Notes

Chapter 1. Early Female Sovereigns in Global Perspective

1. Jean Blondel, World Leaders: Heads of Government in the Post-War World (London, 1980), 116.

2. Jacob Lassner, Demonizing the Queen of Sheba: Boundaries of Gender and Culture in Postbiblical Judaism and Medieval Islam (Chicago, 1993).

3. Anna Maria Capomacchia, Semiramis: Una femminilità ribaltata (Rome, 1986), 13.

4. Quotes from Joan R. Piggott, “The Last Classical Female Sovereign: Koken-Shotoku Tenno,” in Dorothy Ko, JaHyun Kim Haboush, and Joan Piggott, eds., Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Japan (Berkeley, 2003), 48; Richard Stoneman, Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt against Rome (Ann Arbor, 1992), 6, 119; Gavin R. G. Hambly, “Becoming Visible,” in Gavin Hambly, ed., Women in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1998), 9; and Abou'lkasim Firdousi, Le livre des rois, trans. Jules Mohl (Paris, 1838–78), 7:337.

5. Götz Schregle, Die Sultanin von Ägypten: Sagat ad-Durr in der Arabischen Geschichtschreibung und Literatur (Wiesbaden, 1961).

6. Duane Roller, Cleopatra: A Biography (Oxford University Press, 2010), 106–7, 179–83; also Jonathan Williams, “Imperial Style and the Coins of Cleopatra and Mark Antony,” in Susan Walker and Sally-Ann Ashton, eds., Cleopatra Reassessed (British Museum, 2003), 87–94.

7. Pat Southern, Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen (London, 2008).

8. Suggested in December 689 by a high-ranking official, the son of one of her cousins, Zetian characters were required for official documents throughout the empire and remained in use during her personal reign but were abandoned immediately after her abdication. Estimates of the number of new ideographic characters involved range from twelve to nineteen, and the first change affected Wu's own name: see R. W. L. Guisso, Wu Tse T'ien and the Politics of Legitimation in T'ang China (Bellingham, Wash., 1978), 221–22; useful examples adorn chapter headings in Jonathan Clements, Wu: The Chinese Empress Who Schemed, Seduced and Murdered Her Way to Become a Living God (Stroud, UK, 2007).

9. Judith Herrin, Women in Purple: Rulers of Medieval Byzantium (Princeton, 2001).

10. Firdousi, Livre des rois, 7:340–43; Jenny Rose, in Hambly, Medieval Islamic World, 43–45; Antonio Panaino, “Women and Kingship: Some remarks about the enthronisation of Queen Boran and her sister Azarmigduxt,” in Josef Wiesehöfer and Philip Huyse, eds., Eran und Aneran. Studien zu den Beziehungen zwischen dem Sasanidenreich und der Mittelmeerwelt (Stuttgart, 2006), 221–40; H. M. Malek and V. S. Curtis, “History of the Coinage of the Sassanian Queen Boran (A.D. 629–31),” in Numismatic Chronicle 158 (1998), 113–29.

11. Fatima Mernissi, The Forgotten Queens of Islam (Cambridge, 1993), 115–38; Farhad Daftary, “Sayyida Hurra,” in Hambly, Medieval Islamic World, 117–30. No coins are known.

12. After Suiko (Tenno 33), Tenno 35 ruled for three years, Tenno 37 for six-plus years, Tenno 41 for eleven years, Tenno 43 for eight years, Tenno 44 for a few months, Tenno 46 for nine years, and Tenno 48 for six years: see Joan R. Piggott, The Emergence of Japanese Kingship (Stanford, 1997).

13. Piggott, “Koken-Shotoku Tenno,” 47–74, esp. 52–54.

14. It still stands in her old capital of Gyeongju in South Korea: Nha Il-Seong, “Silla's Cheomseongdae,” in Korea Journal 41 (2001), 269–81.

15. Yung-Chung Kim, ed., Women of Korea: A History from Ancient Times to 1945 (Seoul, 1976), 25–30.

16. David Lang, Studies in the Numismatic History of Georgia in Transcaucasia (New York, 1955), 22–27, 28–33; Stephen H. Rapp, “Coinage of T'amar, Sovereign of Georgia in Caucasia,” Le Muséon 106 (1993), 309–30. In Europe, no coin of joint rulers placed the wife's name first until 1566.

17. Antony Eastmond, Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia (University Park, Penn., 1998), 93–184; M. Canard, “Les reines de Georgie dans l'histoire et la légende musulmanes,” Revue des Etudes islamiques 42 (1969), 3–20.

18. Minhaj Siraj Juzjani, Tabakat-i-Nasiri, ed. and trans. H. G. Raverty, 2 vols. (London, 1881–87), 1:637–38; Peter Jackson, “Sultan Raddiya bint Iltutmish,” in Hambly, Medieval Islamic World, 181–97; for her coins, Stan Goron and J. P. Goenka, The Coins of the Indian Sultanates (New Delhi, 2001), 26–27, 153–54.

19. It is approved by ’Ismat ad-Din, the title on her coins: printed by Schregle, Sultanin von Ägypten, 161–65.

20. Peter Jackson, The Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254: Sources and Documents (Aldershot, 2007), offers the best recent introduction to these events.

21. Ibid., 153. A Victorian expert noted that “the inscriptions [on her coins] are unparalleled in Oriental numismatics”: S. Lane Poole, The Coinage of Egypt (AH 358–922) (London, 1879), xvii–xxi.

22. Jackson, Seventh Crusade, 216.

23. Hambly, Medieval Islamic World, 18; Mirnissi, Forgotten Queens, 99–100.

24. G. Gyorffy, King St. Stephen of Hungary (Boulder, 1991), 45; Miriam Yalom, Birth of the Chess Queen (New York, 2004).

25. Therese Martin, Queen as King: Politics and Architectural Propaganda inTwelfth-Century Spain (Leiden, 2006), 198–207 (at 199).

26. Maria del Carmen Pallares Mendez, La Reina Urraca (San Sebastian, 2006), 12, 105–7; Elena Lobato Yanes, Urraca I: La Corte Castellano-Leonesa en el siglo XII (Palencia, 2000), 126; Martin, Queen as King, 29.

27. Marsilio Cassotti, D. Teresa: A primeira rainha de Portugal (Lisbon, 2008).

28. Charles Beem, The Lioness Roared (New York, 2006), 25–62. On her seal and charters, see Elizabeth Danbury, “Queens and Powerful Women: Image and Authority,” in N. Adams, J. Cherry, and J. Robinson, eds., Good Impressions: Image and Authority in Medieval Seals (London, 2008), 18.

29. Joyce Tyldesley, Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh (London, 1996), 103–4.

30. Antonino Forte, Political Propaganda and Ideology in China at the End of the Seventh Century (Naples, 1976), 204, 268 (quotes). Two authentic accounts from Wu's time, now in the British Library, were finally identified as such after World War II. On Wu's use of this sutra, compare Guisso, Wu and the Politics of Legitimation, 37–46, 66–68, with Clements, Wu, 134–37. Three centuries later an official Chinese history would claim that Wu had it fabricated: see Nghiem Toan and Louis Ricaud, Wou Tsö-T'ien d'après le texte du Nouveau livre des T'ang (Saigon, 1958–59), 117.

31. Cynthia Herrup, “The King's Two Genders,” Journal of British Studies 45 (2006), 493–510; Louis Montrose, The Subject of Elizabeth (Chicago, 2006), 201–3, 234–5, 245–6.

Chapter 2. Europe's Female Sovereigns, 1300–1800

1. Leslie P. Peirce, The Imperial Harem (Oxford, 1993), 274. The British Museum has over two dozen of Sati Beg's coins from several mints; see Stephen Album, Checklist of Islamic Coins, 2d ed. (Santa Rosa, Calif., 1998), 108; Fatima Mernissi, The Forgotten Queens of Islam (Cambridge, 1993), 85–6, 107–10.

2. This section summarizes my article “Gendered Sovereignty: Numismatics and Female Rule, 1300–1800,” in Journal of Interdisciplinary History 41 (spring 2011): 533–64.

3. Alphonse de Witte, Histoire monétaire des Comtes de Louvain, Ducs de Brabant et Marquis du Saint-Empire Romain, 3 vols. (Antwerp, 1894–99), 1:156. As late as 1498 another female ruler of a (temporarily) autonomous duchy, Anne of Brittany, issued equally daring gold coins depicting her seated and enthroned.

4. Maximilian's name nowhere appears on the 92 gold and silver coins from her five-year reign in the Belgian Royal Library, or on any of her more than 150 silver coins from four of her provincial mints possessed by the American Numismatic Society (ANS); her annual averages surpass those of either her male predecessor or her male successor.

5. The ANS holds over 90 coins from their joint reign (1598–1621), but only 28 of them are silver and only one albertin (named for her husband) is gold.

6. Margaret and her successors kept Norway's mints closed for a century after 1387; Danish coins had apparently resumed by 1400.

