MOOD
8.1. The selection of a particular verbal mood indicates or grammaticalizes a speaker’s or writer’s decision regarding how to portray the relationship of a verbal idea to reality. As Porter (50) points out, “The choice of attitude [mood] is probably the second most important semantic choice by a language user in selection of a verbal element in Greek, second only to verbal aspect.” When a Greek language user wants to portray a verbal idea (e.g., action, state of being) as if it were a reality, the indicative mood is selected. At the same time, it should be remembered that “the indicative is the ‘unmarked’ mood form” (Porter 51); that is, the indicative is the default mood, the mood used when none of the other moods is called for. Whether the action or state grammaticalized by an indicative verb form indicates objective reality or not is a matter of context, history, and the like. One may lie, employ various figures of speech (e.g., metaphor and hyperbole, which do not use language “literally”), or merely err in the indicative mood. If the indicative mood indicates reality, it is subjective reality.1 The nonindicative, or oblique, moods are alike in that they make projections or directions rather than assertions about reality.
| Assertion | Projection | Projection and Contingency | Direction |
| Indicative | Subjunctive | Optative | Imperative |
8.2. The primary use of the indicative mood in NT Greek is to make assertions about reality from the perspective of the writer or speaker, irrespective of objective reality. Nevertheless, the indicative mood may also be employed when asking questions, issuing commands, making wishes, or framing certain types of conditions. The indicative mood occurs about 15,618 times in the NT. For the tense and aspect use in the indicative mood, see chapter 6, on the Greek verb system.
Declarative
8.3. A declarative sentence makes a statement or assertion. There are thousands of declarative sentences in the NT because this is the most basic use of the indicative mood.
| τότε ἤρξατο καταθεματίζειν καὶ ὀμνύειν ὅτι Οὐκ οἶδα τὸν ἄνθρωπον. καὶ εὐθέως ἀλέκτωρ ἐφώνησεν· (Matt. 26:74) | Then he began to curse and swear, “I do not know the man.” And immediately a rooster crowed. (The statement in bold is false.) | |
| Καὶ ἔστιν αὕτη ἡ ἀγγελία ἣν ἀκηκόαμεν ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀναγγέλλομεν ὑμῖν, ὅτι ὁ θεὸς φῶς ἐστιν καὶ σκοτία ἐν αὐτῷ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδεμία. (1 John 1:5) | And this is the message that we have heard from him and announce to you, that God is light and darkness is not in him at all. |
Interrogative
8.4. An interrogative sentence asks a question that can be real or rhetorical.
Real
| καὶ εἶπαν αὐτῷ· Ποῦ ἐστιν ἐκεῖνος; λέγει· Οὐκ οἶδα. (John 9:12) | And they said to him, “Where is he / that one?” He said, “I don’t know.” |
Rhetorical
Command
8.5. Although the imperative is the mood most often employed for the issuing of commands, the future2 indicative can also be used with imperatival force. This has more to do with the expectation associated with the future tense than with the indicative mood per se. Still, it bears repeating that since the indicative grammaticalizes assertion, the imperatival future carries more semantic weight (assertion + expectation) than the imperative mood (direction). See the discussion of the future tense in chapter 6.
| Ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη· Οὐ μοιχεύσεις. (Matt. 5:27) | You have heard that it was said, “You shall not commit adultery.” | |
| Ἔσεσθε οὖν ὑμεῖς τέλειοι ὡς ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὁ οὐράνιος τέλειός ἐστιν. (Matt. 5:48) | Therefore, you will be perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect. | |
| Ὅρα γάρ, φησιν, ποιήσεις πάντα κατὰ τὸν τύπον τὸν δειχθέντα σοι ἐν τῷ ὄρει· (Heb. 8:5) | For he [i.e., God] said, “See [to it that] you make everything according to the pattern that was shown to you on the mountain.” |
The future tense of ποιήσεις here and in the LXX (Exod. 25:40) reflects a Hebrew imperative (עֲשֵׂה).
Volitive (Wish, Desire, Mild Command)
8.6. In the NT the indicative mood is used to express a wish or desire far more frequently than the optative or the hortatory subjunctive (see below for both). This is because most NT wishes employ verbs whose semantic ranges include desire/wish/will: θέλω (144× in the indicative),3 βούλομαι (16× in the indicative), ἀξιόω (1× in the indicative), εὔχομαι (4× in the indicative), δοκέω (1× in the indicative), ζητέω (22× in the indicative), ἐπιθυμέω (14× in the indicative), ὀρέγω (2× in the indicative), and ἐπιποθέω (4× in the indicative). In other words, the NT authors convey the idea of wish or desire through their lexical choice rather than just through their choice of mood. We also consider here the verbs that introduce obligation or necessity: ὀφείλω (31× in the indicative) and δεῖ (93× in the indicative).
| εἰς νῆσον δέ τινα δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἐκπεσεῖν. (Acts 27:26) | But it is necessary for us to / we must run aground on a certain island. | |
| θέλω δὲ πάντας ἀνθρώπους εἶναι ὡς καὶ ἐμαυτόν· (1 Cor. 7:7) | But I wish all people to be as even I myself [am]. | |
| ἀγαπητοί, εἰ οὕτως ὁ θεὸς ἠγάπησεν ἡμᾶς, καὶ ἡμεῖς ὀφείλομεν ἀλλήλους ἀγαπᾶν. (1 John 4:11) | Beloved, if God so loved us, we also ought to / must love one another. |
Conditional
8.7. The indicative mood is employed in the protases (if-clauses) of two types of conditions in the NT: class 1 and class 2 conditional sentences. For a thorough treatment of conditions and examples, see chapter 11, on clauses.
