolled in a boarding school in the United States. Though I saw my family only during school holidays, I remained close to my mother.
“The summers were especially joyous. I learned to cook courtesy of Miguelina, the family’s housekeeper. Miguelina started me on flan, and soon I graduated to tortillas and other main courses.
“Miguelina’s husband, Jose, taught me how to ride. He would saddle up my pony and take me around the barn, leading the pony until I could manage her by myself. It was an idyllic time.”
If a quotation is lengthy, approximately 40 or more words, it appears in a block of text, indented from the normal margin. Such quotations are fairly common in academic writing, but you may see them in business writing as well, perhaps when a testimonial or critical comment is quoted.
The blocking functions as a signal that the material is quoted. Thus you do not need to insert quotation marks around blocked material. If the quoted material itself contains a quotation, the quotation marks from the original remain. If the source of the blocked material is cited, the number of the footnote or endnote or the parenthetical citation is placed at the end of the block.
The block is indented about an inch (7–10 extra spaces) from the left margin. A colon generally introduces the blocked quotation, though an introductory line ending with that has no punctuation. The introduction to a blocked quotation may also be a complete sentence ending with a period (not a colon) as long as the sentence does not end with “the following,” “as follows,” and the like, which naturally leave the reader in suspense. In such cases a colon is better because it implies continuation.
Below are examples of blocked quotations.
Blocked Quotation, Prose
This example deals with science, but the same style may be employed for all sorts of writing. If the manuscript is double-spaced, the blocked quotation should be double-spaced as well.
Harcourt dissected the specimen over the course of three days, but he found no abnormality until he subjected his sample to microscopic examination. He later wrote:
I found abnormal cells throughout the sample, with nuclei that were twisted and distorted. The stain I applied was concentrated in the nuclei to an unheard of degree. I simply could not understand what I was seeing, but I was determined nonetheless to understand its significance. (12)
Note the colon after the last word of the sentence introducing the quotation, wrote. Also notice that the blocked quotation is not placed inside quotation marks.
Blocked Quotation, Poetry
If you are quoting only a small number of words from a poem, the quotation may be woven into your sentences in the usual manner and with the usual punctuation, described earlier in this chapter. The only addition is a forward slash to mark where each line of the poem ends. To block a quotation from a poem, indent 7–10 spaces from the left margin and end each line of the block where the verse lines end in the original. (If a line is too long, break to a new line and indent an additional five spaces.) Thus the reader sees the poet’s line breaks as they were written. No quotation marks appear unless they are in the original poem.
In his poems Wishinhouse often employs nature imagery, which he once explained was a consequence of his frequent walks around Central Park. In one poem, “Central Park Duet,” Wishinhouse compared the bicycle riders to birds, writing that
I went for a ten-mile walk at least once
or twice a week, weaving between the bikes
zooming like pigeons beside me,
“Hear the birds, and see the clouds,”
I said to Margaret, just as three bikes
skimmed past us, a plague as any that
ever darkened the skies,
and nearly as noisy. (42)
This blocked quotation is not placed inside quotation marks, but the embedded quotation (Hear the birds, and see the clouds) is surrounded by quotation marks. The introductory expression (Wishinhouse compared the bicycle riders to birds, writing that) is not followed by a colon because the introduction ends with that.
Both British and American writers block quotations in essentially the same way. The only difference occurs when an embedded quotation appears. In Britain the embedded quotation would be placed inside single quotation marks, following the rules explained earlier in this chapter. In America double marks are used, as in the example above.
In making a point in an essay or report, you may not need to quote every word of an original. Yet you should show the reader where your quotation differs from the original. A handy punctuation mark, the ellipsis, saves the day by taking the place of missing material. (The ellipsis, three spaced dots, is covered in detail in Chapter 10. This section explains only the most common use of the ellipsis in quotations.)