7. 1507–15 and 1518–30, 1531–55, 1559–67, 1598–1633, 1725–41, and 1780–93. Maria Theresa's younger sister also governed it jointly with her new husband for much of 1744 before dying in childbirth. Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995), 981–83, sketches the government of the region's most obscure female regent, Maria Elisabeth, an older sister of Emperor Charles VI.

8. David Chambers, Discours de la legitime succession des femmes aux possessions de leurs parens et du gouvernement des princesses aux Empires et Royaumes (Paris, 1579), 16.

9. Isabel de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (reprint, London, 2002), 153 (emphasis added).

10. See page 82 for a fuller discussion.

11. Her candidacy generated 267 letters, now preserved in France; Waclaw Uruszczak, Polonica w korespondencji królowej szwedzkiej Krystyny w zbiorach Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire w Montpellier (Cracow, 2001).

12. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex, trans. H. M. Parshley (New York, 1953), 130.

13. Alison Weir, Mary, Queen of Scots and the Murder of Lord Darnley (London, 2003), 77, 99, 388.

14. Albertus Magnus, Quaestiones de animalibus, book 10, q. 4.

15. At her formal entry into Ghent in 1599, the sovereign archduchess Isabel Clara Eugenia was girded with a traditional sword: see Ruth Betegón Diez, Isabel Clara Eugenia: Infanta de España y soberana de Flandes (Barcelona, 2004), 99.

16. Tarsicio de Azcona, Isabel la Católica: vida y reinado (Madrid, 2002), 181; Christian Steeb, “Kaiser Franz I. und seine ablehende Haltung gegenüber der Stiftung des königlich ungarischen St.-Stephans-Ordens,” in H. Dikowitsch, ed., Barock–Blütezeit der europäischen Ritterorden (St. Polten, 2000), 35: per fictionem juris virtute pragmaticae sanctionis die qualiatem masculinam anererbet hat.

17. Louis Montrose, The Subject of Elizabeth (Chicago, 2006), 231.

18. Later in his sixty-year reign, George III suffered a major breakdown and was replaced by his heir from 1810 until 1820.

19. John H. Elliott, ed., The World of the Favorite (New Haven, 1999), includes Elizabeth I and Leicester.

20. For analogous reasons, this consideration helps explain why no French king or Holy Roman emperor married one of his own subjects.

Chapter 3. Difficult Beginnings

1. Armin Wolf, “Reigning Queens in Medieval Europe: When, Where, and Why?” in John Carmi Parsons, ed., Medieval Queenship (New York, 1993), 169–88. The 1:8 ratio also holds between 1600 and 1800 among the far fewer but larger monarchies permitting female successions.

2. Charlotte of Cyprus bequeathed her claims to her husband's Savoyard relatives; Blanca of Navarre bequeathed hers to her ex-husband, Enrique IV of Castile; and Juana la Beltraneja of Castile bequeathed hers to her long-dead husband's Portuguese heirs.

3. S. Herreros Lopetegui, “Navarra en la órbita francesa,” in Historia de Navarra (Pamplona, 1993), 1:193–208.

4. The relevant document is the only one of seventeen surviving from his reign in Navarre written in French rather than Latin: M. D. Barragán Domeño, ed., Fuentes documentales medievales del Pais Vasco: Archivo General de Navarra, I: Documentación Real (San Sebastian, 1997), 18 (#6).

5. There is now a considerable body of scholarship on the so-called Salic law; see especially Eliane Viennot, La France, les femmes et le pouvoir, vol. 1, L'invention de la loi salique (V–XVIe siècle) (Paris, 2006).

6. Béatrice Leroy, “A propos de la succession de 1328 en Navarre,” in Annales du Midi 82 (1970), 138–46. On their reign, see Fermín Miranda García, Felipe III y Juana II de Evreux, 2d ed. (Pamplona, 1994), 53–65. Their successors, escaping from Spanish invaders in 1512, carried Navarre's official invitation back to France; with twenty-one of its original eighty-seven seals still attached, it is now in the departmental archives at Pau, E 517.

7. Archivo General de Navarra, Catalogo de la Sección de Comptos, I (842–1331) (Pamplona, 1952), 380–81 (# 879, 883).

8. Barragán Domeño, Documentación Real, 55–62, esp. 58.

9. Ibid., 64–70, 78–86.

10. Philippe Charon, “Les chanceliers d'origine française des rois de Navarre, comtes d'Evreux au XIVe siècle,” Principe de Viana 60 (1999), 119–44; Miranda García, Felipe III y Juana II de Evreux, 113–14, 136–38, 84 (quote). The couple drew far more income from their French possessions than from Navarre; most of the money spent at their coronation came from their French domains.

11. Barragán Domeño, Documentación Real, 71–301 (#45–180).

12. Nancy Goldstone, The Lady Queen: The Notorious Reign of Joanna I (New York, 2009), 79.

13. This section relies heavily on Elizabeth Casteen, “The Making of a Neapolitan She-Wolf: Gender, Sexuality and Sovereignty and the Reputation of Johanna I of Naples” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 2009), and on Goldstone's Lady Queen. Contrary to the assumption of many writers, including Boccaccio, Robert the Wise gave Joanna's fiancé no titles and none of his lands except a principality that he and his fiancée already shared. Compare a reproduction of one of her earliest state seals (1346), <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Segell-joana-I-napols–1346-comtessa-provença-plom.jpg> with a later one, <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Joan_I_of_Naples.jpg>.

14. Matteo Villani, Cronica, ed. G. Porta (Parma, 1995), 1:9: maestra, e donna del suo Barone, il quale come marito dovea essere suo signore.

15. Emile-G. Léonard, Les Angevins de Naples (Paris, 1954), 402–3.

16. Boccaccio, Famous Women, ed. V. Brown (Cambridge, 2001), 467, 471, 473. Boccaccio's much-studied feminist critic, Christine de Pizan (1365–1430), avoided any mention of Joanna in her writings and excluded her from the City of Ladies.

17. Matteo Camera, Elucubrazioni storico-diplomatiche su Giovanna Ia, regina di Napoli e Carlo III di Durazzo (Salerno, 1889), 262 n. 1; Henri Rolland, Monnaies des comtes de Provence, XIIe–XVe siècles (Paris, 1956), 145–68, 221–37, esp. figs. 89–92 (231–34).

18. Etienne Baluze, Vitae paparum avenionensium, 4 vols. (Paris, 1914–27), 2:646: volebat corrigere et emandare reginam, et quod regnum fuerat male rectum et gubernatum a magno tempore per feminam.

19. Jean-François de la Harpe, Jeanne de Naples: tragédie en cinq actes et en vers: représentée par les Comediens français le 12 décembre 1781 au palais des Tuileries et à Versailles devant Leurs Majestés le 20 du même mois (Paris, 1782).

20. Vivian Etting, Queen Margrete I (1353–1412) and the Founding of the Nordic Union (Leiden, 2004), xvii, 22, 58–59, 61, 148.

21. Ibid., 55–56 (emphasis added), 58. Her privy seal from the early 1390s can be seen at <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dronningmargrete1ssekret.jpg>.

22. Full text of her instructions in Etting, 146–50.

23. Her most recent biographer, Alessandro Cutolo, Giovanna II (Novara, 1968), judges her most detailed biographer, Nunzio Federico Faraglia, Storia della regina Giovanna II (Lanciano, 1904), to be excessively indulgent.

24. Another female royal succession could have taken place in Castile in 1369, after its king was murdered by an uncle of illegitimate birth; but the killer ascended the throne while the dead king's two unmarried daughters sought sanctuary as far away as England. Both women married English princes and founded so-called Lancastrian lineages that played a major role in Iberia, especially Portugal, for many centuries. Illegitimacy was also no barrier to succession in fourteenth-century Italian principalities: see Jane Fair Bestor, “Bastardy and Legitimacy in the Formation of a Regional State in Italy: The Estense Succession,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38 (1996), 549–85.

25. Her documentary trail vanishes after 1418: César Olivera Serrano, Beatriz de Portugal (Santiage de Compostela, 2005), 495 (#45).

26. The ANS possesses coins from the reigns of the sisters who inherited Hungary and Poland but none bearing the names of their husbands, who ruled these kingdoms for thirty years after their deaths. Maria of Sicily and her husband each have one coin. Only four silver coins with the name and image of Beatrice of Portugal are known to exist. Samples of Maria of Hungary's coins at <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MarieUhry_penize.jpg>.

27. Maria Rita Lo Forte Scirpo, C'era una volta una regina: Due donne per un regno: Maria d'Aragona e Bianca de Navarra (Naples, 2003), 44, 67. Maria's crudely printed signature is reproduced as fig. 7.

28. Compare Serrano, Beatriz, with the Portuguese version: Salvador Dias Arnaut, A crise nacional dos fins do seculo XIV (Coimbra, 1960).

29. Oscar Halecki, Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East Central Europe (Boulder, 1991), 150–51, 156, 164–66, 194–95, 226–27 n. 47. For her state seal, see <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jadwiga_Andegawen´ska_seal_1386.PNG>.

