2
PRONOUNS
2.1. A common understanding of a pronoun is that it is a word that substitutes for another noun, known as its antecedent (when the antecedent follows the pronoun, it is labeled a postcedent). Thus Richard Young defines pronouns as “words that take the place of nouns while pointing to a place in the text where the noun occurs.”1 Robertson says that pronouns “avoid the repetition of the substantive.”2 Examples of a pronoun standing in place of another substantive are not hard to come by in the NT. In John 1:3 (πάντα διʼ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν) the two instances of the pronoun αὐτοῦ have as their antecedent the single word λόγος in verse 1.
However, this understanding of pronouns is too limited. Sometimes the pronoun is a substitute not for a single word but for a group of words or an even larger unit of discourse (e.g., an entire paragraph). In Rom. 5:12 Paul begins a new section with Διὰ τοῦτο (for this reason, because of this). While there is disagreement as to the antecedent of the pronoun τοῦτο (is it 5:11? 5:9–10? 5:1–11? 3:21–5:11? the entire Letter of Romans so far?),3 most agree that the antecedent is not just a single word. In 1 John 2:3 (Καὶ ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐγνώκαμεν αὐτόν, ἐὰν τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ τηρῶμεν, “And in this we know that we know him, if we keep his commands”) the postcedent of the pronoun τούτῳ is the entire clause introduced by ἐάν. In view of this, we will define the pronoun as a word that functions as a substitute for a variety of linguistic units, whether a word, a group of words, or something larger (paragraphs or even larger units of discourse). Consequently, pronouns play an important role in creating cohesion in discourse by linking units of text together (see chap. 13, on discourse considerations).
In the English example “The student liked the professor; he enrolled for every course she taught,” the pronouns “he” and “she” substitute for “student” and “professor” in the first part of the clause. That is, “student” and “professor” are the antecedents of “he” and “she.” But in the sentence “We took a trip across Europe; we had been planning it for a long time,” the pronoun “it” in the second clause has as its antecedent at least the entire word group “a trip across Europe” in the first clause. The antecedent of the pronoun “we” is left unidentified linguistically in this sentence.
Before considering the different categories of pronouns in Greek, it will be helpful to review three general observations.
1. Like nouns, pronouns can be inflected for case, gender, and number. While the pronoun generally agrees in gender and number with its antecedent (the linguistic entity for which the pronoun is a substitute), the case of the pronoun is generally determined by how it functions within its clause. Therefore, almost everything discussed regarding Greek cases in chapter 1 applies to pronouns. That is, pronouns can do the same things other substantives can and should also be analyzed according to the various case functions (nominative subject, objective genitive, dative of means, accusative direct object, etc.).
2. Some pronoun forms are employed as both pronouns and adjectives (e.g., αὐτός, οὗτος/ἐκεῖνος, τίς, τις). When standing in the place of a substantive, they function as pronouns. When modifying another substantive, they serve as adjectives.
3. A very important part of analyzing pronouns is identifying their antecedents/postcedents. Sometimes it is rather obvious from the context; at other times it is ambiguous and requires a decision on the part of the interpreter (see the discussion of Rom. 5:12 above). Frequently, neuter pronouns have as their antecedent a linguistic unit larger than a single word. So what are we to make of the antecedent of τοῦτο in Eph. 2:8b (καὶ τοῦτο οὐκ ἐξ ὑμῶν)? Is it χάριτι or πίστεως from 8a? Or is it the entire clause “for by grace you are saved through faith”? The latter is more likely, since the neuter gender of τοῦτο does not match the gender of any of the individual words in 8a. To take another example:
What is the antecedent of αὐτῷ? It could be the cross (τῷ σταυρῷ) in verse 14. However, it could also be Christ (τοῦ Χριστοῦ in verse 11), reflecting Paul’s well-known “in Christ” language.4 Both nouns are masculine and singular, so gender and number do not help with identifying the correct antecedent.
Consequently, students of NT Greek should pay careful attention to each pronoun and also the broader context and not assume that they necessarily know what the antecedent is. How one determines the antecedent of a pronoun can have important interpretive consequences.
The following treatment of pronouns will adhere to a fairly standard system of classification and discuss nine different classes of pronouns.5
Personal Pronoun (ἐγώ, ἡμεῖς, σύ, ὑμεῖς, αὐτός)
2.2. Personal pronouns in the Greek NT are used to refer to various persons and entities. This class of pronouns is the most common in the NT (occurring around 10,780 times) and comprises first-, second-, and third-person forms. In Koine Greek the intensive pronoun αὐτός has also taken over the function of the third-person personal pronoun (Dana and Mantey 122; see below). As mentioned above, personal pronouns frequently take on many of the case functions discussed in our presentation of the cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative) in chapter 1. In addition to their case functions, a number of usages should be identified.
