PREPOSITIONS
5.1. The Greek language boasts a rather full and fascinating system of prepositions. Probably having their origin as adverbs, prepositions are short, fixed words (they do not take inflected endings) that enable the Greek cases to express their force more clearly in relationship to other words in the sentence. According to Wallace (361), “Prepositions are used with cases either to clarify, strengthen, or alter the basic case usage.” Or, in Porter’s words, prepositions are to be seen as “in some way helping the case to manifest its meaning and to perform more precisely its various functions.”1 Most grammarians agree that prepositions were used more extensively by the time of the NT in comparison to earlier (Classical) Greek. This may have been due to changes taking place in the Greek case system that created a greater need for prepositions to help the cases express their meanings. Most prepositions occur with nouns in only one case (e.g., ἐκ with the genitive). Just six prepositions occur with nouns in two different cases, and only three with nouns in three cases (genitive, dative, and accusative),2 as shown in the following tables.
Prepositions Used with One Case
| Preposition | Genitive | Dative | Accusative |
|---|---|---|---|
| ἀνά | X | ||
| ἀντί | X | ||
| ἀπό | X | ||
| εἰς | X | ||
| ἐκ | X | ||
| ἐν | X | ||
| πρό | X | ||
| σύν | X |
Prepositions Used with Two Cases
| Preposition | Genitive | Dative | Accusative | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| διά | X | X | |||
| κατά | X | X | |||
| μετά | X | X | |||
| περί | X | X | |||
| ὑπέρ | X | X | |||
| ὑπό | X | X |
Prepositions Used with Three Cases
| Preposition | Genitive | Dative | Accusative | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ἐπί | X | X | X | ||
| παρά | X | X | X | ||
| πρός | X | X | X |
5.2. The meaning of a preposition is influenced by the case of its object, that is, the nominal that it governs. Moreover, there is some inevitable overlap between the meanings of prepositions and the various independent case functions. In fact, some grammars (e.g., Brooks and Winbery) have treated prepositions along with the case system. However, “it is best to consider the prepositional phrase as a syntactical unit that must be analyzed as a whole” (Young 85). The preposition followed by its object (and any modifiers it may have) together form what is known as a prepositional phrase (preposition + nominal + any modifiers constitute a prepositional phrase). In the sentence “Caleb placed the Ping-Pong paddle on the table,” the prepositional phrase is “on the table,” which consists of the preposition “on” and its object “the table.” Prepositional phrases in Greek can modify verbs or nouns. In some instances they can function as substantives, as in the English sentence “On the wooden table is where he placed the book.”
It is customary for Greek grammars to distinguish between “proper” and “improper” prepositions. “Proper” prepositions are those that can be prefixed to a verb (e.g., διά, εἰς; thus διέρχομαι and εἰσέρχομαι), whereas “improper” prepositions are not prefixed to verbs (e.g., ἔμπροσθεν, ἕνεκεν).3 The so-called proper preposition is by far the most common type in the NT. For purposes of NT exegesis, however, we do not think that distinguishing between these two types of prepositions is helpful or necessary. There does not appear to be any difference in the way “proper” or “improper” prepositions function when part of a prepositional phrase.4
In first-year Greek you probably learned the basic meanings of prepositions, primarily through the various translation glosses associated with their uses with the cases. This grammar will expand your understanding of prepositions by introducing other important meanings.
Interpreting Greek Prepositions
5.3. Prepositions are important for the connections and relationships they convey. However, the interpreter must resist the temptation to “overinterpret” them. Prepositions are not carriers of theological meaning, though they are used in important theological contexts. Wallace (356) probably overstates their importance when, describing the connections that prepositions convey, he says, “The realities expressed by such connections are, at times, breathtaking.” Murray Harris concludes that “prepositions in themselves do not carry theological meaning” but still claims that “the way they are used invests them with theological import.”5 But theology cannot merely be read off of prepositions; it must be derived from larger expressions of thought. Certainly, any important theological concept will be communicated and supported by sentences, paragraphs, and larger units of discourse rather than “nuanced” in prepositions. Prepositions at most allow for, support, or point to important theological teachings; they do not “prove” them or bear these theological concepts. This is not to suggest that prepositions are unimportant to our theology; it is just that we need to understand what role they play. The connections and relationships they convey are only part of the contextual information that contributes to our theological understanding.
The NT Greek grammars often report that there was a growing laxity in the use of prepositions in the Koine period.6 In the Greek of the NT, prepositions are experiencing more overlap in meaning. The distinction between motion (traditionally expressed by the accusative case) and rest (traditionally expressed by the dative case) is sometimes neglected. The most common prepositions that show some semantic overlap are as follows:
ἐκ and ἀπό
εἰς and ἐν
εἰς and πρός
ὑπέρ and περί
Due to this overlap, the student should not always insist on precise distinctions and fine shades of meaning between prepositions. At the same time, we cannot too quickly dismiss any such distinctions, since no two prepositions overlap 100 percent. The context must determine whether a distinction is intended or not.
5.4. There has been some debate as to whether prepositions carry a basic sense that accounts for all their various usages. We find it helpful to begin with the basic or local meaning of the preposition and then to consider other meanings in relationship to it. This is not to commit a “root fallacy” or to suggest that NT writers necessarily used prepositions with a basic sense in mind or that there was always a clear connection between the basic sense of a preposition and its diverse uses.7 But if only for purposes of helping us to grasp the various usages of prepositions, it is sometimes helpful to begin with the basic, local meaning of the preposition and then explore other extended meanings, fully aware that the connections between them are often unclear to us (and probably to the biblical authors). As with other words, the meaning of a preposition is determined by usage in context. At times it is difficult to distinguish the force of a preposition from the meaning contributed by its context or the way it is translated. But we will resist the temptation to multiply categories unnecessarily. As Zerwick (40) helpfully concludes, prepositions “are in reality conventional signs whose sense is usually fairly general, the exact meaning in each case being determined by usage and above all by the subject matter.”
The Function of Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Prefixed to Verbs
5.5. As we mentioned above, so-called proper prepositions are those that can be prefixed to verbs (e.g., ἐκ in ἐκβάλλω). When prefixed to a verb, a preposition can perform at least three functions.