30. Ibid., 247–48, 262; Jadwiga's name never appears in the foundation charter. On her beatification and canonization, see Boleslaw Przybyszewski, Saint Jadwiga–Queen of Poland 1374–1399 (Rome/London, 1997), 83–95.

31. On female regency government in the fifteenth-century crown of Aragon, see Theresa Earenfight, The King's Other Body: Maria of Castile and the Crown of Aragon (Philadelphia, 2009). On Blanca, see Lo Forte Scirpo, C'era una volta una regina, 133–262; Laura Sciascia, “Bianca di Navarra, l'ultima regina: Storia al femminile della monarchia siciliana,” Principe de Viana 60 (1999), 293–310; Eloisa Ramirez Vaquero, Blanca y Juan II (Pamplona, 2003); and Florencio Idoate, “La coronación de unos reyes navarros en 1429,” in his Rincones de Historia de Navarra (Pamplona, 1954), 17–20.

32. Ramirez Vaquero, Blanca y Juan, 112. Two versions survive: the original at Pamplona (AGN, Casamientos y Muertos Reales, Leg. 1, carp. 18) and a copy at Pau (AD Pyrenées-Atlantiques, E 563).

33. Miguel Ibañez Artica, “Acuñacones de Blanca y Juan II (1425–1441–1479) y de Carlos, Principe de Viana (1441–1461),” in La moneda en Navarra (Pamplona, 2001); Elena Ramirez Vaquero, Blanca, Juan II y el Príncipe de Viana (Pamplona, 1986), 286–87; and her Juan II, Leonor y Gaston IV de Foix, y Francisco Febo (Pamplona, 1990), 303–5.

34. Figures calculated from Alvaro Adot Lerga, Juan de Albret y Catalina de Foix, o la defensa del Estado navarro (1483–1517) (Pamplona, 2005), 301–11; as in the case of their fourteenth-century predecessors, the king issued more documents alone (sixty-seven) than the proprietary queen (forty-two). See also R. Anthony and H. Courteault, eds., Les testaments des derniers rois de Navarre (Toulouse/Paris, 1940), 62–90.

35. Ferdinand's heirs never explicitly renounced this district, but it made no payments to them after 1525 and began acknowledging the traditional House of Navarre in 1528: Susana Herreros Lopetegui, Las tierras navarras de Ultrapuertos (siglos XII–XVI) (Pamplona, 1998), 138–45.

36. The standard account remains Sir George Hill, A History of Cyprus, vol. 3: The Frankish Period, 1432–1571 (Cambridge, 1948). There is a notable lack of biographies of the Greek female ruler of Cyprus, but several of her Italian successor. See also a French version of the great Cairo chronicle of Taghiri-Birdi: M. Tahar Mansouri, Chypre dans les sources arabes médiévales (Nicosia, 2001), 89–95, 123–27.

37. See Latin sources summarized in Hill, Cyprus, 555–57.

38. George Bustron, Chronicle 1456–1489, trans. R. M. Dawkins (Melbourne, 1964), 35 (#113).

39. Marilyn Yalom, Birth of the Chess Queen (New York, 2004), 191–211; Barbara Weissberger, Isabel Rules: Constructing Queenship, Wielding Power (Minneapolis, 2004), 148–53.

40. Compare Peggy K. Liss, Isabel the Queen, 2d ed. (Philadelphia, 2004), 67–8, with Tarsicio de Azcona, Isabel la Católica: Vida y reinado (Madrid, 2002), 124.

41. The tale of Isabel's procession with an uplifted sword, repeated by many biographers, was actually fabricated by one of Fernando's partisans: see Ana Isabel Carrasco Manchado, Isabel I de Castilla y la sombra de la ilegitimitad (Madrid, 2006), 23–37. On Isabel's niece, see Tarsicio de Azcona, Juana de Castilla, mal llamada la Beltraneja (Madrid, 2007); on Ferdinand's position, compare Liss, Isabel the Queen, 113–18, with Azcona, Isabel, 147–55 (en lo camp fom iurat, recebut, elevat per Rey en aquestes Regnes). Both agreements of 1475 were printed by Diego José Dormer, Discursos varios de historia (Saragossa, 1683), 295–305 (quote, 304).

42. During the war, Ferdinand and Isabel stripped silver from churches in order to produce their coins (Azcona, Isabel, 176–78). Juana's official seal survives in a single Spanish municipal archive, but several of her coins are extant (Azcona, Juana, 125–27); on Isabel's propaganda, see Carrasco Manchado, Isabel y la ilegitimidad, 176–95. Almost a century ago a facing set of both women's identical facsimile royal signatures (“I the Queen”) was published in Spain: J. B. Sitges, Enrique IV y la Excelente Señora (Madrid, 1912), 40.

43. Richard Kagan, Clio and the Crown (Baltimore, 2009), 48. Isabel holds books in more than one of her portraits: see Elisa Ruiz García, Los libros de Isabel la Católica: Arqueología de un patrimonio escrito (Madrid/Soria, 2004), 247–49.

44. E. Harris Harbison, Rival Ambassadors at the Court of Queen Mary (Princeton, 1940), 211–12.

45. An obvious starting point is the twenty printed volumes of the Registro del Sello summarizing the Castilian chancery's official actions between 1480 and 1500. Some useful comments in Carrasco Manchado, Isabel y la ilegitimidad, 469–75.

46. In 1485 the Registro del Sello recorded 357 joint decrees, plus 104 signed by Ferdinand alone and 73 by Isabel alone. Thus 70 percent were joint, with a 6–4 ratio between husband and wife. The former ratio is slightly below Navarre's 80 percent, the latter identical (see n. 34 above). In 1480 Isabel approved five legitimations and Ferdinand none; in 1485–6, Ferdinand approved twenty-one legitimations, Isabel none. In 1485–86, twenty-four escribanos públicos were named jointly by both sovereigns, but thirty-seven more by Ferdinand alone and only three by Isabel alone. Compare Azcona, Isabel, 201, and Liss, Isabel the Queen, 213.

47. Azcona, Isabel, 181, 551–52.

48. On Isabel's reponsibility, compare Liss, Isabel the Queen, 191–92, with Azcona, Isabel, 262–63. Henry C. Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain, 4 vols. (New York, 1906–10), 1:289–92, notes that “there is absolutely no evidence in [Ferdinand's] enormous and confidential correspondence that he ever used it for political purposes” (291); but compare Beatrice Perez, Inquisition, pouvoir, société (Paris, 2007), 92–94, 107–10.

49. On the size of her inheritance, see Monika Triest, Macht, vrouwen en politiek 1477–1558: Maria van Burgondië, Margreta van Oostenrijk, Maria van Hongrije (Louvain, 2000), 44–45 (with map). Her plea to officials in Dijon apparently never reached its destination: Georges-H. Dumont, Marie de Bourgogne (Paris, 1982), 160–61. On Dutch linguistic autonomy in 1477, see Peter Burke, Toward a Social History of Early Modern Dutch (Amsterdam, 2005), 13–14.

50. Her seal is reproduced in Christine Weightman, Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy 1446–1503 (New York, 1989), 133; the medal by Bernd Kluge, Numismatik des Mittelaters (Berlin/Vienna, 2007), 419 (#1101).

51. The official Burgundian version of this ceremony in Jean Molinet's Chroniques, 2:538–44, agrees with accounts from foreign observers: see Nancy B. Warren, Women of God and Arms (Philadelphia, 2005), 1–4.

52. Bethany Aram, “La reina Juana: nuevos datos, nuevas interpretaciones,” in Maria Vitoria López-Cordón and Gloria Franco, eds., La Reina Isabel y las reinas de España: realidad, modelos e imagen historiográfica (Madrid, 2005), 101–3.

53. Bethany Aram, La reina Juana: Gobierno, piedad y dinastía (Madrid, 2001), 234, 278–80; Walter de Gray Burch, Catalogue of Seals of the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum (London, 1900), 6:630 (#23,077); M. J. Rodríguez-Salgado, The Changing Face of Empire: Charles V, Philip II and Habsburg Authority, 1551–1559 (Cambridge, 1988), 129.

54. José Maria de Francisco Olmos, “Las primeras acuñaciones de Carlos I (1517): Un golpe de estado monetaria,” in Carmen Alfaro, Carmen Marcos, and Paloma Otero, eds., Actas del XIII Congreso Internacional de Numismática (Madrid, 2003), 2 vols. (Madrid, 2005), 2:1471–76; on coins of Juana y Carlos minted at Naples in 1516–19, see Philip Grierson and Lucia Travaini, Medieval European Coinage … in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 14 (Italy III) (Cambridge, 1998), 424–30.

55. Dormer, Discursos, 303–5 (mucho mayor sinrazón y más injusto y deshonesto fue lo que pretendieron las Reynas Juanas de Nápoles, que escuyeron algunos de sus maridos del nombre y regimento del Reyno).

