3
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Adjectives
3.1. The primary function of an adjective is to modify or describe (limit or qualify) a substantive or nominal (noun or noun equivalent). But this is not the only way adjectives can function. They can also be employed as substantives and adverbs. Regardless of their role, adjectives have gender, number, and case. Most adjectives have first- and second-declension endings, though some have third-declension endings, and two appear to be hybrids (μέγας and πολύς).1 All distinctly feminine adjectives (i.e., adjectives that have separate feminine forms) use first-declension endings (e.g., δίκαιος, -αία, -ον and πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν). Most masculine and masculine/feminine (338) adjectives follow the second declension (e.g., ἄδικος, -ον and διάβολος, -ον), but there is still a significant group that follows the third (e.g., ἀληθής, -ές and ἄφρων, -ον). Likewise, most neuter adjectives use second-declension endings, but a significant minority of adjectives use the third (e.g., ἀληθές and ἄφρον). Adjectives agree with what they modify in gender, number, and case. If an adjective is being used substantivally, it agrees with its referent in gender and number, but its case is determined by its own grammatical function.
We will discuss adjectives below according to four primary functions: attributive, predicate, substantival, and adverbial usages.
Attributive Adjectives
3.2. Attributive adjectives modify substantives by attributing descriptors (qualities/characteristics/limitations) to them. Attributive adjectives are frequently articular, or arthrous (this is true of almost 75 percent of NT adjectives; Wallace 309), and if a substantive is articular, an attributive adjective modifying it will almost always be articular also. If there is only one article present, the adjective will be between the article and the substantive. There are at least five configurations for the relationship of the adjective to the article and/or the substantive it modifies.
3.3. Arthrous constructions
1. Article + adjective + substantive. This is a common attributive word order, or structure, and helpfully can be translated word for word into English. The adjective and substantive share the same article. But because the adjective precedes the noun, it may be considered to be more prominent than the head noun or substantive in a majority of NT contexts.2
| τὴν μακαρίαν ἐλπίδα (Titus 2:13) | the blessed hope (with emphasis on blessedness) |
2. Article + substantive + article + adjective. In another attributive structure the adjective follows the substantive (according to Levinsohn, this is the default order).3 Because the article is repeated, some grammarians have followed Robertson in thinking that this structure emphasizes both adjective and substantive with climactic focus on the adjective.4 Levinsohn, however, argues that the structure gives equal or less weight to the adjective.5 Therefore, the wooden translation (which is in keeping with Robertson’s description of an addition of an appositive) of the example below, “I am the shepherd, the good [one],” overstates the force of the word order.6
| ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ ποιμὴν ὁ καλός (John 10:14) | I am the good shepherd. |
3. Substantive + article + adjective. In the NT this structure is most often found with proper names in the substantive slot (e.g., ἀσπάσασθε Ἐπαίνετον τὸν ἀγαπητόν μου, “Greet my beloved Epaenetus” [Rom. 16:5]) and participles in the adjective slot (e.g., παιδίοις τοῖς ἐν ἀγορᾷ καθημένοις, “children sitting in the marketplace” [Luke 7:32]). But it is also found, albeit infrequently, with common nouns and adjectives (e.g., εἰρήνην τὴν ἐμὴν δίδωμι ὑμῖν, “My peace I give to you” [John 14:27]).
3.4. Anarthrous constructions. As mentioned above, more than 25 percent of attributive adjectives are anarthrous and modify anarthrous substantives.
1. Adjective + substantive
| μόνῳ σοφῷ θεῷ (Rom. 16:27) | To the only wise God. |
In the doxology of Rom. 16, “only” and “wise” contribute additional attributes to “the eternal God” (v. 26). They precede θεῷ and thus should be considered emphatic.7
2. Substantive + adjective
| λόγοις πονηροῖς φλυαρῶν ἡμᾶς (3 John 10) | Talking nonsense against us with evil words. |
Predicate Adjectives
3.5. Predicate adjectives do not simply modify substantives; they add assertions or predicate qualities to them. To translate them into English, one can supply a form of the verb to be, if no form of εἶναι is present in the Greek text. In predicate structures lacking a form of εἶναι, the adjectives are anarthrous, regardless of whether or not the substantives have articles. This also means that some adjectives in the NT may be either attributive or predicative, because their substantives are also anarthrous. In such cases, one should have significant contextual warrant to consider an adjective as predicative (e.g., when there is no verb present in the adjective’s clause).