1. A preposition can add its basic, local meaning to the verb. This often occurs with verbs indicating motion. The best example is ἔρχομαι, to which a number of prepositions can be prefixed to add their basic, local meanings: εἰσέρχομαι (I go/come in, I enter), ἐξέρχομαι (I go out), διέρχομαι (I go through), ἐπέρχομαι (I come upon/against), κατέρχομαι (I come down), παρέρχομαι (I go/pass by), προσέρχομαι (I go toward).
2. Prefixing a preposition to a verb can intensify the verb’s meaning. A commonly cited example of this is the verb ἐσθίω. In its simple form ἐσθίω means “I eat,” but κατεσθίω, with a prefixed preposition, means “I eat up, devour” (BDAG 531–32). The verb ἐργάζομαι means “I work,” while κατεργάζομαι means “I work out” (see Phil. 2:12), emphasizing the carrying out of the work (Robertson 564). Γινώσκω means “I know,” whereas the compound ἐπιγινώσκω can mean “I know fully” (BDAG 369; see 1 Cor. 13:12). Porter (141) argues that the verb ἀποκαταλλάσσω (to reconcile) in Eph. 2:16 and Col. 1:20, 22, with the preposition ἀπό prefixed to the already prefixed καταλλάσσω, may have an intensifying effect on the action of the verb in light of Paul’s discussion of the work of Christ. The student will want to rely on works such as BDAG to determine when this happens.
3. Prefixing a preposition to a verb can change the meaning of the verb altogether. The verb γινώσκω means “I know,” but ἀναγινώσκω, with the preposition ἀνά prefixed, means “I read” (see Luke 4:16). The compound form παρακαλέω could imply “I call alongside,” but in the NT it often means “I urge, exhort, comfort” (see Eph. 4:1).
Adverbial
5.6. The entire prepositional phrase can modify the verbal element in a clause, probably its most common function. This is how we should understand prepositions with infinitives (preposition + article + infinitive): prepositions can take infinitives as their objects, and the entire construction functions adverbially (e.g., διὰ τὸ ἔχειν; see chap. 9, on infinitives).
| Τί ποιήσω ὅτι ὁ κύριός μου ἀφαιρεῖται τὴν οἰκονομίαν ἀπʼ ἐμοῦ; (Luke 16:3) | What shall I do, for my master has taken the stewardship from me? | |
| πᾶσαν σπουδὴν ποιούμενος γράφειν ὑμῖν περὶ τῆς κοινῆς ἡμῶν σωτηρίας (Jude 3) | Making all diligence to write to you concerning our common salvation. | |
| Μετὰ ταῦτα εἶδον ἄλλον ἄγγελον καταβαίνοντα ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ (Rev. 18:1) | After these things I saw another angel coming down from heaven. (both prepositions modify verbs) |
Adjectival
5.7. The entire prepositional phrase can function as a substantive modifier, filling the slot of an adjective in a clause. Sometimes the prepositional phrase will be preceded by an article, which turns the prepositional phrase into an attributive modifier (see Matt. 7:3 below).
| καὶ ἰδοὺ φωνὴ ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν λέγουσα· (Matt. 3:17) | And look, a voice from heaven, saying. |
The prepositional phrase identifies the location or source of the voice.
| τί δὲ βλέπεις τὸ κάρφος τὸ ἐν τῷ ὀφθαλμῷ τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ σου; (Matt. 7:3) | And why do you see the speck that is in the eye of your brother/sister? |
The article signals that the prepositional phrase modifies κάρφος.
Substantival
5.8. Occasionally the entire prepositional phrase can function as a substantive. In this way it fills the noun slot in a clause (e.g., as subject or direct object). This usage most often occurs with an article that acts as a nominalizer, turning the prepositional phrase into a substantive (see chap. 4, on the article).
| ὃς δʼ ἂν πίῃ ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος οὗ ἐγὼ δώσω αὐτῷ, οὐ μὴ διψήσει εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα (John 4:14) | And whoever drinks of the water that I will give to him/her will never thirst, forever. |
The prepositional phrase ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος functions as the direct object of πίῃ, though it may be considered to modify an understood “some” (see the partitive use of ἐκ below).
| τοῖς ὑπὸ νόμον ὡς ὑπὸ νόμον (1 Cor. 9:20) | To those under the law [I became] as under the law. |
The article has a nominalizing effect, turning the prepositional phrase into an indirect object or dative of advantage.
| Γινώσκετε ἄρα ὅτι οἱ ἐκ πίστεως, οὗτοι υἱοί εἰσιν Ἀβραάμ. (Gal. 3:7) | Therefore, know that those of [i.e., characterized by] faith, these are children of Abraham. |
The Prepositions and Their Meanings
5.9. The following section treats all the so-called proper prepositions used in the NT. It does not attempt to be comprehensive or exhaustive but catalogs some major uses, occasionally mentioning less common but interesting or important ones. We will begin with the “basic,” or local (spatial), meaning of the preposition, followed by other extended meanings.8 For more nuances, as well as treatment of improper prepositions, the student should consult BDAG or Louw and Nida’s Greek-English Lexicon.9
Ἀνά
5.10. Case and frequency. Ἀνά is used with the accusative case and occurs 13 times in the NT.10
Basic or local meaning. The preposition ἀνά suggests the notion of motion upward but primarily carries this meaning when prefixed to verbs (ἀναβαίνω, “I go up, ascend”; ἀνάγω, “I lead up, bring up”). More commonly, it occurs in combination with other words. Its opposite is κατά (down).
In combination with other words, the preposition ἀνά is used in the following two ways in the NT.
Positional. In combination with μέσον it can have a positional meaning, “in the midst.” In Matt. 13:25 an enemy sows weeds ἀνὰ μέσον (in the midst) of the wheat. Likewise, the Lamb is described as being ἀνὰ μέσον (in the midst) of the throne in Rev. 7:17.
Distributive. Ἀνά can also carry a distributive sense in some contexts, meaning “each” or “apiece.” With this usage the preposition is usually followed by a word expressing a numerical value. In Luke 10:1 Jesus sends his disciples out ἀνὰ δύο δύο (two by two; BDAG 58). In Rev. 4:8 John sees four living creatures that have ἀνὰ πτέρυγας ἕξ (six wings apiece).