Chapter 4. Female Regents Promote Female Rule, 1500–1630

1. Helmut G. Koenigsberger, Monarchies, States Generals and Parliaments: The Netherlands in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (Cambridge, 2001), 91.

2. Dagmar Eichberger, Leben mit Kunst, Wirken durch Kunst: Sammelwesen und Hofkunst unter Margrethe van Osterreich, Regentin der Niederlands (Turnhout, 2002). Her palace at Mechelen – the first ever built by a female regent in Europe – can be viewed at <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mechelen_gerechtshof_01.jpg>.

3. Margaret was painted twice together with her brother, and one of these was certainly sent to Spain during negotiations for their marriages: see Dagmar Eichberger, ed., Women of Distinction: Margaret of York/Margaret of Austria (Louvain, 2005), 142 (#48), 118–19 (#19–20), 83–85 (#18–19, 21).

4. Marguerite Debae, La bibliothèque de Marguerite d'Autriche, essai de reconstitution d'après l'inventaire de 1523–1524 (Louvain/Paris, 1995); Susan G. Bell, The Lost Tapestries of the City of Ladies: Christine de Pizan's Renaissance Legacy (Berkeley, 2004), 72–95; Jean Lemaire des Belges, Oeuvres, ed. J. Stecher, 5 vols. (Louvain, 1891), 4:69–70.

5. H. C. Agrippa, Declamation on the Nobility and Preeminence of the Female Sex, ed. Albert Rabil Jr. (Chicago, 1996), 19–21 and nn. 38, 84–85, 88. Agrippa's unorthodox stances on various topics explains why this was among his first works to be printed. By 1544 this work had appeared in French, German, English, and Italian translations.

6. Letter of March 15, 1526, in Orsolya Rethelyi, ed., Mary of Hungary: The Queen and Her Court 1521–1531 (Budapest, 2005), 216.

7. Quote from Pierre de Brantôme, Receuil des Dames, ed. E. Vaucheret (Paris: Pléiade, 1991), 510. On their respective levels of authority, see Laetitia V. G. Gorter-van Royen, Maria van Hongrije, regents der Nederlanden: een politieke analyse op basis van haar Regentschapsordonannties en haar corrrespondentie met Karel V (Hilversum, 1995), 326–39. Gorter-van Royen and J.-P. Hoyois have begun to publish Mary's state correspondence; the first volume, Correspondence de Marie de Hongrie avec Charles Quint et Nicolas de Granvelle (Turnhout, 2009), covering the year 1532, includes over 150 letters to her from the emperor and over 100 of hers to him.

8. Brantôme (Pléiade ed.), 510–11, 516. On Mary's hunting, see Christoph Niedermann, “Marie de Hongrie et la chasse,” in B. Federinov and G. Docquier, eds., Marie de Hongrie: Politique et culture sous la Renaissance aux Pays-Bas (Mariemont, BE, 2008), 115–23; on her military knowledge, see Pieter Martens in ibid., 90–105.

9. Mary intended it for the main hall of her new palace at Binche, alongside an identical statue of her nephew and successor Philip II; both are now at the Prado in Madrid (both reproduced in Federinov and Docquier, Marie de Hongrie, 176). On Mary of Hungary's portraits, see Bob van den Boogert and Jacqueline Kerkhoff, eds., Maria van Hongrije: Konigin tussen keizers en kunstenaars (Zwolle, 1993), esp. 142 (#104), 324 (#222), and 329 (#227); on her musical patronage, see Glenda G. Thompson, “Mary of Hungary and Music Patronage,” in Sixteenth Century Journal 15 (1984), 401–18; on her library, Claude Lemaire, “La bibliothèque des imprimés de la reine Marie de Hongrie, régente des Pays-Bas, 1505–1558,” in Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance 58 (1996), 119–39.

10. I use the English translation of her letter of resignation in Jane de Jongh, Mary of Hungary, Second Regent of the Netherlands (London, 1958), 263–66; see also Gorter-van Royen, 9.

11. Thierry Wanegffelen, Le pouvoir contesté: souveraines d'Europe à la Renaissance (Paris, 2008), 156.

12. Reprinted in full by Gorter-Van Royen, 340–49.

13. Ibid., 343–44, 345, 346, 347, 348 (my translations).

14. Antonio Villacorta Baños-Garcia, La Jesuita (Barcelona, 2005), 183–85, 225.

15. Ibid., 226 n. 28, 249–50, 309–10, 335–37; Archivo General de Simancas, Estado, Leg. 103, fol. 310 (20/9/1554).

16. Villacorta Baños-Garcia, La Jesuita, 217–22, 226–29.

17. Ibid., 379. On her portraits, see Annemarie Jordan Gschwend, “Los retratos de Juana de Austria posteriores a 1554: la imagen de una Princesa de Portugal, una regente de España y una jesuita,” in Reales Sitios 39 (2002), 42–65. The ‘hunting-dog’ portrait is available at <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Infanta_Juana_of_Spain1.jpg>. In 1562, the female court artist Sofonisba Anguissola placed Juana beside a little girl; contrast <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sofonisba_Anguissola_-_Portrait_of_Juana_of_Austria_with_a_Young_Girl,_1561.jpg>.

18. Ana Isabel Buescu, Catarina de Austria (1507–1578): Infanta de Tordesillas, Rainha de Portugal (Lisbon, 2007), 251–53, 258, 327–48 (also reproduces both of Mor's portraits between 128 and 129).

19. Maria do Rosario Themudo Barata de Azevedo, As regencies na Menoridade de D. Sebastião, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1992). On her policies toward new Christians, see Francisco Bethencourt, The Inquisition: A Global History, 1478–1834 (Cambridge, 2009), 326, 328.

20. Ruy Gonçalves, Privilegios e praerogativos que ho genero femenino tem por Dereito commum, e Ordenaoens do Reino, mais que o genero masculine (Coimbra, 1557); see the facsimile edited by Elisa Maria Lopes da Costa (Lisbon, 1992).

21. See bibliographical essay; Leonie Frieda, Catherine de Medici (New York, 2005), 117; Thierry Wanegffelen, Catherine de Médicis: le pouvoir au féminin (Paris 2005), 230–35. Her seal is reproduced in Wanegffelen, Pouvoir contesté, 461.

22. J. Boutier, A. Dewerpe, and D. Nordman, Un tour de France royal: Le voyage de Charles IX (1564–1566) (Paris, 1984), 238, 241–46; Wanegffelen, Catherine, 302.

23. Frances Yates, The Valois Tapestries (London, 1959); Clarice Innocenti, ed., Women in Power: Caterina and Maria de’ Medici: The Return to Florence of Two Queens of France (Florence, 2009).

24. Bernard Cottret, La royauté au féminin: Elisabeth Ie d'Angleterre (Paris, 2009), 125–26.

25. Eliane Viennot, La France, les femmes et le pouvoir, vol 1: L'invention de la loi salique (Ve–XVIe siècle) (Paris, 2006), 575–87; Brantôme, Receuil des Dames, 134–35.

26. Compare François Hotman, Franco-Gallia, ed. and trans. Ralph Giesey and J. H. M. Salmon (Cambridge, 1972), chap. 26, esp. 483, with David Chambers, Discours de la legitime succession des femmes aux possessions de leurs parens et du gouvernement des princesses aux Empires et Royaumes (Paris, 1579) (its dedicatory letter was dated August 21, 1573). The copy in the British Library bears the royal bindings “E.R.” Although the principal source on this enemy of England (whose surname is spelled variously as Chalmers and Chambers) is his police file in the papers of Lord Burghley, and although he published nothing in England, Constance Jordan puts Chambers at the conclusion of her classic article “Women's Rule in Sixteenth-Century British Political Thought,” Renaissance Quarterly 40 (1987), 445–50.

27. Chambers, Discours, 14–15v, 16v, 18–19v.

28. Ibid., 24v, 25v, 32v–33.

29. R. J. Knecht, Catherine de Medici (London, 1998), 99. Catherine also suffered from confessional solidarity between female Protestant monarchs. When a third French religious war broke out in 1568, Elizabeth not only loaned money to Jeanne III of Navarre but also sent a hundred so-called volunteeer cavalrymen, including a very young Walter Raleigh, to assist her Huguenots against the French king; see William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth, Late Queen of England, abridged ed., Wallace MacCaffrey, ed. (Chicago, 1970), 124.

30. Portraits: Joanne Woodall, Anthonis Mor: Art and Authority (Zwolle, 2007), 390 (#139), 398 (#146), 403 (#148). Medal: Luc Smolderen, Jacques Jonghelinck: Sculpteur, médailleur et graveur de sceaux (1530–1606) (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1996), 287–92.

31. Geoffrey Parker, Philip II (Boston, 1978), 195–96. Original documents in Colección de documentos inéditos para la historia de España, 42:218–22 (Philip II's donation), 42:225–28 (Philip III's ratification); seal reproduced in Smolderen, Jonghelinck, plate CIX.