Subject Specifier
2.3. The personal pronoun can be used to specify the subject of a clause. Some grammars claim that it is emphatic, since an explicit subject is not required.6 While this is often true, especially with first- and second-person pronouns, pronouns can be used for other purposes in discourse. For the function of the pronouns in discourse, see chapter 13, on discourse considerations.
| μακάριοι οἱ πενθοῦντες, ὅτι αὐτοὶ παρακληθήσονται. (Matt. 5:4) | Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. |
Αὐτοί is likely emphatic; the specification of the subject is not necessary, since it already is clear from the first part of the sentence and the ending of παρακληθήσονται.
| ὥστε τὸ πλοῖον καλύπτεσθαι ὑπὸ τῶν κυμάτων, αὐτὸς δὲ ἐκάθευδεν. (Matt. 8:24) | So that the boat was overtaken by the waves, but he slept. |
The pronoun probably is used to “reactivate” Jesus as a main character (see chap. 13).
| γνῶσιν ὅτι ἐγὼ ἠγάπησά σε. (Rev. 3:9) | They will know that I love you. |
The pronoun further emphasizes Christ’s love for the hearers.
Contrast
2.4. Sometimes personal pronouns highlight a contrast.
| Ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη τοῖς ἀρχαίοις. . . . ἐγὼ δὲ λέγω ὑμῖν (Matt. 5:21–22) | You have heard that it was said to those of old, . . . but I say to you. | |
| Ὑμεῖς δὲ οὐκ ἐστὲ ἐν σαρκὶ ἀλλὰ ἐν πνεύματι (Rom. 8:9) | But you are not in the flesh but in the Spirit. |
Ὑμεῖς contrasts with the οἱ ἐν σαρκί in the previous verse (v. 8).
Emphasis
2.5. See the intensive use of αὐτός below, under “Intensive Pronoun.”
Reflexive
2.6. Although rare, there appear to be a few occasions when the personal pronoun αὐτός functions similarly to a reflexive pronoun (see the discussion of reflexive pronouns later in this chapter), though this may be more a matter of English translation. Dana and Mantey (124) think there are at least two clear examples of this in the NT and that there may be others.
| Μὴ θησαυρίζετε ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς (Matt. 6:19) | Do not store up for yourselves treasures on the earth. |
This could also be analyzed as a dative of advantage (see also Matt. 6:20).
| ὅσα ἐδόξασεν αὑτὴνa καὶ ἐστρηνίασεν, τοσοῦτον δότε αὐτῇ βασανισμὸν καὶ πένθος. (Rev. 18:7) | As much as she glorified herself and lived in luxury, give her as much torment and grief. | |
| aThe reflexive pronoun ἑαυτήν is found in several manuscripts (א2 1006 1841 1854). | ||
Possession
2.7. The most common way of expressing possession is by a personal pronoun in the genitive case.
| ποιῆσαι ὅσα ἡ χείρ σου καὶ ἡ βουλὴ προώρισεν γενέσθαι. (Acts 4:28) | To do as much as your hand and will determined to happen. | |
| τὰ γὰρ ἀόρατα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ κτίσεως κόσμου τοῖς ποιήμασιν νοούμενα καθορᾶται (Rom. 1:20) | For his invisible attributes from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived by what was made. |
Intensive Pronoun (αὐτός)
2.8. This is the most commonly found pronoun form in the NT. We have already encountered one important function of αὐτός: as the third-person personal pronoun (see above). There are two others to consider.
Identical
2.9. When αὐτός stands in the attributive position (article + αὐτός + substantive), it functions adjectivally in an identifying manner and can be translated “same.”
Intensive
2.10. When αὐτός stands in the predicate position (without the article), it exhibits its intensive meaning and can be translated “self” (himself, herself, itself, themselves, myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves). That is, the pronoun shares the same syntactic slot as the substantive it accompanies.7 In these instances αὐτός is emphatic and focuses attention on the noun it goes with; this is why Gary Long labels it a “focus pronoun.”8 It is used not only with third-person references but also with first and second person to also mean “self” (Moule 121).
| ὁ δὲ Πέτρος ἤγειρεν αὐτὸν λέγων· Ἀνάστηθι· καὶ ἐγὼ αὐτὸς ἄνθρωπός εἰμι. (Acts 10:26) | And Peter raised him saying, “Get up; I myself am also a man.” (used with first person) | |
| αὐτοὶ γὰρ οἴδατε πῶς δεῖ μιμεῖσθαι ἡμᾶς, ὅτι οὐκ ἠτακτήσαμεν ἐν ὑμῖν (2 Thess. 3:7) | For you yourselves know how it is necessary to imitate us, because we were not lazy among you. (used with second person) | |
| καὶ αὐτὸς ὁ θεὸς μετʼ αὐτῶν ἔσται (Rev. 21:3) | And God himself will be with them. |
Possessive Pronoun/Adjective (ἐμός, σός, ἡμέτερος, ὑμέτερος)
2.11. The possessive “pronoun” is actually a possessive adjective. As an adjective it agrees with the substantive it modifies in case, gender, and number and can fill an attributive modifying slot. But in a few instances it acts as a possessive pronoun (i.e., a substantive) rather than modifying another substantive. There is no third-person form for possessive pronouns/adjectives; this function is performed by the genitive of αὐτός. As we already stated, the most common way of expressing possession is with the genitive of the personal pronouns.