Ἀντί
5.11. Case and frequency. Ἀντί is used with the genitive case and occurs 22 times in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of ἀντί is “face to face” (Robertson 572) or “against.” In the NT period its predominant sense is substitution (“instead of, in place of”). This was its prevailing sense in Classical and Hellenistic Greek. Ἀντί overlaps in meaning with ὑπέρ (on behalf of, for). The force of ἀντί has resulted in much debate because of its use in passages that refer to the atonement of Christ. In Mark 10:45 Jesus describes his upcoming death as giving his life λύτρον ἀντὶ πολλῶν (a ransom for/in place of many; see also Matt. 20:28).11 The debate concerns whether ἀντί should be given its substitutionary meaning, so that Christ’s death is understood as a death instead of or in place of ours, or whether it only carries the notion on behalf of. In the NT and extrabiblical literature, there is strong evidence for taking it in a substitutionary sense: “instead of” or “in place of.”12 Therefore, the meaning of ἀντί in these two texts provides important support for and points to the substitutionary theory of Christ’s atonement. At the same time, the preposition by itself does not “prove” or contain the entire doctrine of Christ’s substitutionary atonement (Robertson 573–74). For similar issues, see ὑπέρ below.
Another important text that can turn on the meaning given to the preposition is John 1:16: χάριν ἀντὶ χάριτος (grace instead of grace). Though some (e.g., the NRSV) take this to mean that we have received grace upon grace or in addition to grace,13 with the idea that one expression of grace has been added on top of another, the meaning of substitution should be read here as well: grace in place of grace.14
Exchange. The notion of “in place of” can sometimes suggest “something in exchange for something else.” Matthew 5:38: Ὀφθαλμὸν ἀντὶ ὀφθαλμοῦ καὶ ὀδόντα ἀντὶ ὀδόντος (an eye in exchange for an eye and a tooth in exchange for a tooth).
Ἀπό
5.12. Case and frequency. Ἀπό is used with the genitive case and occurs 646 times in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of ἀπό is separation from (“from, away from”). Ἀπό seems to enjoy substantial overlap with ἐκ (out of, from), though they can still sometimes be distinguished (away from vs. out of). Its antonyms are πρός (toward) and ἐπί (on, upon). Matthew 5:29: ἔξελε αὐτὸν καὶ βάλε ἀπὸ σοῦ (pluck it out and throw it from you); Rev. 20:11: οὗ ἀπὸ τοῦ προσώπου ἔφυγεν ἡ γῆ καὶ ὁ οὐρανός (from whose face the earth and heaven fled).
Time. Ἀπό can also convey a temporal sense, namely, the time from which something happens. Matthew 16:21: Ἀπὸ τότε ἤρξατο ὁ Ἰησοῦς (From then [on] Jesus began); 1 John 3:8: ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς ὁ διάβολος ἁμαρτάνει (from the beginning the devil is / has been sinning).
Instrument, cause, agency, or source. We have included these notions together because they are closely related and sometimes difficult to distinguish. Some of these meanings show overlap with the preposition ἐκ. James 1:13: Ἀπὸ θεοῦ πειράζομαι (“I am being tempted by God”: agency); Rev. 21:10: καταβαίνουσαν ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ (“coming down out of heaven from God”: source).
Διά
5.13. Case and frequency. Διά is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 667 times (387 with the gen.; 280 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic sense of διά seems to be between or through. The notion of “because of” (with the acc.) may derive from the idea of the cause of movement through or between,15 though the relationship between the two senses is neither obvious nor certain.
Spatial (gen.). Διά is often used with its local or spatial meaning, “through.” Mark 9:30: παρεπορεύοντο διὰ τῆς Γαλιλαίας (They passed through Galilee); Acts 13:49: διεφέρετο δὲ ὁ λόγος . . . διʼ ὅλης τῆς χώρας (the word spread . . . through all the region).
Instrument, means (gen.). Διά frequently indicates the intermediate means or agent of an action. Ephesians 2:8: τῇ γὰρ χάριτί ἐστε σεσῳσμένοι διὰ πίστεως (For by grace you are saved through faith); Rev. 1:1: ἀποστείλας διὰ τοῦ ἀγγέλου αὐτοῦ (having sent through his angel). But sometimes it can denote the ultimate agent, as in Gal. 4:7: καὶ κληρονόμος διὰ θεοῦ (and an heir through God).
Temporal (genitive). As Porter (149) says, διά can be used of “time through which.” Luke 5:5: διʼ ὅλης νυκτὸς κοπιάσαντες (laboring through all the night); Acts 1:3: διʼ ἡμερῶν τεσσεράκοντα (through [a period of] forty days).
Causal (accusative). With the accusative case, διά expresses a causal idea. Luke 5:19: μὴ εὑρόντες ποίας . . . διὰ τὸν ὄχλον (not finding any way . . . because of the crowd); Philem. 9: διὰ τὴν ἀγάπην μᾶλλον παρακαλῶ (I would rather appeal [to you] because of love).
Διά is often joined with the demonstrative τοῦτο to indicate a connection or with the interrogative τί to introduce a question. Both retain a causal sense. Hebrews 2:1: Διὰ τοῦτο δεῖ περισσοτέρως προσέχειν ἡμᾶς (For this reason [i.e., therefore] it is necessary for us all the more to pay attention); John 8:46: διὰ τί ὑμεῖς οὐ πιστεύετέ μοι; (For what reason [i.e., why] do you not believe me?).
Εἰς
5.14. Case and frequency. Εἰς is used with the accusative case and occurs 1,767 times in the NT; only ἐν is used more frequently.
Basic or local meaning. The basic sense of εἰς has to do with direction toward and into (Porter 151). In the NT it enjoys some overlap with ἐν, though we should not think that they are completely synonymous. It also partially overlaps in sense with πρός (to, toward). Its antonym is ἐκ (out of). Its local meaning can clearly be seen when it is prefixed to verbs of motion, such as εἰσέρχομαι (I go into, enter). Second John 10: μὴ λαμβάνετε αὐτὸν εἰς οἰκίαν (do not receive him into your house); Rev. 21:24: καὶ οἱ βασιλεῖς τῆς γῆς φέρουσιν τὴν δόξαν αὐτῶν εἰς αὐτήν (and the kings of the earth will bring their glory into it).