32. On their government, see Geoffrey Parker, “The Decision-Making Process in the Government of the Catholic Netherlands under ‘the Archdukes,’ 1596–1621,” in his Spain and the Netherlands 1559–1659: Ten Studies (London, 1979), 164–76; on their coinage, see André Van Kermuylen, ed., Monnaies des Pays-Bas méridionaux d'Albert et Isabelle à Guillaume Ier (Brussels, 1981), 1–64. Magdalena Sanchez argues that she had “greater powers than those held by any previous Spanish governor in the Netherlands, including her late husband”: see “Isabel Clara Eugenia and Power,” in Anne J. Cruz and Mihoko Suzuki, eds., The Rule of Women in Early Modern Europe (Urbana, 2009), 72–73.

33. Ruth Betegón Diez, Isabel Clara Eugenia: Infanta de España y soberana de Flandes (Barcelona, 2004), 158–60.

34. Ibid., 205, 212; Francis Van Noten, “The Horses of Albert and Isabella: Historical Background,” in Werner Thomas and Luc Duerloo, eds., Albert and Isabella: Essays (Turnhout: 1998), 343–46, 366 (plate 8).

35. Jean-François Dubost, Marie de Médicis: la reine dévoilée (Paris, 2009); Mark Jones, “The Image of a Queen Regent,” in Tony Hackens and Ghislaine Moucharte, eds., Proceedings of the XIth International Numismatic Congress, 4 vols. (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1993), 4:304–5 n. 17, 308; Mark Jones, ed., Catalogue of French Medals in the British Museum, 2 vols. (London, 1987–88), 2:290 (#332).

36. Dubost, Marie, 197 (1609 engraving), 528, 774. On the famous Rubens cycle, see 651–76; the fullest discussion in English is Ronald Millen and Robert Wolf, Heroic Deeds and Mystic Figures (Princeton, 1989).

37. Dubost, Marie, 802–04.

38. Corpus Rubeniorum Ludwig Burchard, XIX, part 2 [Hans Vlieghe, Rubens Portraits in Antwerp, (London, 1987)], #109–12 (three copies exist).

39. Jean-François de Raymond, ed., Christine, reine de Suède, Apologies (Paris, 1994), 136.

Chapter 5. Husbands Finessed

1. Alison Weir, The Children of Henry VIII (New York, 1996), 167–68; Anne Whitelock, “'Woman, Warrior, Queen?’ Rethinking Mary and Elizabeth,” in Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock, eds., Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth (New York, 2010), 175–76. Mary's 1553 sovereign is reproduced in Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” JIH 41 (2011), 548.

2. Charles Beem, The Lioness Roared: The Problem of Female Rule in English History (New York, 2006), 63–99, provided a fresh political interpretation of Mary Tudor's reign, now further enriched by Judith M. Richards, Mary Tudor (London, 2008), 121–81. See also Glyn Redworth, “'Matters Impertinent to Women’: Male and Female Monarchy under Philip and Mary,” English Historical Review 112 (1997), 593–613.

3. A detailed paraphrase of their prenuptial agreement appears in David Loades, Mary Tudor: The Tragical History of the First Queen of England (London, 2006), 109–10. Compare the generally similar articles agreed upon by France and England in 1581 for Elizabeth's marriage to Alençon: William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Eilzabeth, Late Queen of England, ed. Wallace MacCaffrey (Chicago, 1970), 132–33.

4. For Spanish views of these events, see C.V. Malfatti, The Accession, Coronation and Marriage of Mary Tudor as Related in Four Manuscripts of the Escorial (Barcelona, 1956); for their wedding, Alexander Samson, “Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554,” in Sixteenth Century Journal, 36 (2005), 761–84. Their great seal of 1554 is reproduced in Richards, Mary Tudor, plate 9, and their ‘floating-crown’ joint coinage in Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 549; David Loades prints her last will in Mary Tudor: A Life (London, 1989), 370–83.

5. Geoffrey Parker's superb Felipe II: La biografía definitiva (Barcelona, 2010), 120–35, 140–54, does much to clarify Philip's role in his wife's kingdom; quote from 129.

6. Richards, Mary Tudor, 215–16.

7. Loades, Tragical History, 203; Claude Richardot, Trois sermons funèbres (Antwerp, 1559), 20, 23–23v.

8. Bernard Berdou d'Aas, Jeanne III d'Albret: Chronique (1528–1572) (Anglet, 2002), 195–204; on her coins, see François Voisin, “Les testons de Jeanne d'Albret,” Cahiers Numismatiques #131 (1997), 38–47.

9. Berdou d'Aas, Chronique, 257, 262 n. 36, 298–99, 314.

10. Philippe Chareyre, “'Hasta la Muerte’: La ‘fermesse’ de Jeanne d'Albret,” in Jeanne d'Albret et sa cour (Paris, 2004), 82–84.

11. Pamela Ritchie, Mary of Guise in Scotland, 1548–1560: A Political Career (East Linton, 2002), 94–95.

12. See bibliographical essay; Thierry Wanegffelen, Le pouvoir contesté: souveraines d'Europe à la Renaissance (Paris, 2008), 277–8.

13. See Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 548–50; the counterfeits include over 350 from one location: N. M. McQ. Holmes, Scottish Coins in the National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh: Part I, 1526–1603 (Oxford, 2006), 4, 8, 23–25.

14. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mary_silver_rial_1566_681821.jpg>. How many ‘illegal’ silver ryals with the original inscription have been preserved is uncertain; the British Museum holds eight “Mary and Henrys” but only one “Henry and Mary.”

15. Julian Goodare, “The First Parliament of Mary Queen of Scots,” Sixteenth Century Journal 36 (2005), 55–75.

16. Katharine Anthony, Queen Elizabeth (New York, 1929), 105.

17. Judith Richards, “Examples and Admonitions: What Mary Demonstrated for Elizabeth,” in Hunt and Whitelock, Tudor Queenship, 31–45; Leah Marcus, Janel Mueller, and Mary Beth Rose, eds., Elizabeth I: Collected Works (Chicago, 2000), 52 n. 3; Carol Levin, "The Heart and Stomach of a King”: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Sex and Power (Philadelphia, 1994), 121–26; also Jacqueline Broad and Karen Green, A History of Women's Political Thought in Europe, 1400–1700 (Cambridge, 2009), 90–109. Her seal of 1584 is reproduced in Louis Montrose, The Subject of Elizabeth (Chicago, 2006), 96 (fig. 28).

18. Compare Cottret, Elisabeth, 101–2, with Camden's summary of the same problem in 1581 (MacCaffrey, History, 136–37). Also Frederick Chamberlin, Sayings of Queen Elizabeth (London, 1923), 16; Marcus et al., Collected Works, 79 (draft version reproduced on 78).

19. William Camden, Annales … of the Reign of Elizabeth (London, 1630), 56.

20. Chamberlin, Sayings, 310.

21. Marcus et al., Collected Works, 135–43 (quote, 141).

22. English version in ibid., 157; Spanish original in Janel Mueller and Leah Marcus, eds., Elizabeth I: Autograph Compositions and Foreign Language Originals (Chicago, 2003); Marcus et al., Collected Works, 311–21. Its frontispiece is reproduced in Linda Shenk, Learned Queen: The Image of Elizabeth I in Politics and Poetry (New York, 2010), 25.

23. Five early English translations of her outburst of 1597 exist: Marcus et al., Collected Works, 332–33 n. 1; her final harangue in Calendar of State Papers, Venice, 9:533 (#1134).

24. William Camden, The True and Royall History of the famus empresse Elizabeth, Queen of England, France and Ireland (London, 1625), 308–9; Cottret, Elisabeth, 229.

25. J. E. Neale, Elizabeth I (London, 1934), 179; Madeleine Lazard, “L'image d'Elizabeth d'Angleterre chez Brantôme,” in Françoise Argod-Dutard and Anne-Marie Cocula, eds., Brantôme et les Grands d'Europe (Bordeaux, 2003), 99–110.

26. Meryl Bailey, “Salvatrix Mundi: Queen Elizabeth I as Christ-Type,” Studies in Iconography 29 (2008), 176–215; Calendar of State Papers, Venice, 8:344–45, 379 (#640, 642, 717); Roy Strong, Gloriana (London, 2003), 22; Neale, Elizabeth, 393; Ruth Betegón Diez, Isabel Clara Eugenia: Infanta de España y soberana de Flandes (Barcelona, 2004), 137.

27. Strong, Gloriana, 22–23, 41 (quote).

28. Ibid., 20 (quote), 111 (#109); Camden, History, 328 (dux foemina fecit). For Dutch celebrations of the Armada defeat, see Edward Hawkins, Medallic Illustrations of the History of Great Britain and Ireland, to the Death of George II, 2 vols. (London, 1885), 1:145–48 (#111–18), 153 (#127, 128).

29. Montrose, Subject of Elizabeth, 249.

30. See bibliographical essay. After 1966 two smaller congresses about her have been held at Rome (1989 and 1996), where she spent most of her last thirty years, and one at Stockholm (1995).