| καὶ τὰ ἐμὰ πάντα σά ἐστιν καὶ τὰ σὰ ἐμά (John 17:10) | And all my things are yours, and your things are mine. |
The first- and second-person possessive pronouns/adjectives function substantivally as subjects and predicate nominatives. Also, the articles indicate which pronouns are the subjects.
| οὐ περὶ τῶν ἡμετέρων δὲ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ὅλου τοῦ κόσμου. (1 John 2:2) | Not concerning ours only but also concerning the entire world’s. |
Here the possessive τῶν ἡμετέρων stands in place of a noun, referring back to ἁμαρτιῶν in the first part of the verse.
| καὶ διδάσκει καὶ πλανᾷ τοὺς ἐμοὺς δούλους πορνεῦσαι καὶ φαγεῖν εἰδωλόθυτα. (Rev. 2:20) | And she [i.e., Jezebel] teaches and deceives my servants to commit adultery/sexual immorality and to eat meat offered to idols. (attributive usage) |
This is the only place in Revelation where a possessive adjective occurs.
Demonstrative Pronoun (οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, ὅδε)
2.12. The demonstrative pronoun specifies a relationship of nearness (οὗτος, ὅδε, “this” [or “these” when plural])9 or remoteness (ἐκεῖνος, “that” [or “those” when plural]) from the perspective of the speaker/writer. It points to things that are near or far. The notion of nearness or remoteness indicated by the demonstrative pronoun may refer to spatial, temporal, mental, or even textual proximity. Sometimes the entity referred to with a demonstrative is not near or far spatially or textually but near or far only from the perspective of the author. The demonstrative can function either as a substantive (a true pronoun) or as a modifier (a demonstrative adjective). As a modifier it stands in predicate position (without the article) in relation to what it modifies, though it is translated as an attributive modifier (Matt. 13:1, Ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ ἐκείνῃ, “in that day”). As a pronoun the demonstrative can be either anaphoric, pointing back to something mentioned previously, or cataphoric, pointing forward to something to be mentioned later (Porter 134). However, it is not always easy to determine which it is. One important pragmatic effect of the use of the two demonstratives is that the “near” demonstrative (οὗτος) can be used to indicate participants (persons or entities) that are thematic or the center of attention, while the “remote” demonstrative (ἐκεῖνος) indicates participants that are not the center of attention (also called “backgrounded”).10
1. Nearness (οὗτος, ὅδε)
| Ταῦτα ἐλάλησεν Ἰησοῦς, καὶ ἐπάρας τοὺς ὀφθαλμοὺς αὐτοῦ εἰς τὸν οὐρανὸν εἶπεν· (John 17:1) | Jesus spoke these things, and lifting his eyes to heaven, he said. (pronoun) |
The demonstrative anaphorically refers back to what Jesus spoke in chapter 16.
| Διὰ τοῦτο παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεὸς εἰς πάθη ἀτιμίας· (Rom. 1:26) | Because of this, God gave them over to dishonorable passions. (pronoun) |
The neuter demonstrative refers anaphorically back to at least all of verse 25.
The demonstrative τάδε cataphorically points forward to the content of Christ’s speech in verses 2–6.
2. Remoteness (ἐκεῖνος)
| πολλοὶ ἐροῦσίν μοι ἐν ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἡμέρᾳ· Κύριε κύριε (Matt. 7:22) | Many will say to me in that day, “Lord, Lord.” (remote time; adjective) |
| ἐκεῖνον δεῖ αὐξάνειν, ἐμὲ δὲ ἐλαττοῦσθαι. (John 3:30) | It is necessary for him / that one to increase but for me to decrease. (pronoun) |
| βλέπω ὅτι ἡ ἐπιστολὴ ἐκείνη εἰ καὶ πρὸς ὥραν ἐλύπησεν ὑμᾶς (2 Cor. 7:8) | I see that that epistle, if even for a time, grieved you. (adjective) |
| εἰ ἀπιστοῦμεν, ἐκεῖνος πιστὸς μένει· (2 Tim. 2:13) | If we are unfaithful, that one remains faithful. (pronoun) |
2.13. Sometimes the demonstrative appears to be used with the sense of a personal pronoun and can be translated “she,” he,” or “they.” Several grammars conclude that in these instances the force of the demonstrative has been weakened.11 While this is possible, one must be careful not to conclude too quickly that the sense of the demonstrative has been diminished in all instances. We cannot allow our English translation to determine whether the demonstrative has lost its force, and sometimes good sense can still be made by retaining the demonstrative thrust, as the examples below illustrate.
It could be argued that the demonstratives retain their force here, with Jesus and then John the Baptist being introduced in verses 2 and 7 and then contrasted in verse 8 with the remote demonstrative used of John.
| οὗτος ἦλθεν πρὸς αὐτὸν νυκτός (John 3:2) | He / this one [i.e., Nicodemus] came to him at night. |
Interrogative Pronoun (τίς, ποῖος, ποσός)
2.14. “Interrogative pronouns replace a nominal and introduce a question”12 that is meant to elicit a response in the form of specific information. They can also be used as either pronouns or adjectives. The interrogative pronoun τίς should be distinguished from the indefinite pronoun τις, which is an enclitic (i.e., it does not have its own accent; see below).