Location (in). Most grammars recognize that there is considerable overlap between εἰς and ἐν.16 While it would be going too far to say that they are entirely synonymous, there are a number of instances where εἰς appears to indicate location or resting place and can be translated “in.” Possible examples are John 1:18: μονογενὴς θεὸς ὁ ὢν εἰς τὸν κόλπον τοῦ πατρός (the only God, who is in the bosom of the Father); Luke 11:7: τὰ παιδία μου μετʼ ἐμοῦ εἰς τὴν κοίτην εἰσίν (my children are with me in bed).
Mark 1:9: καὶ ἐβαπτίσθη εἰς τὸν Ἰορδάνην (and he was baptized in/into the Jordan). Should εἰς be understood in its local meaning, to be baptized “into,” with a contrast to verse 10, where Jesus comes up out of the water (ἀναβαίνων ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος)? Or should this be taken as an example of the interchangeability between εἰς and ἐν, so that Jesus is baptized “in” the Jordan? See the parallel statement in verse 5 (ἐν τῷ Ἰορδάνῃ).
Figurative direction or goal. This is a metaphorical application of the locative sense of εἰς. Matthew 6:13: καὶ μὴ εἰσενέγκῃς ἡμᾶς εἰς πειρασμόν (and do not lead us into temptation); Col. 1:16: τὰ πάντα διʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς αὐτὸν ἔκτισται (all things through him and for him are created).
Purpose or result. Expanding on the previous category, direction or goal can indicate purpose or result. Romans 5:18: εἰς πάντας ἀνθρώπους εἰς κατάκριμα (to all people, resulting in condemnation), with εἰς used of both direction and result; 1 Cor. 9:18: εἰς τὸ μὴ καταχρήσασθαι τῇ ἐξουσίᾳ μου (in order not to make full use of my authority).
Acts 2:38: βαπτισθήτω . . . εἰς ἄφεσιν τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν ὑμῶν (be baptized . . . for the forgiveness of your sins). Many have avoided “purpose” as a description of the use of εἰς in this verse in order to avoid the implications that forgiveness of sins is conditioned upon baptism. However, it is difficult to avoid purpose (or result) as the meaning of εἰς here. Most likely baptism stood for the entire process of the conversion experience, so that Luke is not claiming that the physical rite of baptism in itself merits salvation.
Ἐκ
5.15. Case and frequency. Ἐκ is used with the genitive case and occurs 914 times in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. In its most basic sense ἐκ signals movement out of. As seen above, it enjoys semantic overlap with ἀπό (from, away from). Its antonym is εἰς (into). The local meaning of ἐκ is often seen when prefixed to verb forms: ἐκβάλλω (I cast out); ἐξέρχομαι (I go/come out of). Matthew 2:15: Ἐξ Αἰγύπτου ἐκάλεσα τὸν υἱόν μου (out of Egypt I called my son); Luke 2:4: Ἀνέβη δὲ καὶ Ἰωσὴφ ἀπὸ τῆς Γαλιλαίας ἐκ πόλεως Ναζαρὲθ εἰς τὴν Ἰουδαίαν εἰς πόλιν Δαυίδ (And Joseph also went up from Galilee out of the city of Nazareth into Judea into the city of David). Notice in the latter example the contrast between the three prepositions ἀπό, ἐκ, and εἰς.
Separation. Revelation 2:5: κινήσω τὴν λυχνίαν σου ἐκ τοῦ τόπου αὐτῆς (I will remove your lamp from its place).
Instrument, cause, agent, source. As with ἀπό, we have listed these senses together because they are closely related and not always easily distinguishable. Ephesians 2:9: οὐκ ἐξ ἔργων, ἵνα μή τις καυχήσηται (not by works, so that no one may boast); James 2:18: σοὶ δείξω ἐκ τῶν ἔργων μου τὴν πίστιν (I will show you my faith by my works); Rev. 1:16: ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ ῥομφαία δίστομος ὀξεῖα ἐκπορευομένη (from his mouth proceeds a sharp two-edged sword).
Partitive. Ἐκ and its object can indicate the whole of which something is a part (see the discussion of the partitive genitive in chap. 1). Matthew 10:29: ἓν ἐξ αὐτῶν οὐ πεσεῖται ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν (one of them will not fall upon the earth); Rev. 2:7: φαγεῖν ἐκ τοῦ ξύλου τῆς ζωῆς (to eat from the tree of life).
Ἐν
5.16. Case and frequency. Ἐν is used with the dative case and occurs 2,752 times in the NT. It is the most frequent (and versatile) preposition in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of ἐν is the static sense of in or in the realm of. It overlaps with the preposition εἰς, though as already stated, the overlap is partial and not absolute. The sense of “location in” is widespread in the NT. Luke 2:8: ποιμένες ἦσαν ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ τῇ αὐτῇ (shepherds were in the same country); Rev. 12:1: σημεῖον μέγα ὤφθη ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ (a great sign was seen in heaven). Sometimes ἐν is used with a plural object and conveys the notion of “within” or “among” (Robertson 587). Colossians 1:27: γνωρίσαι τί τὸ πλοῦτος . . . ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν (to make known what is the wealth . . . among the gentiles). See also 1 Pet. 1:11.
Sphere. This is not really a separate usage from the basic local meaning but a metaphorical application of it (Turner 262). Something takes place or is located within the sphere of influence or control of something else. Ephesians 6:10: ἐνδυναμοῦσθε ἐν κυρίῳ καὶ ἐν τῷ κράτει τῆς ἰσχύος αὐτοῦ ( Be strong in the Lord and in the power of his strength).
Ἐν Χριστῷ. There are about 80 examples of this expression in Paul (e.g., Eph. 1:3), and its precise meaning is the subject of debate.17 Young thinks that it should be understood as under the category of association, “as denoting a close, personal, life-enhancing relationship or union with Christ.”18 While this may be the force of this expression in some instances, it is better to understand it as indicating sphere. That is, Christ is the sphere in which Christians exist. Porter (159) correctly captures the sense: “One is in the sphere of Christ’s control.”