1. Adjective + article + substantive
| ἄξιος γὰρ ὁ ἐργάτης τῆς τροφῆς αὐτοῦ. (Matt. 10:10) | For the worker [is] worthy of his food. |
The idea of worthiness, repeated in verse 13 (ἡ οἰκία ἀξία), is introduced in verse 10 in the most prominent position in its clause. The combination of anarthrous adjective, arthrous noun, and no verb requires that we supply the verb is in English translation.
2. Article + substantive + adjective
| οὐ γὰρ οἱ ἀκροαταὶ νόμου δίκαιοι παρὰ τῷ θεῷ (Rom. 2:13) | For not the hearers of the law [are] righteous before God. |
3. Adjective + substantive
| μακάριος ἀνὴρ οὗ οὐ μὴ λογίσηται κύριος ἁμαρτίαν. (Rom. 4:8) | Blessed [is] the person whose sin the Lord never counts. |
Context requires a verb before the relative clause, and word order places some emphasis on blessedness.
4. Substantive + adjective
| χωρὶς γὰρ νόμου ἁμαρτία νεκρά (Rom. 7:8) | For without the law, sin [is] dead. |
Because there is no verb in the clause, νεκρά must be a predicate adjective, and we can supply “is” in our English translation.
Substantival Adjectives
3.6. Substantival adjectives designate persons, places, or things; that is, they fill the slot of a noun in a clause. Therefore, they can function any way a noun can: subject, direct object, predicate complement, and the like. Substantival adjectives are usually arthrous/articular, but occasionally they appear without preceding articles. As explained above, substantival adjectives agree with that to which they refer in gender and number, but their case is determined by how they are used in a particular clause.
| Πορνεία δὲ καὶ ἀκαθαρσία πᾶσα ἢ πλεονεξία μηδὲ ὀνομαζέσθω ἐν ὑμῖν, καθὼς πρέπει ἁγίοις (Eph. 5:3) | But sexual immorality and all impurity or greediness must not be named among you, just as it is proper among saints / holy ones. |
Although anarthrous, it is clear from the context that ἁγίοις refers to people (ἐν ὑμῖν).
| πάντα δὲ δοκιμάζετε, τὸ καλὸν κατέχετε (1 Thess. 5:21) | But test all things; hold on to the good. |
The articular adjective “good” fills a noun slot (direct object/complement), viewed as a whole entity expressed by the neuter singular.
Adverbial Adjectives
3.7. Adverbial adjectives, which modify verbs rather than substantives, are usually in the accusative case and may be arthrous/articular. Certain adjectives fill an adverbial slot as a natural extension of their meaning (e.g., λοιπόν, μόνον, πρῶτον). As stated in chapter 1, nominals in the accusative case may indicate how (and how long, how far, or to what extent), when, and with respect/reference to what an action occurs.
Comparison of Adjectives
3.8. Comparison of adjectives was a carryover from Classical Greek to Koine Greek. As with English, comparatives in Greek normally compare two items, while superlatives compare three or more. Yet, as Porter (122–23) says, scholars disagree regarding the fluidity of or interchangeability among each of the three degrees of comparison (positive [simple adjective], comparative, and superlative; e.g., “quick, quicker, quickest” or “good, better, best” in English) in NT usage. For example, it is generally accepted that the superlative forms were giving way to the comparative. Along the same lines, Moulton suggests, “Practically we may say that in the vernacular documents the superlative forms are used to express the sense of our ‘very’” (known as the elative use).8 We agree with Porter’s conclusion that the interpreter must carefully examine and consider context when “deciding the force of the adjective” (123). There are NT examples of (1) the positive being used for both the comparative and superlative (in English, “good” for “better” and “best”), (2) the comparative being used for the superlative (“better” for “best”) and as an elative (“better” for “very good” or possibly just “good”), (3) and the superlative being used as an elative (“best” for “very good”). It is possible that, along with changes in Greek usage, Hebrew’s lack of formal comparative and superlative adjectives had some influence on the NT writers.9 The table presents the comparative and superlative forms of some common adjectives.