31. Curt Weibull, Christina of Sweden (Stockholm, 1966), 77–78.

32. Ibid., 82–84, 88.

33. Faculty of Medicine, Montpellier, Ms. H 258, vol. 12 (Miscellanea Politica), fols. 28 (il n'y avoit pas un homme en tout la Suède qui eust si hardi que d'en parler à la Reine), 222v.

34. Kari Elisabeth Børresen, “Christina's Discourse on God and Humanity,” in Marie-Louise Roden, ed., Politics and Culture in the Age of Christina (Stockholm, 1997), 46 nn. 24, 25; Baron Carl de Bildt, Les Médailles romaines de Christine de Suède (Rome, 1908), 23–32, includes 14 reproductions.

35. Veronica Buckley, Christina, Queen of Sweden: The Restless Life of a European Eccentric (London, 2004), 197–98, 148, 140, 164; Cavalli-Björkman, “Christina Portraits,” in Roden, Politics and Culture, 96–102. Bernard Quilliet, Christine de Suède (Paris, 2005), 109–46, maintains that she was a hermaphrodite.

36. Montpellier manuscripts, vol. 10 (Miscellanea di suo pugno), fol. 232 (La Regina non dice ne fa niente a caso: a close variant on fol. 238); Michael Roberts, Sweden as a Great Power 1611–1697 (London, 1968), 49–55. Her Polish candidacy generated 267 letters, preserved at Montpellier, of which J. Arckenholz published the most important: Waclaw Uruszczak, Polonica w korespondencji królowej szwedzkiej Krystyny w zbiorach Bibliothèque Interuniversitaire w Montpellier (Cracow, 2001).

37. Bildt, Médailles, 137–45.

38. Jean-François de Raymond, ed., Christine, reine de Suède, Apologies (Paris, 1994), 135, 357 (Sentiments, #339).

39. Swedish National Library, Stockholm, Ms. D 684, vol. 1 (marginal note in Sentiments laconiques); Iiro Kajanto, Christina Heroina: Mythological and Historical Exemplification in the Latin Panegyrics on Christina Queen of Sweden (Helsinki, 1993), 134–37; Buckley, Christina, 55.

40. Ludwig Lindenburg, Leben und Schriften David Fassmanns 1683–1744, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung seiner Totengesprache (Berlin, 1937), 88–141, esp. 103–7, 128. Fassmann wrote over 150 such dialogues by 1739.

41. Charles Beem, The Lioness Roared (London, 2006), 181 n. 5 and 219 nn. 6, 7.

42. Richard Doebner, ed., Memoirs of Mary, Queen of England (Leipzig, 1896), 10–12.

43. Ibid., 22–23, 32–33, 58–59; Rachel Weil, Political Passions: Gender, the Family, and Political Argument in England, 1680–1714 (Manchester, 1999), 109.

44. Gregorio Leti, Vita d'Elisabetta, Regina d'Inghilterra, detta per Sopranome la Comediante Politica, 2 vols. (Amsterdam, 1693), 1:3–5. By 1750 this work had eleven editions in French, five in Dutch, and two in German; the Russian translation of 1795 is in the Library of Congress: Nati Krivatsy, Bibliography of the Works of Gregorio Leti (New Castle, Del., 1982), 7, 39–44.

Chapter 6. Husbands Subordinated

1. Monter, “Gendered Sovereignty,” 553–59; on Maria Theresa's remarkably complicated numismatic legacy, see Tassilo Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum Regni Maria Theresiae: Die Münzprägungen der Kaiserin Maria Theresia und ihre Mitregenten Kaiser Franz I und Josef II (Basel, 1973),

2. Edward Gregg, Queen Anne, 2d ed. (New Haven, 2001), 6, 152–53.

3. See Charles Beem's sympathetic portrait in The Lioness Roared (London, 2006), 101–39, and Rachel Weil, Political Passions: Gender, the Family, and Political Argument in England, 1680–1714 (Manchester, 1999), 162–86. Prince George appears on only two of the seventy-five medals from his wife's reign held in the American Numismatic Society (ANS), one because of his death in 1708; in this respect, he resembles his sister-in-law, Mary II.

4. Frances Harris, A Passion for Government: The Life of Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough (Oxford, 1991). Weil (Political Passions, 189) argues that “gender did not matter to Sarah Churchill's construction of herself as a political actor.”

5. Gregg, Queen Anne, 53–58, 295, 297, 365. Manley's Selected Works (London, 1986) fill five volumes.

6. Gregg, Queen Anne, 82, 160–62, 330.

7. Ibid., 351. Among seventy-five different designs of medals from Anne's reign in the ANS, the phrase Louis Magnus, Anna Maior also appears on #0000.999. 3176 and 3177.

8. Gregg, Queen Anne, 143–44, 147–48, 212–13.

9. Karin Tegenborg Falkdaen, Kungne ar en kvinna (Umea, 2003), 207–11 (English summary).

10. English translation of the original document of 1713 in C. A. Macartney, ed., The Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (New York, 1970), 88–91 (quote, 90); see also Karl A. Roider, “The Pragmatic Sanction,” Austrian History Yearbook 8 (1972), 153–58.

11. Gustav Turba, ed., Die Pragmatische Sanktion (Vienna, 1913), 54–121, esp. 114 (quote from Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 40).

12. Turba, Die Pragmatische Sanktion, 138–84, 191–94; Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 86–87, 91–94. An ornately sealed copy, signed by the emperor and major Hungarian dignitaries, exists in Hungary's National Museum.

13. Zufallige Gedanken über die Frage: Ob Ihre Majestät, die Königin von Ungarn and Böhmen, wegen der Churwürde, so der Krone Böhmen anklebet, in dem Churfürstlichen Collegio, da nun die Erb-Folge auf das Weibliche Geschlecht verfallen, Sitz und Stimme führen können? (n.p. [Vienna], 1741).

14. See bibliographical essay; Karl Vocelka, Glanz und Untergang der Höfischen Welt: Repräsentation, Reform und Reaktion in Habsburgischen Vielvölkerstaat (Vienna, 2001), 28–33. During her reign, Hungarian Protestants lost about two hundred churches and schools. She began to expel the large Jewish community of Prague early in her reign but changed her mind at the last minute—and had a medal struck to celebrate her clemency.

15. Michael Yonan, “Modesty and Monarchy: Rethinking Empress Maria Theresa at Schönbrunn,” Austrian History Yearbook 35 (2004), 25–47.

16. J. Kallbrunner, ed., Maria Theresias Politisches Testament (Vienna, 1952). Macartney's English translation (Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 96–132) omits the second and slightly later version, which is less repetitive but also less personal (quote, 97).

17. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 99–100, 102. Her antagonist Frederick the Great criticized himself for using faulty military tactics in his Silesian campaign of 1741: Frédéric II, Mémoires, ed. Boutaric and Campardon, 2 vols. (Paris, 1866), 1:93–95.

18. Frederick II, Oeuvres, 31 vols. (Berlin, 1846–57), 16:41; Frédéric II, Mémoires, 1:4. Writing for posterity, he used tactful language even about the meddlesome queen-consort of Spain, Elizabeth Farnese, who “would have wished to govern the whole world” and “marched boldly toward the fulfillment of her projects; nothing surprised her, and nothing stopped her” (ibid., 25–26).

19. R. J. W. Evans, “Maria Theresa and Hungary,” in Austria, Hungary and the Habsburgs: Essays on Central Europe, c. 1683–1867 (Oxford, 2006), 17–35; quote from von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresiens, 10:128.

20. Schau- und Denkmünzen, welche unter der glorwürdigen Regierung des Kaiserinn Königinn Maria Thersia geprägt worden sind (Vienna, 1782), #23. The painting, done by Sir Philip Hamilton about 1750, was shown at the exhibition Maria Theresa als Konigin von Ungarn (1980) and reproduced in its catalogue; Astrik Gabriel, Les rapports dynastiques franco-hongrois au moyen-age (Budapest, 1949), 62.

21. Olga Khayanova, “From the Theresianum in Vienna to the Theresian Academy in Buda: An Interrupted Reform of Noble Education, 1740s–1780s,” in Klara Papp and Janos Barta, eds., The First Millennium of Hungary in Europe (Debreczen, 2002), 264–68.

22. Fullest description, with illustrations, in Gerda Mraz and Gottfried Mraz, Maria Theresia. Ihr Leben und ihre Zeit in Bildern und Dokumenten (Munich, 1979), 172–74.

23. Macartney, Habsburg and Hohenzollern Dynasties, 115.

24. Prague's Strahov Library contains no fewer than ten congratulatory tracts about her coronation in Latin and German, including the official Actus coronationis and a German version of her Triumpherter Einzug two weeks earlier.