Instrument or means. Ἐν can indicate the instrument or impersonal means by which an action takes place. Mark 3:23: ἐν παραβολαῖς ἔλεγεν αὐτοῖς (he spoke to them in/by parables); Rev. 6:8: ἀποκτεῖναι ἐν ῥομφαίᾳ καὶ ἐν λιμῷ καὶ ἐν θανάτῳ (to kill with sword and with famine and with death).
Manner. Ἐν can refer to the manner by which an action takes place. Colossians 1:28: διδάσκοντες πάντα ἄνθρωπον ἐν πάσῃ σοφίᾳ (teaching every person in all wisdom); 1 Pet. 1:17: ἐν φόβῳ τὸν τῆς παροικίας ὑμῶν χρόνον ἀναστράφητε (conduct yourselves in fear during the time of your sojourning).
Accompaniment or attendant circumstances.19 Ἐν can introduce something that accompanies an activity. First Thessalonians 4:16: ὁ κύριος ἐν κελεύσματι, ἐν φωνῇ ἀρχαγγέλου καὶ ἐν σάλπιγγι θεοῦ (The Lord, with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, and with the trumpet of God). However, this usage is often difficult to distinguish from that of manner.
Time. Ἐν is used temporally in a number of contexts.20 The primary use of the infinitive following ἐν belongs here. Luke 2:1: Ἐγένετο δὲ ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις (And it came about in those days); 1 Cor. 5:5: τὸ πνεῦμα σωθῇ ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τοῦ κυρίου (the spirit might be saved on the day of the Lord).
Ἐπί
5.17. Case and frequency. Ἐπί is used with the genitive, dative, and accusative cases and occurs 890 times (220 with the gen.; 187 with the dat.; 483 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of ἐπί is location upon. Its antonym is ὑπό (under).21
Spatial location (genitive, dative, accusative). Normally, with the accusative case ἐπί implies movement to a location upon, whereas the genitive and dative indicate position or specific location.22 Matthew 3:16: ὡσεὶ περιστερὰν ἐρχόμενον ἐπʼ αὐτόν (as a dove coming down upon him); Mark 2:10: ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἀφιέναι ἁμαρτίας (to forgive sins upon the earth); Eph. 2:20: ἐποικοδομηθέντες ἐπὶ τῷ θεμελίῳ τῶν ἀποστόλων καὶ προφητῶν (having been built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets). However, the distinction between the three cases with ἐπί is often difficult, and sometimes unnecessary, to discern. For example, notice Paul’s reference to building upon a foundation where 1 Cor. 3:12 has the accusative (ἐπὶ τὸν θεμέλιον) and Eph. 2:20 has the dative (ἐπὶ τῷ θεμελίῳ). In the repeated references to God seated on the throne in John’s Apocalypse, there seems to be no detectable distinction in meaning between the cases used with ἐπί.23
| Genitive: | ὁ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τοῦ θρόνου (Rev. 4:10; 5:1, 7; 6:16; 7:15) | |
| Dative: | ὁ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τῷ θρόνῳ (Rev. 4:9; 5:13; 7:10; 19:4; 21:5) | |
| Accusative: | ὁ καθήμενος ἐπὶ τὸν θρόνον (Rev. 4:2) |
Used with the dative, ἐπί can be translated “at,” specifying nearness in location. John 4:6: ἐκαθέζετο οὕτως ἐπὶ τῇ πηγῇ (he [i.e., Jesus] sat thus at the well). However, this sense is also present with the accusative: Rev. 3:20: ἕστηκα ἐπὶ τὴν θύραν (I stand at the door).
Time (accusative, genitive). Mark 2:26: εἰσῆλθεν . . . ἐπὶ Ἀβιαθὰρ ἀρχιερέως (he entered . . . at the time of Abiathar the high priest); Heb. 1:2: ἐπʼ ἐσχάτου τῶν ἡμερῶν τούτων ἐλάλησεν ἡμῖν (in these last days he has spoken to us). With the accusative, ἐπί may imply movement or extension through time. Acts 17:2: ἐπὶ σάββατα τρία διελέξατο αὐτοῖς (he discussed with them on three Sabbaths).
Cause or basis (dative). As an extension of its local usage, ἐπί can point out the cause or basis of an action. It is often used to indicate “the grounds for emotional or other reactions” (Zerwick 42). Mark 1:22: ἐξεπλήσσοντο ἐπὶ τῇ διδαχῇ αὐτοῦ (they were amazed at his teaching); Rom. 5:2: καυχώμεθα ἐπʼ ἐλπίδι (we boast because of / on the basis of the hope).
Purpose or intention (accusative, dative). Ἐπί can also carry the notion of purpose. Matthew 3:7: ἐρχομένους ἐπὶ τὸ βάπτισμα αὐτοῦ (coming for the purpose of his baptism); Eph. 2:10: κτισθέντες ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ ἐπὶ ἔργοις ἀγαθοῖς (having been created in Christ Jesus for the purpose of good works).
Κατά
5.18. Case and frequency. Κατά is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 473 times (74 with the gen.; 399 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of κατά involves movement downward. Its antonym is ἀνά (up). This positional sense occurs with both the genitive and accusative cases. Matthew 8:32: καὶ ἰδοὺ ὥρμησεν πᾶσα ἡ ἀγέλη κατὰ τοῦ κρημνοῦ (and look, the whole herd rushed [headlong] down the slope); 1 Cor. 11:4: προσευχόμενος ἢ προφητεύων κατὰ κεφαλῆς ἔχων (praying or prophesying having down upon his head [NIV, “having his head covered”]).
Opposition (genitive). Sometimes κατά can be translated “against.” Acts 24:1: ἐνεφάνισαν τῷ ἡγεμόνι κατὰ τοῦ Παύλου (they brought charges to the governor against Paul).
Standard or measure (genitive, accusative). Κατά can be used in various ways to point out the standard or measure for evaluating something. Galatians 3:15: κατὰ ἄνθρωπον λέγω (I speak as a human [by human standards]); Rev. 2:23: δώσω ὑμῖν ἑκάστῳ κατὰ τὰ ἔργα ὑμῶν (I will give to each of you according to your works). The genitive is also used to refer to the guarantor of an oath: Heb. 6:13: ὤμοσεν καθʼ ἑαυτοῦ (he swore by himself [Moule 59]).