Some changes in a quotation are accepted without any special mark. You may capitalize the first word of a quotation that begins a sentence, even if the original was not capitalized. You need not place an ellipsis at the beginning of a quotation, provided, of course, that the reader will not misunderstand the meaning intended by the original writer. You normally do not need to place an ellipsis at the end of a quotation either, because the reader assumes that you have not quoted the last words of the original source. If you cut words from within a quotation, add an ellipsis:
Original: The growth of the Chinese American community has resulted in a rich variety of food stores and restaurants in that neighborhood. Originally catering only to Chinese-speaking customers, the business owners quickly learned that they could increase their profit margin and diversify their customer base in an interesting way by having at least one English-speaking employee on the premises.
Quotation with words omitted, embedded in text: Adapting to the customer is all important. As Yowling wrote in his economic analysis of New York’s Chinatown, non-Chinese customers created a need and “business owners quickly learned that they could increase their profit margin . . . by having at least one English-speaking employee on the premises” (444).
If the omitted words include the end of a sentence or an entire sentence, the three dots of the ellipsis are joined by one more—the period. Notice the four dots in the example below:
Original: The bus route in that area moves from the financial district through a shopping center and then into a residential area. High rise office buildings give way to malls and then to single-family houses. The riders represent every walk of life and every income level.
Quotation with sentence omitted: The transit report notes that the “bus route in that area moves from the financial district through a shopping center and then into a residential area. . . . The riders represent every walk of life and every income level.”
If the omitted words fall at the end of a question or an exclamation, the question mark or exclamation point is moved up to the last quoted word, and the ellipsis is placed after the endmark:
Original: Should he attend the ball, with all its trappings of wealth and power? Undoubtedly he would have an awful time, and the other guests would sense his discomfort. He was torn between the desire to please his aunt, to whom he owed so much, and his distaste for elaborate social occasions.
Quotation with words omitted, embedded in text: Corning created a character who agonizes about every decision, as in “Wandler’s Way,” when the protagonists muses, “Should he attend the ball? . . . He was torn between the desire to please his aunt, to whom he owed so much, and his distaste for elaborate social occasions” (55).
To omit a line of poetry that you are quoting in blocked form, insert a line of spaced dots:
I met a man
. . . . . . . . . .
and he was me.
To add a word or phrase to a quotation, perhaps to clarify the meaning for the reader, use brackets:
Collins considers the music of that region “primitive, though they [the original inhabitants] are capable of sophisticated phrasing and melodic lines” (33).
Notice that the pronoun they is explained by the writer’s addition, the original inhabitants. The brackets indicate that Collins did not write those words in the original.
Comments from oral or written sources often find their way into a sentence without being quoted directly. The information may be summarized or referred to, but the actual words of the speaker or writer are not duplicated. Such indirect quotations are not placed inside quotation marks. Some examples:
She told me that she had only six more months on the job before becoming eligible for retirement.
Lisa inquired whether it was likely to become chilly during the tour.
I’m not sure whether George said blue or pink when I asked him about baby clothes.
Eleanor asked why I wanted popcorn.
What Wyatt called unacceptable was perfectly fine with me.
In these sentences, the reader knows what she, Lisa, George, Eleanor and Wyatt said but does not “hear” their actual words. No quotation marks are needed in this sort of sentence.
When an unusual term is defined in your text, you may italicize the term or place it in quotation marks the first time it appears. Thereafter, no italics or quotation marks are needed. For example:
The “predicate nominative,” or the word completing the meaning of an expression containing a linking verb, is always in the same case as the subject. The predicate nominative in each of the following sentences is a proper noun.
The bicameral or two-house legislature is the most common form, though single-house systems may be found in some countries. The United States has a bicameral legislative branch.
If a foreign word or phrase appears with its translation in your writing, quotation marks generally enclose the translation. The foreign expression may be italicized or underlined:
The picadors or “those who carry spears” appear during the next stage of the bullfight.
In Spain one with free time will dar un paseo, literally “give a stroll,” until it is time to resume the workday.
If the word “so-called” precedes a word or phrase, italics or quotation marks are omitted, as in this example:
Her so-called school phobia was really laziness.