3.9. Positive degree. This is the “standard” use of the adjective to modify a noun.
| ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς ἀφεὶς φωνὴν μεγάλην ἐξέπνευσεν. (Mark 15:37) | And Jesus, having let out a great cry, expired. | |
| ὥστε ὁ μὲν νόμος ἅγιος, καὶ ἡ ἐντολὴ ἁγία καὶ δικαία καὶ ἀγαθή. (Rom. 7:12) | So indeed the law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good. |
3.10. Comparative degree. When stated comparisons are made in the NT, either the particle ἤ (“or,” but in comparisons “than”), the genitive of comparison (see also chap. 1), or the prepositions παρά or ὑπέρ with the accusative case are employed.
3.11. Superlative degree. There are not many superlative adjectives in the NT (about forty), and most of these can be easily understood as elatives (with the sense of “very, exceedingly”). Although Wallace (298n13; following Robertson [280] and Zerwick [50]) treats πρῶτος and ἔσχατος as superlative forms, we will not, since both adjectives are incapable of formally changing degree (though we agree that they are superlative in sense). Moreover, both of these adjectives—πρῶτος more often than ἔσχατος—are used to compare two entities (Wallace 303; the comparative πρότερος occurs only 11 times in the NT and was being replaced by πρῶτος).10
| Τότε ἤρξατο ὀνειδίζειν τὰς πόλεις ἐν αἷς ἐγένοντο αἱ πλεῖσται δυνάμεις αὐτοῦ, ὅτι οὐ μετενόησαν· (Matt. 11:20) | Then he began to denounce the cities in which most of his miracles happened, because they did not repent. |
3.12. Mixed Usages
1. Positive for comparative
| καλόν σέ ἐστιν μονόφθαλμον εἰσελθεῖν εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ ἢ δύο ὀφθαλμοὺς ἔχοντα βληθῆναι εἰς τὴν γέενναν (Mark 9:47) | It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than, having two eyes, to be thrown into hell. |
The presence of ἤ makes it obvious that a comparison is being made and that καλόν fills the slot of καλλίων.
| καὶ οὐδεὶς πιὼν παλαιὸν θέλει νέον· λέγει γάρ· ὁ παλαιὸς χρηστός ἐστιν. (Luke 5:39) | And no one drinking old [wine] desires new, for he/she says, “The old is better.” |
Here the comparison between “old” and “new wine” is assumed rather than made explicit, so one could translate χρηστός as “good.”
| διδάσκαλε, ποία ἐντολὴ μεγάλη ἐν τῷ νόμῳ; (Matt. 22:36) | Teacher, what is the greatest commandment in the law? |
The Pharisee was testing Jesus, so we may conclude that the task was to elevate one commandment above all others.
| εὐλογημένη σὺ ἐν γυναιξὶν καὶ εὐλογημένος ὁ καρπὸς τῆς κοιλίας σου. (Luke 1:42) | You are most blessed among women, and most blessed [is] the fruit of your womb. |
The addition of “most” is not strictly necessary, but it is clear that Elizabeth is comparing Mary to all women and her baby to all babies.