Possession (accusative).24 The notion of “according to” or “pertaining to” can suggest “belonging to.” Acts 25:14: ἀνέθετο τὰ κατὰ τὸν Παῦλον (he laid out the affairs of Paul); Eph. 1:15: ἀκούσας τὴν καθʼ ὑμᾶς πίστιν (having heard of your faith).
Distributive (accusative). Κατά can designate individual items of a group. Mark 15:6: Κατὰ δὲ ἑορτήν (And at each feast); Rev. 4:8: τὰ τέσσαρα ζῷα, ἓν καθʼ ἓν αὐτῶν (the four living creatures, each one of them).
Temporal (accusative). Acts 12:1: Κατʼ ἐκεῖνον δὲ τὸν καιρόν (And at that time); κατά can also refer to distributed time, as in Heb. 9:25: ὁ ἀρχιερεὺς εἰσέρχεται . . . κατʼ ἐνιαυτόν (the high priest enters . . . each year).
Μετά
5.19. Case and frequency. Μετά is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 469 times (365 with the gen.; 104 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of μετά seems to be accompaniment (“with”). With the accusative, it is only used temporally of a succession of events (“after”). Perhaps the association of events could be seen in terms of their succession. Μετά overlaps in meaning with σύν (with, together with).
Accompaniment (genitive). The notion of accompaniment can be both literal and metaphorical. Galatians 6:18: Ἡ χάρις . . . μετὰ τοῦ πνεύματος ὑμῶν (The grace . . . [be] with your spirit); Rev. 19:20: ἐπιάσθη τὸ θηρίον καὶ μετʼ αὐτοῦ ὁ ψευδοπροφήτης (the beast was seized and with him the false prophet).
More figurative uses of μετά often specify manner. Ephesians 4:2: μετὰ πάσης ταπεινοφροσύνης καὶ πραΰτητος, μετὰ μακροθυμίας (with all humility and gentleness, with patience); Col. 1:11–12: μετὰ χαρᾶς, εὐχαριστοῦντες τῷ πατρὶ (with joy, giving thanks to the Father). Sometimes μετά occurs in contexts that suggest conflict or opposition, particularly in reference to doing battle (“against”): Rev. 11:7: ποιήσει μετʼ αὐτῶν πόλεμον ([the beast] will make war against them).
Succession of time (accusative). Μετά is used in a temporal sense to signal an event that takes place after another one. Acts 10:41: μετὰ τὸ ἀναστῆναι αὐτὸν ἐκ νεκρῶν (after he rose from the dead); Rev. 19:1: Μετὰ ταῦτα ἤκουσα (After these things I heard).
Παρά
5.20. Case and frequency. Παρά is used with the genitive, dative, and accusative cases and occurs 194 times (82 with the gen.; 53 with the dat.; 59 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. Παρά has as its local meaning position alongside of or beside. With the accusative it usually expresses movement alongside of or near: Matt. 13:1: ἐκάθητο παρὰ τὴν θάλασσαν (he sat beside the sea); Mark 4:4: ἔπεσεν παρὰ τὴν ὁδόν (it fell beside the path). It is never used with the accusative case with personal objects (Porter 166). With the genitive it entails movement from alongside of and is used with a personal object. Luke 1:45: τοῖς λελαλημένοις αὐτῇ παρὰ κυρίου (the things spoken to her from the Lord); John 16:27: ἐγὼ παρὰ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐξῆλθον (I went out from beside God). With the dative it implies position alongside of. This usage often carries the sense of “in the sight of” or “in the presence of.” James 1:27: θρησκεία καθαρὰ καὶ ἀμίαντος παρὰ τῷ θεῷ (religion pure and undefiled before God); 1 Pet. 2:20: τοῦτο χάρις παρὰ θεῷ (this is grace before God).
Agency or source (genitive). “Movement from” often implies agency or source. See Luke 1:45 above. Ephesians 6:8: τοῦτο κομίσεται παρὰ κυρίου (this he/she will receive back from the Lord); James 1:7: λήμψεταί τι παρὰ τοῦ κυρίου (he/she will receive something from the Lord).
Comparison (accusative). This usage and the next (replacement) are probably natural outgrowths of the idea of alongside of. Luke 3:13: Μηδὲν πλέον παρὰ τὸ διατεταγμένον (nothing more than what is prescribed); Heb. 1:4: διαφορώτερον παρʼ αὐτοὺς . . . ὄνομα (a more excellent name than theirs).
Replacement (accusative). Romans 1:25: ἐλάτρευσαν τῇ κτίσει παρὰ τὸν κτίσαντα (they worshiped the creation rather than the Creator); Gal. 1:8: εὐαγγελίζηται ὑμῖν παρʼ ὃ εὐηγγελισάμεθα ὑμῖν (preaches a gospel to you other than what we preached to you).
Περί
5.21. Case and frequency. Περί is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 333 times (294 with the gen.; 39 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The local meaning of περί is encircling or around. It is used with the accusative case (not the genitive) to communicate this notion. Matthew 3:4: ζώνην δερματίνην περὶ τὴν ὀσφὺν αὐτοῦ (a leather belt around his waist); Matt. 8:18: πολλοὺς ὄχλους περὶ αὐτόν (many crowds around him).
Temporal (accusative). Περί can be used to communicate the approximate time, the time around which something took place. Mark 6:48: περὶ τετάρτην φυλακὴν τῆς νυκτός (about the fourth watch of the night); Acts 10:9: προσεύξασθαι περὶ ὥραν ἕκτην (to pray at about the sixth hour).
Concerning or focus of attention (genitive, accusative). The concept of surrounding or around can extend to the idea of being concerned with or about something. First Corinthians 7:1: Περὶ δὲ ὧν ἐγράψατε (now concerning the things that you wrote); Phil. 2:23: τὰ περὶ ἐμέ (the things concerning/about me). As Moule (62) observes, this sense often occurs after verbs of speaking, thinking, feeling, and the like. John 7:13: ἐλάλει περὶ αὐτοῦ ([no one] spoke concerning him); 1 Pet. 5:7: αὐτῷ μέλει περὶ ὑμῶν (it is a care to him concerning you); see also Matt. 6:28.