25. Mraz and Mraz, Bildern und Dokumenten, 88 (dass sie moglicherweise diese Krönung geringer einschätze als die beiden männlicher Kronen, die sie trage: 22/8/1745); Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum, 28, 111–18, 205–07, 251–53, 339–44. After her husband's death, Maria Theresa's mints issued more than twice as many different types of thaler with her name than with that of her son and co-regent, Emperor Josef II.

26. Eypeltauer, Corpus Nummorum, 231, 13.

27. Emile Karafiol, “The Reforms of the Empress Maria Theresa in the Provincial Government of Lower Austria, 1740–1765” (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1965), 240, 246–47, 252.

28. Vocelka, Glanz, 304–6.

29. Her first child died in infancy; three others, including her most talented son, Karl, died between the ages of twelve and sixteen.

30. On her Russian alliance, see the illustrated pamphlet by Emil Jettel-Ettenach, Der Damenkrieg: ein historisches Bilderbuch (Vienna, 1924); Georg Ludwigstorff, “Die Geschichte des Maria-Theresien-Ordens bis zum Ende des 18. Jahrh.,” in H. Dikowitsch, ed., Barock–Blütezeit der europäischen Ritterorden (St. Polten, 2000), 27–34.

31. Christian Steeb, “Kaiser Franz I. und seine ablehende Haltung gegenüber der Stiftung des königlich ungarischen St.-Stephans-Ordens,” in Dikowitsch, Barock, 35–40. Maria Theresa could be very cavalier about such honors; once, because “I don't know anyone who hasn't already got some honorary title,” she made the fourteen-year-old granddaughter of her chief minister a knight of the Order of Malta (ibid., 63–66).

32. Alfred Ritter von Arneth, ed., Maria Theresia und Joseph II; Ihre Correspondenz, 3 vols. (Vienna, 1867–68), 3:277 (Ne perdez jamais de vue: besser ein mittelmässiger Frieden als glücklicher Krieg).

33. Michael Yonan, “Conceptualizing the Kaiserinwitwe: Empress Maria Theresa and Her Portraits,” in Allison Levy, ed., Widowhood and Visual Culture in Early Modern Europe (Aldershot, 2003), 109–24.

34. The most important study remains Caetano Beirão, D. Maria I 1777–1792, 4th ed. (Lisbon, 1944).

35. Jenifer Roberts, The Madness of Queen Maria (Chippenham, 2009), 5–54; Maria do Ceu de Brito Vairinho Borrecho, “D. Maria I.: a formaçao de uma rainha” (thesis, Universidade Nova da Lisboa, 1993), esp. 9, 39–45.

36. Portugal's National Library contains thirty-two titles mentioning her in 1777 and twenty-four from the next three years. Fewer than ten of the first group came from official royal presses, which printed most of those from 1778–80.

37. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 57–61; Do Ceu de Brito, appendix VI; AUTO / do Levanatameno e juramento / que os grandes, titulos seculars, ecclesiasticos, e mais pessoas, que se acharão presentes, / fizerão á Muito Alta, Muito Poderosa / Rainha Fidelissima / a senhora / D. Maria I. / Nosssa Senhora / na coroa destes reinos, e senhorios de Portugal, / sendo exaltada, e coroada sobre o regio / throno juntamente com o senhor Rei / D. Pedro III. / na tarde do dia treze de maio, anno de 1777 (Lisbon, 1780), 5 (quote). A graphic portrayal of her husband's political position is provided by a contemporary joint portrait; see <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MariaIpedroIII.jpg>.

38. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 64–69, 86, 111; on her letters, see Beiraõ, D. Maria I, 437–47.

39. Roberts, Madness of Queen Maria, 113–35.

Chapter 7. Ruling Without Inheriting

1. Anisimov's collective biography, published in 1997, is available in English as Five Empresses: Court Life in Eighteenth-Century Russia (London, 2004). See the critical survey of recent Russian historians of this era (most prominently, Anisimov) by M. Mouravieva, “Figures denigrées,” in Isabelle Poutrin and Marie-Karine Schaub, eds., Femmes et pouvoir politique: Les princesses d'Europe, XVe–XVIIIe siècles (Rosny, 2007), 312–25. For an overview from a different perspective, see John T. Alexander, “Favorites, Favoritism and Female Rule in Russia, 1725–1796,” in Roger Bartlett and Janet Hartley, eds., Russia in the Age of Enlightenment: Essays for Isabel de Madariaga (London, 1990), 106–24.

2. Miram Yalom, Birth of the Chess Queen (New York, 2004), 182–87.

3. Lindsay Hughes, Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657–1704 (New Haven, 1990), 69–70, 174.

4. Ibid., 139–45. An engraving at Amsterdam replaced the eagle with allegorical feminine virtues and translated her bombastic eulogy into Latin.

5. J. Korb, Diary of an Austrian Secretary of Legation at the Court of Czar Peter the Great, 2 vols. (London, 1863), 2:92 (first printed in Latin [Vienna, 1700]).

6. Gary Marker, “Godly and Pagan Women in the Coronation Sermon of 1724,” in Roger Bartlett and Gabriela Lehmann-Carli, eds., Eighteenth-Century Russia: Society, Culture, Economy (Berlin, 2007), 207, 210, 219; and Marker, “Sacralizing Female Rule, 1725–1761,” in W. Rosslyn and A. Tosi, eds., Women in Russian Culture and Society 1700–1825 (New York, 2007), 171–90.

7. [David Fassmann], Gespräche im Raum der Todte (129h entrevue, Band IX) zwischen der Russische Kaiserin CATHARINA und der weltberühmten Orientalischer Königin ZENOBIA (Leipzig, 1729), 10–11, 13–14, 35–40, 43–45.

8. Evgenyi Anisimov's detailed biography of Anna (Moscow, 2002) remains untranslated, and his account of her reign in Five Empresses is extremely negative. Compare Mina Curtiss, The Forgotten Empress: Anna Ivanovna and Her Era, 1730–1740s (New York, 1974); also Marker, “Sacralizing Female Rule,” 180–81, and Ansimov, Five Empresses, 95, 100.

9. Frederick II, Mémoires, ed.. Boutaric and Campardon, 2 vols. (Paris 1866), 1:40.

10. Catherine II, Sochineniia, ed. A. N. Pypin (1907; reprint, Osnabrück, 1967), 586–88.

11. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 81.

12. Georg Wolfgang Krafft, Description et representation exacte de la Maison de Glace, construite à St. Petersbourg au mois de Janvier 1740, et de tous les meubles qui s'y trouvent (St. Petersburg, 1741); Anisimov, Five Empresses, 91–92. On her medals, see Béatrice Coullaré, ed., Médailles russes du Louvre, 1672–1855 (Paris, 2006); none celebrated Anna's most important foundation, the Noble Cadet Corps, or her ballet school.

13. Gesprach in Raum der Todten zwischen Elisabetha Königin von England und Irland und Anna Ivanowna, Kaiserin und Selbsthalterin aller Russen (Frankfurt, 1741), 111–12. Another German dialogue of the dead began with the newly arrived Anna, seated in the underworld with Catherine I, receiving a petition sent from Siberia by her favorite, Biron: Allerwichtig Curioseste Staats-Handel im Reich der Todten: Geheim Unterredung (Frankfurt/Leipzig, 1741), 1–20.

14. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 127–70. Because of her husband, the regent was also known as Anna Karlovna.

15. Francine-Dominique Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth Ire de Russie: l'autre impératrice (Paris, 2007). The first edition (1986) of the best modern Russian biography is available in English: Evgeny Anisimov, Empress Elizabeth: Her Reign and Her Russia, 1741–1761 (Gulf Breeze, Fla., 1995); Anisimov's revised version of 1999 has not been translated into English.

16. Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth, 106–19; Anisimov, Elizabeth, 164–66.

17. Krönungs-Geschichte, oder Umständliche Beschreibung des solennen Einzugs, und der hohen Salbung und Krönung Ihro Kayserl. Majest. der allerdurchlauchtigsten, grossmächtigsten Fürstin und grossen Frau Elisabeth Petrowna Kayserin und Selbstherrscherin aller Reussen etc. (St. Petersburg, 1745); Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth, 212–14, 260–61.

18. Solid diplomatic account by Francine Lichtenhahn, La Russie entre en Europe (Paris, 1997); also her Elisabeth, 38. As late as 1781 contested diplomatic protocol held up a military alliance for several months between two so-called enlightened despots of imperial rank, Catherine II and Joseph II of Austria, because Joseph refused to sign a copy that named the Russian first; Catherine finally evaded the problem through an exchange of private letters: see Isabel de Maradiaga, “The Secret Austro-Russian Treaty of 1781,” in Slavonic and East European Review 38 (1959–60), 114–45.

19. Compare Coullaré, Médailles russes, with P. Ricaud de Tiregale, Médailles sur les principaux événemens de l'Empire de Russie, depuis le règne de Pierre le Grand jusqu'à celui de Catherine II (Potsdam, 1772), #111, 77–90.