1. Interrogative pronouns can introduce direct (“She asked me, ‘Who are you?’ ”) or indirect (“She asked who I was”) questions.
| Τίνα λέγουσιν οἱ ἄνθρωποι εἶναι τὸν υἱὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου; (Matt. 16:13) | Who do people say the Son of Man is? |
| εἰς τὸ εἰδέναι ὑμᾶς τίς ἐστιν ἡ ἐλπὶς τῆς κλήσεως αὐτοῦ, τίς ὁ πλοῦτος τῆς δόξης τῆς κληρονομίας αὐτοῦ ἐν τοῖς ἁγίοις, καὶ τί τὸ ὑπερβάλλον μέγεθος τῆς δυνάμεως αὐτοῦ (Eph. 1:18–19) | That you might know what is the hope of his calling, what are the riches of his glorious inheritance in the saints, and what is the surpassing greatness of his power. (indirect questions) |
| Τίς ἄξιος ἀνοῖξαι τὸ βιβλίον καὶ λῦσαι τὰς σφραγῖδας αὐτοῦ; (Rev. 5:2) | Who is worthy to open the scroll and to loose its seals? |
2. Interrogatives can also be used adjectivally (as interrogative adjectives) to modify another substantive (e.g., “Which book did you mean?”).
| ἐὰν γὰρ ἀγαπήσητε τοὺς ἀγαπῶντας ὑμᾶς, τίνα μισθὸν ἔχετε; (Matt. 5:46) | For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? |
| τί ἀγαθὸν ποιήσω ἵνα σχῶ ζωὴν αἰώνιον; (Matt. 19:16) | What good must I do in order that I might have eternal life? |
3. The neuter τί can sometimes be translated “why.” In these instances it is in the accusative case and technically may be an adverbial accusative of respect (“with respect to what,” i.e., “why”; Porter 136).
| Τί με λέγεις ἀγαθόν; (Mark 10:18) | Why do you call me good? |
| τί ὡς ζῶντες ἐν κόσμῳ δογματίζεσθε; (Col. 2:20) | Why, as though living in the world, do you submit to its decrees? |
4. Greek also can ask two other kinds of questions: ποῖος introduces questions that are qualitative in nature (What sort of? What kind of?), and πόσος introduces questions that are quantitative in nature (How much? How many?).
| Οὐκ ἀκούεις πόσα σου καταμαρτυροῦσιν; (Matt. 27:13) | Do you not hear how many things they are accusing you of? (quantitative interrogative) |
| οἵτινες οὐκ ἐπίστασθε τὸ τῆς αὔριον ποία ἡ ζωὴ ὑμῶν· (James 4:14) | You who do not know what will happen tomorrow; what sort of thing is your life? (qualitative interrogative) |
5. Sometimes πόσος occurs along with μᾶλλον in quantitative comparisons (“how much more”).
Reflexive Pronoun (ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῶν)
2.15. Reflexive pronouns reflect the verbal process back on the subject of the verb or highlight the subject in some way (“He dressed himself”). A reflexive notion is communicated more commonly with a reflexive pronoun than with a middle-voice verb. Reflexives are often employed as objects/complements of verbs, but sometimes they play other grammatical roles. In Eph. 5:28 (ὡς τὰ ἑαυτῶν σώματα, “as their own bodies”) the reflexive ἑαυτῶν is a genitive indicating possession. Since they primarily refer back to the subject of verbs, they cannot themselves be the subject, so there is no nominative case.
| ἀλλὰ ὕπαγε σεαυτὸν δεῖξον τῷ ἱερεῖ (Mark 1:44) | But go and show yourself to the priest. |
| μετὰ φόβου καὶ τρόμου τὴν ἑαυτῶν σωτηρίαν κατεργάζεσθε (Phil. 2:12) | With fear and trembling, work out your own salvation. |
| ἡ πίστις, ἐὰν μὴ ἔχῃ ἔργα, νεκρά ἐστιν καθʼ ἑαυτήν. (James 2:17) | Faith, if it does not have works, is dead by itself. (object of a preposition) |
| καὶ ἐπείρασας τοὺς λέγοντας ἑαυτοὺς ἀποστόλους, καὶ οὐκ εἰσίν (Rev. 2:2) | And you tested those who call themselves apostles, and they are not. |
Reciprocal Pronoun (ἀλλήλων)
2.16. The reciprocal pronoun expresses a mutual relationship or an interchange of action between or among two or more members of a group (“each other, one another”). Naturally, it only exhibits plural forms and does not occur in the nominative case.