A few philosophical terms such as being, nonbeing, and the divine may be placed in single quotation marks, according to The Chicago Manual of Style. When such terms are punctuated this way, any punctuation mark following the term is placed outside the closing quotation mark. An example:
He deals with ‘nonbeing’ as a variation of the state of ‘being’.
The title of a section of a longer work—a poem from a collection of poems, a song from an album, a particular episode of a television series, for example—is placed in quotation marks when it is referred to in the text. When it is centered on a line as a title, no quotation marks are needed. Longer works (titles of books, plays, operas, television series, and so forth) are not placed in quotation marks. These titles are italicized or underlined except when they appear alone on a line, as on a title page or in a heading. The punctuation before or after titles in quotation marks follows the rules described earlier in this chapter. Take a look at these examples, which all follow American style:
My favorite poem is “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe.
Have you read “The Raven”?
My aunt visits us every Halloween and reads Poe’s “The Raven.”
In British style, these titles would appear this way:
My favorite poem is ‘The Raven’ by Edgar Allan Poe.
Have you read ‘The Raven’?
My aunt visits us every Halloween and reads Poe’s ‘The Raven’.
Not all titles of literary works are placed in quotation marks. The names of sacred texts such as the Koran and the Bible need no marks; nor do the smaller divisions of these works, such as the books of the Bible.
Segments of larger works are placed in quotation marks, but full-length works are italicized or underlined (not both).
Quotation Marks
“Lilacs” (poem)
“Anything You Want” (short story)
“If I Love You” (song)
“The Reformation” (chapter title)
“On Being Fifty” (essay)
“Nicaragua” (encyclopedia article)
“Your Child’s Health” (magazine article)
“Explosive Growth Challenges Planners” (newspaper article)
“The Bizarre World” (episode of television series)
Italics or Underlining
The Odyssey (book-length poem)
To the Shore (novel)
The Geography of Africa (non-fiction book)
Writers on the Block (collection of essays)
Don Giovanni (opera)
Anything Goes (musical)
The Collected Works of John Allister (poetry collection)
The White Album (musical album)
World Encyclopedia (encyclopedia)
Ladies Home Reporter (magazine)
The Record (newspaper)
Late Night Review (television series)
Note: Ship titles should be italicized, though not the preceding abbreviations “USS” or “HMS” (United States Ship or Her Majesty’s Ship), as in the USS Endeavor.
Occasionally writers insert a bit of slang or jargon into their work and place quotation marks around the inserted phrase. These quotation marks distance the writer from the expression, saying, in effect, I know that this expression is a bit off, but I will use it anyway for effect. Here are some examples:
He signed up for an “ocean liner” of fried fish but received a “rowboat” instead. (slang for large and small sizes)
Some of the “prols” were actually quite wealthy. (slang)
Similarly, writers may place quotation marks around a word or phrase expressing a value judgment that does not match their own views. Finally, distancing quotation marks may indicate a word that is purposely misused. Some samples:
Did you hear the “music” emanating from her guitar? (sounds too discordant to qualify as music)
The “sounds” of that painting positively scream at the viewer. (word purposely misused)
The above examples all employ American double quotation marks. In Britain, those marks would be replaced by single quotation marks, as in this example:
Have you enjoyed watching her ‘progress’ through the maze? (not really progress, in the writer’s view)
Distancing Can Go Too Far
Distancing quotation marks wear out their welcome extremely quickly. If you find yourself using more than one in a piece of writing, you should probably reword.
With distancing quotation marks: Columbus “discovered” America.
Implied meaning: Columbus is said to have discovered America, but in fact he did not do so.
Better sentence: Though Columbus is hailed as the explorer who discovered America, in reality the land he encountered was already populated.
If you’re quoting something that is misspelled or erroneous, the best way to distance yourself is to insert the word “sic” in brackets next to the offending expression:
Rita wrote that her “speling [sic] is excellent.”
Sic, derived from the Latin word for “so, thus” indicates that the writer knows that the quotation contains an error.