3. Comparative for superlative
| ὁ δὲ μείζων ὑμῶν ἔσται ὑμῶν διάκονος. (Matt. 23:11) | But the greatest of you will be your servant. |
Since Jesus was addressing both his disciples and a crowd, a superlative understanding of μείζων is warranted.
| οἱ δὲ ἐσιώπων· πρὸς ἀλλήλους γὰρ διελέχθησαν ἐν τῇ ὁδῷ τίς μείζων. (Mark 9:34) | But they were silent, for on the way they had argued with one another about who was greatest. |
We agree with Moule (97) that the disciples were more likely discussing who was the greatest of all of them rather than discussing the relative greatness of any two of them.
| Ἀθηναῖοι δὲ πάντες καὶ οἱ ἐπιδημοῦντες ξένοι εἰς οὐδὲν ἕτερον ηὐκαίρουν ἢ λέγειν τι ἢ ἀκούειν τι καινότερον. (Acts 17:21) | And all the Athenians and the foreigners staying there had time for nothing other than to tell or to hear something [brand] new. |
News is not being explicitly compared,11 and though “brand” is not necessary in English here, something more than the simple positive but less than the superlative represents what is going on in the Greek.12
| Σταθεὶς δὲ ὁ Παῦλος ἐν μέσῳ τοῦ Ἀρείου πάγου ἔφη· ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, κατὰ πάντα ὡς δεισιδαιμονεστέρους ὑμᾶς θεωρῶ. (Acts 17:22) | And Paul, standing in the middle of the Areopagus, said, “Athenians, I see that in all respects you are very religious.” |
Following on the heels of verse 21, Luke/Paul employs the same idiom to highlight another characteristic of Athenians.13
5. Superlative as elative
| ἢ οὐκ οἴδατε ὅτι οἱ ἅγιοι τὸν κόσμον κρινοῦσιν; καὶ εἰ ἐν ὑμῖν κρίνεται ὁ κόσμος, ἀνάξιοί ἐστε κριτηρίων ἐλαχίστων; (1 Cor. 6:2) | Or don’t you know that the saints will judge the world, and if the world is judged by you, are you unworthy of trivial cases? |
It is possible that Paul actually meant the “smallest” cases literally, but it is more likely that he intended very small or trivial cases.
| δι᾽ ὧν τὰ τίμια καὶ μέγιστα ἡμῖν ἐπαγγέλματα δεδώρηται (2 Pet. 1:4) | Through which he has given us valuable and very great promises. |
Paired as it is with the positive τίμια, μέγιστα makes better sense when translated as the elative “very great” rather than as a true superlative.
For Practice
3.13. Analyze the adjectives (in bold) in the following text, paying attention to the function as well as to how you determine the function of each one.
33Ἢ ποιήσατε τὸ δένδρον καλὸν καὶ τὸν καρπὸν αὐτοῦ καλόν, ἢ ποιήσατε τὸ δένδρον σαπρὸν καὶ τὸν καρπὸν αὐτοῦ σαπρόν ἐκ γὰρ τοῦ καρποῦ τὸ δένδρον γινώσκεται. 34γεννήματα ἐχιδνῶν, πῶς δύνασθε ἀγαθὰ λαλεῖν πονηροὶ ὄντες; ἐκ γὰρ τοῦ περισσεύματος τῆς καρδίας τὸ στόμα λαλεῖ. 35ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος ἐκ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ θησαυροῦ ἐκβάλλει ἀγαθά, καὶ ὁ πονηρὸς ἄνθρωπος ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ θησαυροῦ ἐκβάλλει πονηρά. 36λέγω δὲ ὑμῖν ὅτι πᾶν ῥῆμα ἀργὸν ὃ λαλήσουσιν οἱ ἄνθρωποι ἀποδώσουσιν περὶ αὐτοῦ λόγον ἐν ἡμέρᾳ κρίσεως· 37ἐκ γὰρ τῶν λόγων σου δικαιωθήσῃ, καὶ ἐκ τῶν λόγων σου καταδικασθήσῃ. (Matt. 12:33–37)
Adverbs
3.14. Adverbs are indeclinable forms primarily employed to modify verbs, but they may also modify adjectives, other adverbs, or even substantives. In fact, “adverbs are old case forms of nouns (substantive and adjective) and pronouns.”14 Thus an adverb with the article can fill a substantive slot. Adverbs are sometimes classified as particles, since both are indeclinable, and yet many adverbs have retained dormant15 case endings (e.g., genitive: ποῦ, ἑξῆς; dative: ἐκεῖ, πρωΐ; and accusative: σήμερον, λίαν). We will treat adverbs as a discrete subcategory of particles because, like adjectives, at least adverbs of manner and extent can have degree and be compared (cf. “quickly, more quickly, most quickly,” or “well, better, best” in English). Also the only hard-and-fast distinction between an adverb and an adverbial preposition is that “the preposition . . . is only an adverb specialized to define a case usage.”16 Moreover, some prepositions are related to adverbs ending in -ω, such as ἐκ and ἔξω, εἰς and ἔσω, ἀνὰ and ἄνω, and κατά and κάτω.