Relative Pronoun (ὅς, ὅστις)
2.17. A relative pronoun introduces its own clause and relates to another clause by means of an antecedent, or head. According to Wallace (335), relatives “are ‘hinge’ words in that they . . . refer back to an antecedent in the previous clause and also function in some capacity in their own clause.” In the sentence “Ally waited on the customer, who was standing impatiently at the register,” the relative pronoun who has as its antecedent “customer” and functions to connect the two clauses. Greek also has an indefinite relative pronoun, ὅστις (whoever, anyone who), though its usage is restricted in the NT to the nominative case.13 In Greek, relative pronouns generally agree in gender and number with their antecedent, or head. Their case is determined by how they function within their own clauses. However, exceptions to both of these rules will be considered below. Some relative pronouns do not have an antecedent located in another clause. This section will cover only the grammar of the relative pronoun. For a treatment of the syntax of relative clauses, see chapter 11.
The following examples conform to the standard practice of relative pronouns agreeing with their antecedent in gender and number, with their case being determined by their grammatical function within the relative clause.
| ἰδοὺ ἄνδρες φέροντες ἐπὶ κλίνης ἄνθρωπον ὃς ἦν παραλελυμένος (Luke 5:18) | Look, men carrying upon a bed a man who was paralyzed. |
The antecedent “man” is accusative, but the relative ὃς is nominative because it is the subject of ἦν in its own clause.
| οὐ κατὰ τὴν διαθήκην ἣν ἐποίησα τοῖς πατράσιν αὐτῶν (Heb. 8:9) | Not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers. | |
| ἀπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς τῶν φώτων, παρʼ ᾧ οὐκ ἔνι παραλλαγὴ ἢ τροπῆς ἀποσκίασμα. (James 1:17) | From the Father of lights, with whom there is no variation or shadow of change. |
The antecedent of ᾧ is the genitive πατρός. The relative is dative because it is the object of the preposition παρά.
| τὸ μέρος αὐτῶν ἐν τῇ λίμνῃ τῇ καιομένῃ πυρὶ καὶ θείῳ, ὅ ἐστιν ὁ θάνατος ὁ δεύτερος. (Rev. 21:8) | Their share is in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur, which is the second death. |
The relative pronoun is neuter and has as its antecedent at least the entire phrase “the lake that burns with fire and sulfur.” As explained earlier, neuter pronouns often have an antecedent of more than one word.
There are exceptions (by now the Greek student should not be shocked at this!) to the general rule that relatives agree with their antecedent in gender and number, with case determined by function within the relative clause.
Case Deviation
2.18. The most common pattern of deviation occurs when the case of the relative pronoun is “attracted” to that of its antecedent (often known as direct attraction). That is, the relative pronoun takes on the case of its antecedent, irrespective of its role in its own clause. This is usually found with what otherwise would be an accusative relative pronoun being attracted to the dative or genitive case.14
The relative here should be in the accusative case, since it is the direct object of εἶχον, but because of attraction to its antecedent “glory,” it is in the dative case.
| καὶ ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι μένει ἐν ἡμῖν, ἐκ τοῦ πνεύματος οὗ ἡμῖν ἔδωκεν. (1 John 3:24) | And by this we know that he remains in us, by the Spirit whom he gave to us. |
Though one would expect οὗ to be in the accusative case since it is the direct object of ἔδωκεν, here it is in the genitive case because of attraction to its antecedent, τοῦ πνεύματος.
| περὶ πάντων τῶν ἔργων ἀσεβείας αὐτῶν ὧν ἠσέβησαν καὶ περὶ πάντων τῶν σκληρῶν ὧν ἐλάλησαν κατʼ αὐτοῦ ἁμαρτωλοὶ ἀσεβεῖς. (Jude 15) | Concerning all the works of their ungodliness that they have committed in an ungodly manner and concerning all the harsh things that ungodly sinners have spoken against him. |
In both cases we would expect the accusative case, but both relatives are genitive by attraction to ἔργων.
Less commonly, the reverse occurs, and the antecedent is attracted to the case of the relative pronoun. This is known as indirect or inverse attraction.
| ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ἡρῴδης ἔλεγεν· Ὃν ἐγὼ ἀπεκεφάλισα Ἰωάννην, οὗτος ἠγέρθη. (Mark 6:16) | And when Herod heard, he said, “John, whom I beheaded, this one is raised.” |
The postcedent Ἰωάννην should be in the nominative case, corresponding to οὗτος, which picks it up in the following clause; it has been attracted to the accusative of ὅν.