20. Anisimov, Elizabeth, 67–72; Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth, 316–19.

21. James F. Brennan, Enlightened Despotism in Russia: The Reign of Elisabeth, 1741–1762 (New York, 1987), 66, 163–64, 180, 182–83; Anisimov, Elizabeth, 59–66.

22. Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth, 224–33.

23. Virginia Rounding, Catherine the Great (New York, 2006), 110; Catherine is the ultimate source of this reported exchange, but in July 1753 the English ambassador noted, “There was nothing [Elisabeth] desired more than to be at war with that prince [Frederick II].” After both women had died, an Austrian propagandist compared the lives and government of the two empresses: Maria Theresien und Elisabeth im Reiche der Todten: Ein Gespräch zwischen diese beeden Kaiserinnen (Vienna, 1781).

24. Brennan, Enlightened Despotism, 246; Lichtenhahn, Elisabeth, 386; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Prince of Princes: The Life of Potemkin (New York, 2000), 39n.

25. Brennan, Enlightened Despotism, 248; Liechtenhahn, Elisabeth, 377–78.

26. Hélène Carrère d'Encausse, Catherine II: Un âge d'or pour la Russie (Paris, 2005). A pamphlet printed at Riga in 1764 called her die allerdurchlauchtigste, grossmächtigste Kaiserin und Frau Catharina Alexiewna, Selbstherrscherin aller Reussen etc. als unserer von Gott geschenkten allerhuldreichsten Landesmutter; one from Tallinn twenty years later extolled der Regierungszeit der grossen Catharina der IIen.

27. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 293, 316; Katherine Anthony, trans., Memoirs of Catherine the Great (New York, 1935), 326; on her papers, see Alexander Kamenskij's overview in Claus Scharf, ed., Katharina II, Russland und Europa: Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung (Mainz, 2001), 565–69.

28. Isabel de Madariaga's classic Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (London, 1981) was later condensed as Catherine the Great: A Short History (New Haven, 1990). In addition to Scharf's volume, other published bicentennial proceedings include Eckhard Hübner, Jan Kusber und Peter Nitsche, eds., Russland zur Zeit Katharinas II (Cologne, 1998), and Anita Davidenkoff, ed., Catherine II et l'Europe (Paris, 1997), along with an exhibition catalogue: John Vrieze, ed., Catharina, die Keizerin en de Kunsten; uit de schatzkammers van de Hermitage (Zwolle, 1996).

29. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 277–83.

30. De Madariaga, Russia, 115–17.

31. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 298–300.

32. An eighty-page pamphlet commemorated him: Histoire de la vie de George de Browne, comte du Saint-Empire, gouverneur général de Livonie et d'Esthonie, général en chef des armées de Sa Majesté l'impératrice de toutes les Russies (Riga, 1795; also in German [Vienna, 1795]).

33. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 295.

34. Robert Werlich, Russian Orders, Decorations and Medals (Washington, 1981). After the partitions of Poland, Catherine's Russia also absorbed the honorary Polish orders of the White Eagle and St. Stanislaus, founded by Stanislas Poniatowski in 1765. Grieg's commemorative pamphlet lists all his major honors: Kanzelrede, bey der feyerlichen Beerdigung Seiner Excellenz, des hochgebohrnen Herrn Samuel Greigh, Ihro Russischkayserlichen Majestät hochbetrauten Admirals, Oberbefehlshabers der Russischen Flotte in der Ostsee, Mitglieds des Admiralitätscollegii und der Academie der Wissenschaften, Ritters des H. Andreas, des H. Alexander-Newsky, vom grossen Kreuze des Heiligen Georgs, erster Klasse des H. Wladimirs und des H. Annen Ordens, gehalten in der Ritter- und Domkirche zu Reval, den 31sten October 1788 (Reval, 1788).

35. De Madariaga, Russia, 267.

36. John T. Alexander, Catherine the Great: Life and Legend (Oxford, 1989), 180–82.

37. Paul Dukes, ed., Catherine the Great's Instruction (Nakaz) to the Legislative Commission, 1767 (Newtonville, Mass., 1977); also see above, pp. 38–39.

38. Anisimov, Five Empresses, 294; De Madariaga, Russia, 151; Alexander, Catherine, 101.

39. De Madariaga, Russia, 277–91, 487, 586 (quote); Alexander, Catherine, 190–91.

40. Evgenia Shchukina, “Catherine II and Russian Metallic Art,” in Magnus Olausson, ed., Catherine the Great and Gustav III (Stockholm, 1999), 313–19; Coullaré, Médailles russes. Both British medical medals are in the British Museum. The preface to Ricaud de Tiregale's Médailles claimed that, like the ancient Romans, his own age had perpetuated “the exploits and great deeds of illustrious men [sic]” in metal.

41. B. F. Brekke, The Copper Coinage of Imperial Russia, 1700–1917 (Malmö, 1977), 109.

42. Her memoirs only recently appeared in their original language: Princess Dashkova, Mon Histoire, ed. Alexandre Woronzoff-Dashkova (Paris, 1999) (quote, 157).

43. C.-F.-P. Masson, Mémoires secrets sur la Russie (Paris, 1800), 2:116 (the Comte de Ségur tells the same story about Dashkova in his memoirs); Dashkova, Mon Histoire, 224, 226.

44. Marie-Liesse Pierre-Dulau, “Trois artistes lorrains à Saint-Petersbourg au XVIIIe siècle,” in Davidenkoff, Catherine II et l'Europe, 156. St. Petersburg's Russian State Museum contains a full-size bronze model of Collot's head of Peter.

45. Quoted in Natalie Bondil, ed., Catherine the Great: Art for Empire (Montreal, 2007), 64.

46. Michael Raeburn, Ludmila Voronikhina, and Andrew Nurnberg, eds., The Green Frog Service (London/St. Petersburg, 1995).

47. Fullest discussion in Alexander, Catherine, 201–26.

48. On their possible marriage, see Sebag Montefiore, Potemkin, 138–40; de Madariaga, Russia, 566.

49. On her reactions to revolutionary France, see Carrère d'Encausse, Catherine II, 529–57 (quote, 557). The Russian National Library has nine printed lists of French men and women taking this oath after February 1793: Rossica 13.VIII.2. nos. 365–73.

50. L'ombre de Catherine II aux Champs-Elysees ("Kamchatka,” 1797); an almost identical version was entitled Conferences de Catherine II avec Louis XVI, le grand Frédéric et Pierre le Grand, aux Champs-Elysées ("Moscow,” 1797). Its author remains unidentified, but his familiarity with both Prussia and Russia suggests the Comte de Ségur.

51. Catherine II, Sochineniia, 583–94.

52. Alexander, Catherine, 97.

Chapter 8. Female Rule After 1800

1. Charles-François-Philibert Masson, Les Helvétiens, en huit chants, avec des notes historiques (Paris: an VIII [=1800]; this account uses his Mémoires secrets sur la Russie, 2d printing, 2 vols. (Paris, 1800).

2. Masson, Memoirs, 1:78–83, 2:128.

3. Ibid., 1:135–36.

4. Compare epigraph with Eileen McDonagh, “Political Citizenship and Democratization: The Gender Paradox,” American Political Science Review 96 (2002), 535–52.

5. Isabel Burdiel, Isabel II: No se Puede Reinar Inocentemente (Madrid, 2004); Ester de Lemos, D. Maria II (A Rainha e a Mulher) (Lisbon, 1954).

6. Rebecca Howard Davis, Women and Power in Parliamentary Democracies: Cabinet Appointments in Western Europe, 1968–1992 (Lincoln, Neb., 1997), 17.

7. Blema Steinberg, Women in Power: The Personalities and Leadership Styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher (Montreal, 2008); Katharine Anthony, trans., Memoirs of Catherine the Great (New York, 1935), 325.

8. J. B. Almeida Garrett, “Tratado de Educaçaõ,” in Obras completas, ed. T. Braga, 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1904), 2:310; Walter L. Arnstein, Queen Victoria (New York, 2003), 9.

9. Alain Lanavère, “Zénobie, personnage du XVIIe siècle?” in J. Charles-Gaffiot, H. Lafange, and J.-F. Hofman, eds., Moi, Zénobie, Reine de Palmyre (Milan, 2001), 139–42.

10. Mary Hamer, Signs of Cleopatra: Reading an Icon Historically, 2d ed. (Exeter, 2008), xiv; Hans Volkmann, Kleopatra: Politik und Propaganda (Munich, 1953), 222–23. G. H. Möller's Beiträge zur Dramatischen Kleopatra-Literatur (Schweinfurt, 1907) preceded George Bernard Shaw's play of 1913, which has influenced many subsequent adaptations.

11. See Jonathan Clements, Wu (Sutton, UK, 2007), 188–96. Wu also served as the centerpiece of a television series in 1984 featuring numerous Kung-Fu episodes.

12. John T. Alexander, Catherine the Great (Oxford, 1989), 329–41; John Vrieze, ed., Catharina, die Keizerin en de Kunsten; uit de schatzkammers van de Hermitage (Zwolle, 1996), 277–80.