Frequently, adverbs of manner end in -ως (most adjectives can be made adverbs by replacing their genitive plural case ending with -ως), and adverbs of location/direction end in -θεν (e.g., ἄνωθεν and μακρόθεν). Quite a few adverbs of time end in -οτε. By itself, ὅτε may be considered a particle, a conjunction, or an adverb of time, but τότε and πότε, for example, are usually classified as adverbs. Numerical adverbs, with the exception of ἅπαξ, end in -ις (e.g., πολλάκις and ἑπτάκις). Because they introduce indications of time, manner, location, direction, extent, and frequency, adverbs provide essential information that the careful interpreter must not minimize.
Function of Adverbs
3.15. Adverbs in the NT demonstrate a diversity of functions.
1. Modifying a verb
| πλὴν καλῶς ἐποιήσατε συγκοινωνήσαντές μου τῇ θλίψει. (Phil. 4:14) | Nevertheless, you did well sharing in my affliction. |
2. Modifying an adjective
| ἰδόντες δὲ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐχάρησαν χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα. (Matt. 2:10) | And having seen the star, they rejoiced with extremely great joy. |
3. Modifying another adverb
| οἱ δὲ καθιστάνοντες τὸν Παῦλον ἤγαγον ἕως Ἀθηνῶν, καὶ λαβόντες ἐντολὴν πρὸς τὸν Σιλᾶν καὶ τὸν Τιμόθεον ἵνα ὡς τάχιστα ἔλθωσιν πρὸς αὐτὸν ἐξῄεσαν. (Acts 17:15) | And those escorting Paul brought him as far as Athens and left, having taken a command for Silas and Timothy to come to him as quickly as possible. |
4. Modifying a substantive
5. Functioning as a substantive
| τὰ ἄνω φρονεῖτε, μὴ τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς. (Col. 3:2) | Think about the things above, not the things on earth. |
The article functions as a “nominalizer,” indicating that the adverb acts as a noun (nominal).
Categories of Adverbs
3.16. The following summarizes the main semantic categories for adverbs.
1. Time
| τότε οἱ ἐν τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ φευγέτωσαν εἰς τὰ ὄρη (Matt. 24:16) | Then those in Judea must flee to the mountains. |
2. Manner
| ἰδόντες τὴν Μαριὰμ ὅτι ταχέως ἀνέστη καὶ ἐξῆλθεν (John 11:31) | Having seen Mary rise quickly and leave. |
3. Location
| ὁ δὲ εἶπεν· Φέρετέ μοι ὧδε αὐτούς. (Matt. 14:18) | And he said, “Carry them here to me.” |
4. Direction
| Ὁ ἄνωθεν ἐρχόμενος ἐπάνω πάντων ἐστίν· (John 3:31) | The one coming from above is above all. |
5. Extent
| οἱ δὲ περισσῶς ἐξεπλήσσοντο λέγοντες πρὸς ἑαυτούς· Καὶ τίς δύναται σωθῆναι; (Mark 10:26) | They were exceedingly amazed, saying to each other, “Then who is able to be saved?” |
6. Frequency
| νηστεύω δὶς τοῦ σαββάτου, ἀποδεκατῶ πάντα ὅσα κτῶμαι. (Luke 18:12) | I fast twice a week; I tithe on all that I acquire. |