Gender Deviation
2.19. There are also cases where the relative pronoun does not agree in gender with its antecedent. This can often be explained by the sense (rather than the grammar) of the antecedent. One common pattern is for the relative pronoun to take its gender from the predicate nominative to which it is linked by εἰμί in its own clause.15
| Ἔστιν παιδάριον ὧδε ὃς ἔχει πέντε ἄρτους κριθίνους καὶ δύο ὀψάρια· (John 6:9) | There is a child here who has five barley loaves and two fish. |
Although the antecedent is neuter (παιδάριον), the relative pronoun is masculine to reflect the physical gender of the child, the sense overriding grammatical gender agreement.
| Καὶ τῷ σπέρματί σου, ὅς ἐστιν Χριστός. (Gal. 3:16) | “And to your seed,” who is Christ. |
The masculine gender of the pronoun, rather than the neuter following σπέρματι, is due to the masculine predicate, Χριστός, to which the pronoun is linked by ἐστίν.
| πᾶς πόρνος ἢ ἀκάθαρτος ἢ πλεονέκτης, ὅ ἐστιν εἰδωλολάτρης (Eph. 5:5) | Every immoral person, or unclean person, or greedy person, who is an idolater. |
The neuter ὅ could refer back to all three vices (Moule 130); however, in light of the parallel with Col. 3:5, it is more likely that the neuter is used to refer to the idea or abstract quality of greed. Again the sense overrides the expected grammatical gender agreement.16
| καὶ ἑπτὰ λαμπάδες πυρὸς καιόμεναι ἐνώπιον τοῦ θρόνου, ἅ εἰσιν τὰ ἑπτὰ πνεύματα τοῦ θεοῦ (Rev. 4:5) | And seven lamps of fire burning before the throne, which are the seven spirits of God. |
The neuter relative ἅ has as its antecedent the feminine “lamps,” but it is attracted to the gender of the predicate nominative τὰ ἑπτὰ πνεύματα.
| ποιῆσαι εἰκόνα τῷ θηρίῳ, ὃς ἔχει τὴν πληγὴν τῆς μαχαίρης καὶ ἔζησεν. (Rev. 13:14) | To make an image to the beast, who has the blow from the sword and yet lives. |
While the antecedent θηρίῳ is neuter, the relative is masculine, probably due to sense: the beast refers (metaphorically) to a person.
Disconnected Relative Pronouns
2.20. In some instances the relative pronoun is not connected to an antecedent, or head, in another clause.
1. When a relative pronoun does not have an antecedent in the text itself, its clause is known as a headless relative clause. In such cases the entire clause introduced by the relative functions as a noun element within a larger clause (also known as an embedded clause; see chap. 11, on clauses).
| Ὃ ἦν ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς, ὃ ἀκηκόαμεν, ὃ ἑωράκαμεν τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς ἡμῶν, ὃ ἐθεασάμεθα καὶ αἱ χεῖρες ἡμῶν ἐψηλάφησαν, περὶ τοῦ λόγου τῆς ζωῆς (1 John 1:1) | What was from the beginning, what we have heard, what we have seen with our eyes, what we have beheld and our hands have touched, concerning the word of life. |
These entire relative clauses, summarized by ὃ ἑωράκαμεν καὶ ἀκηκόαμεν in verse 3 after the digression of verse 2, may be understood as direct objects of ἀπαγγέλλομεν in verse 3. They are fronted for prominence.
| Ὃ βλέπεις γράψον εἰς βιβλίον καὶ πέμψον ταῖς ἑπτὰ ἐκκλησίαις (Rev. 1:11) | What you see, write [it] in a scroll and send [it] to the seven churches. |
The entire relative clause functions as the direct object of γράψον.
2. At other times, the antecedent of the relative pronoun is not in another clause but is inside of, or internal to, the relative clause itself. This is known as an internally headed relative clause or an incorporated antecedent.17 In these cases it is usually the object of a preposition.
| ἐν ᾧ γὰρ κρίματι κρίνετε κριθήσεσθε (Matt. 7:2) | For by which judgment you judge, you will be judged. |
The relative pronoun has as its postcedent κρίματι within the relative clause itself; hence, it is internally headed, incorporated into the relative clause.
| Διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἡμεῖς, ἀφʼ ἧς ἡμέρας ἠκούσαμεν, οὐ παυόμεθα ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν προσευχόμενοι καὶ αἰτούμενοι (Col. 1:9) | For this reason we also, from which day we heard, do not cease praying on your behalf and asking. |
3. The relative pronoun may occur without a specific referent and in combination with a preposition to serve as a connective.
| Μὴ δύνανται οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμφῶνος ἐν ᾧ ὁ νυμφίος μετʼ αὐτῶν ἐστιν νηστεύειν; (Mark 2:19) | The sons of the bridal chamber are not able to fast while the bridegroom is with them, are they? |
| ὁ θάνατος διῆλθεν ἐφʼ ᾧ πάντες ἥμαρτον (Rom. 5:12) | Death entered in which / because all sinned. |
While the pronoun ᾧ could have a specific antecedent (Adam? Death? Law?), it could function as a conjunction meaning “for the reason that,” “because” (BDAG 727; i.e., ἐπὶ τούτῳ ὅτι). If the latter is the case, ἐφ᾿ ᾧ (because) gives the reason why death entered. The interpretation of this connection has important exegetical implications for how one understands the relationship between Adam’s sin, our sin, and death. See also the ἐφ᾿ ᾧ construction in 2 Cor. 5:4.18
2.21. Sometimes the function of the relative pronoun is unclear, which in turn can have important exegetical implications.