This use can also imply benefaction (Young 100): something is done concerning someone, for their benefit. Luke 6:28: προσεύχεσθε περὶ τῶν ἐπηρεαζόντων ὑμᾶς (pray for those who mistreat you); Eph. 6:18: προσευχόμενοι . . . περὶ πάντων τῶν ἁγίων (praying . . . concerning/for all the saints); see also Col. 1:3.
Πρό
5.22. Case and frequency. Πρό is used with the genitive case and occurs 47 times in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of πρό is position before or in front of. This seems to give rise to the following shades of meaning.
Location before. Acts 12:14: ἑστάναι τὸν Πέτρον πρὸ τοῦ πυλῶνος (Peter stood at/before the gate); James 5:9: ὁ κριτὴς πρὸ τῶν θυρῶν ἕστηκεν (the judge stands at/before the doors).
Temporal (prior time). John 11:55: ἀνέβησαν πολλοὶ . . . πρὸ τοῦ πάσχα (many went up . . . before the Passover); Eph. 1:4: ἐξελέξατο ἡμᾶς . . . πρὸ καταβολῆς κόσμου (he chose us . . . before the foundation of the world).
Priority (metaphorical). This usage may be difficult and sometimes unnecessary to distinguish from temporal priority. Colossians 1:17: καὶ αὐτός ἐστιν πρὸ πάντων (and he is before all things); James 5:12: Πρὸ πάντων δέ (and above all).
Πρός
5.23. Case and frequency. Πρός is used with the genitive, dative, and accusative cases and occurs 700 times (1 with the gen.; 7 with the dat.; 692 with the acc.) in the NT. Because the accusative case dominates, Moule (52) says that πρός “is nearly a one-case preposition.”
Basic or local meaning. Πρός has as its local sense facing toward. It overlaps in meaning with εἰς, and its antonym is ἀπό.
Location (accusative, dative). The accusative case is usually employed to signify motion to, direction toward, or destination.
1. Accusative. With the accusative, πρός frequently indicates motion toward. Matthew 7:15: ἔρχονται πρὸς ὑμᾶς ἐν ἐνδύμασι προβάτων (they come to you in sheep’s clothing); Mark 1:33: ἐπισυνηγμένη πρὸς τὴν θύραν (being gathered at [i.e., facing] the door); Eph. 6:12: οὐκ ἔστιν ἡμῖν ἡ πάλη πρὸς αἷμα καὶ σάρκα, ἀλλὰ πρὸς τὰς ἀρχάς, πρὸς τὰς ἐξουσίας, πρὸς τοὺς κοσμοκράτορας τοῦ σκότους τούτου, πρὸς τὰ πνευματικὰ τῆς πονηρίας (our battle is not against blood and flesh, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this darkness, against the spirits of evil). Porter (173) says that the idea is “facing off with adversaries.”
2. Dative. Πρός is always used with a positional sense when used with the dative. John 20:12: ἕνα πρὸς τῇ κεφαλῇ καὶ ἕνα πρὸς τοῖς ποσίν (one at the head, and one at the feet); Rev. 1:13: περιεζωσμένον πρὸς τοῖς μαστοῖς ζώνην χρυσᾶν (girded with a gold belt around his chest). The remaining usages of πρός with the dative in the NT are Mark 5:11; Luke 19:37; John 18:16; 20:11.
Purpose (metaphorical). By extension, πρός, like εἰς, is found in some contexts to indicate purpose. Matthew 6:1: πρὸς τὸ θεαθῆναι αὐτοῖς (for the purpose of being seen by them [with the infinitive]); Eph. 4:12: πρὸς τὸν καταρτισμὸν τῶν ἁγίων (for the equipping of the saints).
Genitive. The sole occurrence of πρός with the genitive in the NT is Acts 27:34: τοῦτο γὰρ πρὸς τῆς ὑμετέρας σωτηρίας ὑπάρχει (Moule [54] translates it as “for this is in the interest of your safety”).
Σύν
5.24. Case and frequency. Σύν is used with the dative case and occurs 128 times in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic meaning of σύν concerns association or being with. It shares semantic overlap with the preposition μετά. Luke 9:32: ὁ δὲ Πέτρος καὶ οἱ σὺν αὐτῷ (and Peter and those with him); Eph. 3:18: ἐξισχύσητε καταλαβέσθαι σὺν πᾶσιν τοῖς ἁγίοις (you might be able to comprehend with all the saints). The best-known examples are those where σύν is used with reference to our union with Christ in Paul’s letters, usually prefixed to verbs (the so-called σύν-compounds). Romans 6:8: εἰ δὲ ἀπεθάνομεν σὺν Χριστῷ (and if we died with Christ); Col. 2:13: συνεζωοποίησεν ὑμᾶς σὺν αὐτῷ (he made you alive with him); see also Rom. 6:4; Eph. 2:5, 6. In these instances σύν suggests our incorporation into Christ.25 According to Harris, σύν (rather than μετά) was used by Paul because it was suited to “express[ing] intimate personal union or close fellowship.”26
Ὑπέρ
5.25. Case and frequency. Ὑπέρ is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 149 times (130 with the gen.; 19 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. Ὑπέρ has as its basic meaning position or location above. Its antonym is ὑπό. It is never used with this physical sense in the NT, but it has a number of related senses.
Position above or beyond (accusative). Ὑπέρ with the accusative can suggest a position beyond, surpassing, or superior to something else. Matthew 10:24: Οὐκ ἔστιν μαθητὴς ὑπὲρ τὸν διδάσκαλον οὐδὲ δοῦλος ὑπὲρ τὸν κύριον αὐτοῦ (a disciple is not above his teacher, nor a slave above his master); 1 Cor. 4:6: Μὴ ὑπὲρ ἃ γέγραπται (not beyond what is written); see also 1 Cor. 10:13.
Benefaction-advantage (genitive). Here ὑπέρ communicates that something is done on someone’s behalf or for their benefit. Mark 9:40: ὃς γὰρ οὐκ ἔστιν καθʼ ἡμῶν, ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἐστιν (for who is not against us is for us); Rom. 5:6: ὑπὲρ ἀσεβῶν ἀπέθανεν (he died on behalf of the ungodly [but see below, on “Substitution”]).