Comparison of Adverbs
3.17. Like adjectives, adverbs can indicate degrees of comparison.
| Positive (cf. English forms ending in “-ly”) | Comparative (“-er”; “more”) Neuter accusative singular of the comparative adjective | Superlative (“-est”; “most”) Neuter accusative plural of the superlative adjective |
|---|---|---|
| ταχέως (quickly) | τάχιον | τάχιστα |
| ὀλίγως (barely) | ἔλασσον | ἐλάχιστα |
| πολύ (greatly) | πλεῖον | πλεῖστα |
| μάλα (much) | μᾶλλον | μάλιστα |
| ἡδέως (gladly) | ἥδιον | ἥδιστα |
1. Positive degree
| Σπούδασον ἐλθεῖν πρός με ταχέως· (2 Tim. 4:9) | Hurry to come to me quickly. |
2. Comparative degree. The genitive of comparison may be used with adverbs.
| ἔτρεχον δὲ οἱ δύο ὁμοῦ· καὶ ὁ ἄλλος μαθητὴς προέδραμεν τάχιον τοῦ Πέτρου καὶ ἦλθεν πρῶτος εἰς τὸ μνημεῖον. (John 20:4) | And they were both running together, and the other disciple ran faster than Peter and arrived first at the tomb. |
This is a true comparative, but τάχιον can also be elative.17
3. Superlative degree. Like superlative adjectives, superlative adverbs are rare in Koine Greek.
| οἱ δὲ καθιστάνοντες τὸν Παῦλον ἤγαγον ἕως Ἀθηνῶν, καὶ λαβόντες ἐντολὴν πρὸς τὸν Σιλᾶν καὶ τὸν Τιμόθεον ἵνα ὡς τάχιστα ἔλθωσιν πρὸς αὐτὸν ἐξῄεσαν. (Acts 17:15) | And those escorting Paul brought him as far as Athens and left, having taken a command for Silas and Timothy to come to him as quickly as possible [i.e., the quickest way]. |
For Practice
3.18. Analyze the adverbs (in bold) in the following text.
8Πρῶτον μὲν εὐχαριστῶ τῷ θεῷ μου διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ περὶ πάντων ὑμῶν, ὅτι ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν καταγγέλλεται ἐν ὅλῳ τῷ κόσμῳ. 9μάρτυς γάρ μού ἐστιν ὁ θεός, ᾧ λατρεύω ἐν τῷ πνεύματί μου ἐν τῷ εὐαγγελίῳ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ, ὡς ἀδιαλείπτως μνείαν ὑμῶν ποιοῦμαι 10πάντοτε ἐπὶ τῶν προσευχῶν μου, δεόμενος εἴ πως ἤδη ποτὲ εὐοδωθήσομαι ἐν τῷ θελήματι τοῦ θεοῦ ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ὑμᾶς. 11ἐπιποθῶ γὰρ ἰδεῖν ὑμᾶς, ἵνα τι μεταδῶ χάρισμα ὑμῖν πνευματικὸν εἰς τὸ στηριχθῆναι ὑμᾶς, 12τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν συμπαρακληθῆναι ἐν ὑμῖν διὰ τῆς ἐν ἀλλήλοις πίστεως ὑμῶν τε καὶ ἐμοῦ. 13οὐ θέλω δὲ ὑμᾶς ἀγνοεῖν, ἀδελφοί, ὅτι πολλάκις προεθέμην ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ὑμᾶς, καὶ ἐκωλύθην ἄχρι τοῦ δεῦρο, ἵνα τινὰ καρπὸν σχῶ καὶ ἐν ὑμῖν καθὼς καὶ ἐν τοῖς λοιποῖς ἔθνεσιν. 14Ἕλλησίν τε καὶ βαρβάροις, σοφοῖς τε καὶ ἀνοήτοις ὀφειλέτης εἰμί· 15οὕτως τὸ κατ᾽ ἐμὲ πρόθυμον καὶ ὑμῖν τοῖς ἐν Ῥώμῃ εὐαγγελίσασθαι. (Rom. 1:8–15)