| μηδεὶς ὑμᾶς καταβραβευέτω θέλων ἐν ταπεινοφροσύνῃ καὶ θρησκείᾳ τῶν ἀγγέλων, ἃ ἑόρακεν ἐμβατεύων (Col. 2:18) | Let no one disqualify you, delighting in humility and worship of angels, going into detail about what they have seen. | |
| or Let no one disqualify you, delighting in humility and worship of angels, which they have seen upon entering. |
The precise meaning of several words in this verse is debated—such as ταπεινοφροσύνη, θρησκεία, and ἐμβατεύω (either “go into detail” or “enter”)—as is the use of the genitive τῶν ἀγγέλων (is it subjective or objective?). But part of the issue has to do with the antecedent of the relative pronoun ἅ. It could lack an antecedent and introduce a clause that functions as the direct object of ἐμβατεύων (going into detail). If this is the case, the first rendering above would be followed: “going into detail about what [left unspecified] they have seen.” However, the relative pronoun could have as its antecedent ἐν ταπεινοφροσύνῃ καὶ θρησκείᾳ τῶν ἀγγέλων (humility and worship of angels; note that ἅ is neuter). In this case, the second rendering above would be followed: “humility and worship of angels, which they have seen upon entering,” giving ἅ a specific referent. The latter could find support from the fact that other instances of the neuter relative pronouns in this section clearly refer back to an antecedent (see Col. 2:17, 22, 23).
Ὅστις and Ὅς
2.22. Though there appears to have been a distinction in Classical Greek, there is some debate as to whether the indefinite relative ὅστις (from ὅς + τις; whoever) and the relative ὅς (who) possess distinct meanings in Koine Greek. Blass, Debrunner, and Funk (BDF §293) claim that “the definite relative ὅς and the indefinite relative ὅστις are no longer clearly distinguished in the NT.” This is due in large part to the almost complete limitation of the indefinite relative to the nominative case and its use in seemingly parallel fashion with ὅς. In Luke 2:4 ὅστις has a definite referent (εἰς πόλιν Δαυὶδ ἥτις καλεῖται Βηθλέεμ, “into the city of David, which is called Bethlehem”). However, there appear to be a number of examples where a distinction in meaning does makes sense. The so-called indefinite relative pronoun can be used in two different senses: generic (“whoever, anyone who, which as other like things”) or essential (“which by its very nature”).19
| ἀλλʼ ὅστις σε ῥαπίζει εἰς τὴν δεξιὰν σιαγόνα, στρέψον αὐτῷ καὶ τὴν ἄλλην· (Matt. 5:39) | But whoever strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him also the other. (generic) | |
| οἵτινες ἀπεθάνομεν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ, πῶς ἔτι ζήσομεν ἐν αὐτῇ; (Rom. 6:2) | We who [are of such a nature]a died to sin, how shall we still live in it? (essential) | |
| aSee also Moo, Romans, 357n24. | ||
| οἵτινες οὐκ ἐπίστασθε τὸ τῆς αὔριον ποία ἡ ζωὴ ὑμῶν· (James 4:14) | You who [are of such a nature] do not know what will happen tomorrow, what sort of thing is your life? (essential) | |
An indefinite relative pronoun can also be formed by combining the relative with ἄν or ἐάν. In these instances we should probably understand an assumed condition (“if”).
| ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς ἀνθρώπους . . . · ὃς δʼ ἂν ποιήσῃ καὶ διδάξῃ . . . (Matt. 5:19) | Therefore whoever breaks [i.e., if anyone breaks] one of the least of these commandments and teaches people [to do] likewise . . . , but whoever does and teaches [i.e., if anyone does and teaches]. | |
| ὃς ἐὰν ὁμολογήσῃ ὅτι Ἰησοῦς ἐστιν ὁ υἱὸς τοῦ θεοῦ (1 John 4:15) | Whoever confesses [i.e., if anyone confesses] that Jesus is the Son of God. |
Correlative Pronouns
2.23. Two additional important classes of relative pronouns are the qualitative correlative pronoun (οἷος, “such as, what kind”) and the quantitative correlative pronoun (ὅσος, “as much, as many”).
| καθὼς οἴδατε οἷοι ἐγενήθημεν ἐν ὑμῖν διʼ ὑμᾶς· (1 Thess. 1:5) | Just as you know what manner [i.e., what sort of men] we were among you on your account. | |
| ὅσα ἐδόξασεν αὑτὴν καὶ ἐστρηνίασεν, τοσοῦτον δότε αὐτῇ βασανισμὸν καὶ πένθος. (Rev. 18:7) | As much as she glorified herself and lived in luxury, give her as much torment and grief. |
Indefinite Pronoun (τις)
2.24. An indefinite pronoun refers to a person or entity that is unidentified or unspecified. It should be distinguished from the interrogative pronoun, which has its own accent (τίς, see above).20 The indefinite pronoun can serve either as a substantive (i.e., as a pronoun) or as an adjective modifier.
| εἴ τις ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω. (Mark 4:23) | If anyone has ears to hear, he/she should hear. |
The indefinite acts as a substantive, as the subject of ἔχει.