Concerning, about (genitive). Philippians 1:7: τοῦτο φρονεῖν ὑπὲρ πάντων ὑμῶν (to think this about all of you).
Substitution (genitive). Ὑπέρ, like ἀντί, seems capable of a substitutionary sense. This use is disputed, especially in passages that refer to Christ’s death. Harris has shown that in Classical Greek, Hellenistic Greek literature, and the papyri, ὑπέρ was used in the sense of substitution (“in the place of”).27 This is important for a number of texts that refer to the death of Christ. John 11:50: εἷς ἄνθρωπος ἀποθάνῃ ὑπὲρ τοῦ λαοῦ (one man might die for the people); 2 Cor. 5:14–15: εἷς ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν . . . καὶ ὑπὲρ πάντων ἀπέθανεν (one died for all . . . and he died for all); Gal. 3:13: γενόμενος ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν κατάρα (having become a curse for us / in our place). See also Rom. 5:7, 8. Even if some of these chiefly indicate benefaction or representation, the notion of substitution is still present. Christ’s death benefits us by taking our place.28 This obviously has important implications for understanding Christ’s atonement.
Ὑπό
5.26. Case and frequency. Ὑπό is used with the genitive and accusative cases and occurs 220 times (169 with the gen.; 51 with the acc.) in the NT.
Basic or local meaning. The basic sense of ὑπό is positional location under. Its antonym is ὑπέρ.
Location under or beneath (accusative). The preposition ὑπό specifies position under, physically or metaphorically (e.g., “under” authority). Mark 4:21: ὑπὸ τὸν μόδιον τεθῇ ἢ ὑπὸ τὴν κλίνην (under the bushel basket he might place it or under the bed); Rom. 6:14: οὐ γάρ ἐστε ὑπὸ νόμον ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ χάριν (for you are not under the law but under grace).
Agency (personal agent) (genitive). Ὑπό is found, often with passive verb constructions, to designate the personal or direct agent of an action (see the discussion of the passive voice in chap. 7 for how it differs from διά and ἐν). Matthew 4:1: ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἀνήχθη . . . ὑπὸ τοῦ πνεύματος (Jesus was led . . . by the Spirit); Rev. 6:8: ὑπὸ τῶν θηρίων τῆς γῆς (by the beasts of the earth). The preceding items listed in Rev. 6:8 have ἐν, so John is probably distinguishing between impersonal and personal (beasts) agency with his shift to ὑπό.
For Practice
5.27. For the following passages, locate the prepositions and analyze their meanings. What sense do they convey? Then determine what the prepositional phrases modify.
21Νυνὶ δὲ χωρὶς νόμου δικαιοσύνη θεοῦ πεφανέρωται, μαρτυρουμένη ὑπὸ τοῦ νόμου καὶ τῶν προφητῶν, 22δικαιοσύνη δὲ θεοῦ διὰ πίστεως Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, εἰς πάντας τοὺς πιστεύοντας, οὐ γάρ ἐστιν διαστολή. 23πάντες γὰρ ἥμαρτον καὶ ὑστεροῦνται τῆς δόξης τοῦ θεοῦ, 24δικαιούμενοι δωρεὰν τῇ αὐτοῦ χάριτι διὰ τῆς ἀπολυτρώσεως τῆς ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ· 25ὃν προέθετο ὁ θεὸς ἱλαστήριον διὰ πίστεως ἐν τῷ αὐτοῦ αἵματι εἰς ἔνδειξιν τῆς δικαιοσύνης αὐτοῦ διὰ τὴν πάρεσιν τῶν προγεγονότων ἁμαρτημάτων 26ἐν τῇ ἀνοχῇ τοῦ θεοῦ, πρὸς τὴν ἔνδειξιν τῆς δικαιοσύνης αὐτοῦ ἐν τῷ νῦν καιρῷ, εἰς τὸ εἶναι αὐτὸν δίκαιον καὶ δικαιοῦντα τὸν ἐκ πίστεως Ἰησοῦ. (Rom. 3:21–26)
3Εὐχαριστῶ τῷ θεῷ μου ἐπὶ πάσῃ τῇ μνείᾳ ὑμῶν 4πάντοτε ἐν πάσῃ δεήσει μου ὑπὲρ πάντων ὑμῶν, μετὰ χαρᾶς τὴν δέησιν ποιούμενος, 5ἐπὶ τῇ κοινωνίᾳ ὑμῶν εἰς τὸ εὐαγγέλιον ἀπὸ τῆς πρώτης ἡμέρας ἄχρι τοῦ νῦν, 6πεποιθὼς αὐτὸ τοῦτο ὅτι ὁ ἐναρξάμενος ἐν ὑμῖν ἔργον ἀγαθὸν ἐπιτελέσει ἄχρι ἡμέρας Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ· 7καθώς ἐστιν δίκαιον ἐμοὶ τοῦτο φρονεῖν ὑπὲρ πάντων ὑμῶν, διὰ τὸ ἔχειν με ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ ὑμᾶς, ἔν τε τοῖς δεσμοῖς μου καὶ ἐν τῇ ἀπολογίᾳ καὶ βεβαιώσει τοῦ εὐαγγελίου συγκοινωνούς μου τῆς χάριτος πάντας ὑμᾶς ὄντας· 8μάρτυς γάρ μου ὁ θεός, ὡς ἐπιποθῶ πάντας ὑμᾶς ἐν σπλάγχνοις Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ. 9καὶ τοῦτο προσεύχομαι ἵνα ἡ ἀγάπη ὑμῶν ἔτι μᾶλλον καὶ μᾶλλον περισσεύῃ ἐν ἐπιγνώσει καὶ πάσῃ αἰσθήσει, 10εἰς τὸ δοκιμάζειν ὑμᾶς τὰ διαφέροντα, ἵνα ἦτε εἰλικρινεῖς καὶ ἀπρόσκοποι εἰς ἡμέραν Χριστοῦ, 11πεπληρωμένοι καρπὸν δικαιοσύνης τὸν διὰ Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ εἰς δόξαν καὶ ἔπαινον θεοῦ. (Phil. 1:3–11)