| Ἄνθρωπος δέ τις ἦν πλούσιος (Luke 16:19) | And a certain man was rich. |
Here the indefinite is an adjectival modifier of ἄνθρωπος.
| εἰ δέ τι ἠδίκησέν σε ἢ ὀφείλει, τοῦτο ἐμοὶ ἐλλόγα· (Philem. 18) | And if he has wronged you in anything or owes you, charge this to me. | |
| εἴ τις ἔρχεται πρὸς ὑμᾶς καὶ ταύτην τὴν διδαχὴν οὐ φέρει, μὴ λαμβάνετε αὐτὸν (2 John 10) | If someone comes to you and does not bring this teaching, do not receive him. |
Occasionally, εἷς (one) functions in an indefinite manner. As Chrys Caragounis observes, in the “NT the cardinal numbers, εἷς, μία, ἕν, are losing their numerical value and are being reduced to an indefinite pronoun,”21 though they still often retain their numerical property in the NT (see chap. 4, on the article).
| Καὶ ἰδοὺ εἷς προσελθὼν αὐτῷ εἶπεν· (Matt. 19:16) | And look, a certain person / someone came to him and said. | |
| καὶ ἤκουσα ἑνὸς ἀετοῦ πετομένου ἐν μεσουρανήματι (Rev. 8:13) | And I heard an eagle flying in midheaven. |
For Practice
2.25. Analyze the pronouns (in bold) according to their kind, their antecedent (or postcedent), and function in the following NT texts.
2οὗτος ἦν ἐν ἀρχῇ πρὸς τὸν θεόν. 3πάντα διʼ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο, καὶ χωρὶς αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο οὐδὲ ἕν. ὃ γέγονεν 4ἐν αὐτῷ ζωὴ ἦν, καὶ ἡ ζωὴ ἦν τὸ φῶς τῶν ἀνθρώπων· 5καὶ τὸ φῶς ἐν τῇ σκοτίᾳ φαίνει, καὶ ἡ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατέλαβεν. 6Ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος ἀπεσταλμένος παρὰ θεοῦ, ὄνομα αὐτῷ Ἰωάννης· 7οὗτος ἦλθεν εἰς μαρτυρίαν, ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν διʼ αὐτοῦ. 8οὐκ ἦν ἐκεῖνος τὸ φῶς, ἀλλʼ ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός. . . . 15(Ἰωάννης μαρτυρεῖ περὶ αὐτοῦ καὶ κέκραγεν λέγων· Οὗτος ἦν ὃν εἶπον· Ὁ ὀπίσω μου ἐρχόμενος ἔμπροσθέν μου γέγονεν, ὅτι πρῶτός μου ἦν·) 16ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ πληρώματος αὐτοῦ ἡμεῖς πάντες ἐλάβομεν, καὶ χάριν ἀντὶ χάριτος· 17ὅτι ὁ νόμος διὰ Μωϋσέως ἐδόθη, ἡ χάρις καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ ἐγένετο. 18θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν πώποτε· μονογενὴς θεὸς ὁ ὢν εἰς τὸν κόλπον τοῦ πατρὸς ἐκεῖνος ἐξηγήσατο. (John 1:2–8, 15–18)
1:4καὶ ταῦτα γράφομεν ἡμεῖς ἵνα ἡ χαρὰ ἡμῶν ᾖ πεπληρωμένη. 5Καὶ ἔστιν αὕτη ἡ ἀγγελία ἣν ἀκηκόαμεν ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀναγγέλλομεν ὑμῖν, ὅτι ὁ θεὸς φῶς ἐστιν καὶ σκοτία ἐν αὐτῷ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδεμία. 6ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι κοινωνίαν ἔχομεν μετʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐν τῷ σκότει περιπατῶμεν, ψευδόμεθα καὶ οὐ ποιοῦμεν τὴν ἀλήθειαν· 7ἐὰν δὲ ἐν τῷ φωτὶ περιπατῶμεν ὡς αὐτός ἐστιν ἐν τῷ φωτί, κοινωνίαν ἔχομεν μετʼ ἀλλήλων καὶ τὸ αἷμα Ἰησοῦ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ καθαρίζει ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ πάσης ἁμαρτίας. 8ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι ἁμαρτίαν οὐκ ἔχομεν, ἑαυτοὺς πλανῶμεν καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν ἡμῖν. . . . 2:4ὁ λέγων ὅτι Ἔγνωκα αὐτὸν καὶ τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ μὴ τηρῶν ψεύστης ἐστίν, καὶ ἐν τούτῳ ἡ ἀλήθεια οὐκ ἔστιν· 5ὃς δʼ ἂν τηρῇ αὐτοῦ τὸν λόγον, ἀληθῶς ἐν τούτῳ ἡ ἀγάπη τοῦ θεοῦ τετελείωται. ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐν αὐτῷ ἐσμεν· 6ὁ λέγων ἐν αὐτῷ μένειν ὀφείλει καθὼς ἐκεῖνος περιεπάτησεν καὶ αὐτὸς περιπατεῖν. (1 John 1:4–8; 2:4–6)