1. Class 1 conditions (more than 300 instances in the NT) use εἰ and the indicative in the protasis, and they make an assertion, for the sake of argument, that may or may not actually be true. The apodosis (then-clause) of a class 1 condition can have a variety of verbs forms, from indicative to imperative.
| ὁ δὲ Πέτρος ἔφη αὐτῷ· Εἰ καὶ πάντες σκανδαλισθήσονται, ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἐγώ. (Mark 14:29) | And Peter said to him, “ Even if all stumble, yet I [will] not.” |
Note that there is no verb in the apodosis.
Note that the verb in the apodosis is an imperative.
2. Class 2 conditions (47 instances in the NT) also use εἰ and the indicative in the protasis, with the additional refinement that the tense-forms are always secondary (aorist, imperfect, pluperfect). Apodoses of class 2 conditions usually include the particle ἄν (in 37 of the 47 instances) and draw conclusions indicating that the protases are contrary to fact from the perspective of the writer or speaker.
| εἰ δὲ ἐγνώκειτε τί ἐστιν· Ἔλεος θέλω καὶ οὐ θυσίαν, οὐκ ἂν κατεδικάσατε τοὺς ἀναιτίους. (Matt. 12:7) | But if you had known what it is/means, “I desire mercy and not sacrifice,” you would not have condemned the innocent. (pluperfect [stative] and aorist verbs) |
| εἰ δὲ ἑαυτοὺς διεκρίνομεν, οὐκ ἂν ἐκρινόμεθα· (1 Cor. 11:31) | For if we evaluated ourselves, we would not be judged. (imperfect of both verbs) |
| καὶ εἰ μὲν ἐκείνης ἐμνημόνευον ἀφ᾽ ἧς ἐξέβησαν, εἶχον ἂν καιρὸν ἀνακάμψαι· (Heb. 11:15) | And if indeed they had called to mind that [country] from which they departed, they would have had opportunity to return. (imperfect of both verbs) |
For Practice
8.8. Analyze the indicatives (in bold) in the following texts. As you perform your analyses, be sure to consult chapter 6, on the Greek verbal system.
15καὶ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς· μὴ δύνανται οἱ υἱοὶ τοῦ νυμφῶνος πενθεῖν ἐφ᾽ ὅσον μετ᾽ αὐτῶν ἐστιν ὁ νυμφίος; ἐλεύσονται δὲ ἡμέραι ὅταν ἀπαρθῇ ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν ὁ νυμφίος, καὶ τότε νηστεύσουσιν. 16οὐδεὶς δὲ ἐπιβάλλει ἐπίβλημα ῥάκους ἀγνάφου ἐπὶ ἱματίῳ παλαιῷ· αἴρει γὰρ τὸ πλήρωμα αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἱματίου καὶ χεῖρον σχίσμα γίνεται. 17οὐδὲ βάλλουσιν οἶνον νέον εἰς ἀσκοὺς παλαιούς· εἰ δὲ μή γε, ῥήγνυνται οἱ ἀσκοὶ καὶ ὁ οἶνος ἐκχεῖται καὶ οἱ ἀσκοὶ ἀπόλλυνται· ἀλλὰ βάλλουσιν οἶνον νέον εἰς ἀσκοὺς καινούς, καὶ ἀμφότεροι συντηροῦνται. (Matt. 9:15–17)
Τί οὖν ἐροῦμεν; ὁ νόμος ἁμαρτία; μὴ γένοιτο· ἀλλὰ τὴν ἁμαρτίαν οὐκ ἔγνων εἰ μὴ διὰ νόμου· τήν τε γὰρ ἐπιθυμίαν οὐκ ᾔδειν εἰ μὴ ὁ νόμος ἔλεγεν· οὐκ ἐπιθυμήσεις. (Rom. 7:7)
Subjunctive Mood
8.9. Whereas the indicative mood is mainly concerned with assertions about reality, the subjunctive mood makes projections about reality. From the perspective of the writer or speaker, the subjunctive mood grammaticalizes contemplating or projecting actions or states. It is common to understand the subjunctive mood as the mood of probability. Dana and Mantey (170), as well as David Alan Black (98), say that it is the “mood of probability.” Wallace (461) says that the subjunctive mood is “uncertain but probable” (italics original). However, we prefer to think of the subjunctive in terms of projection rather than likelihood or probability, because one can employ the mood to visualize the impossible (“If pigs had silver wings, . . .”) as well as to suppose the actual (“If humans are fallen beings, . . .”). Whatever doubt,4 if any, the subjunctive expresses must be determined in light of the context in which it occurs; it is not a feature of the subjunctive mood itself. Projection itself does not necessarily entail doubt, but it also cannot determine reality. Subjunctive verbs view verbal processes as hypotheses submitted for our contemplation (Porter 57). The action is viewed as capable of being realized.
There are only ten perfect subjunctives in the NT (all from the stative verb οἶδα), so we are basically left with a two-tense opposition. That is, the NT writers had two choices for the tense-form of most subjunctive verbs: the aorist (perfective aspect), when there was no reason to use the present; and the present (imperfective aspect), when the writer wanted to highlight the verbal process. The subjunctive mood can be found in both independent and dependent clauses.
In independent (primary) clauses, the subjunctive is most often utilized in exhortations, deliberations, and prohibitions.
8.10. Hortatory/Volitive. Apart from a small handful (3–5) of NT uses with a singular verb, the hortatory subjunctive is a first-person plural expression that functions similarly to an imperative (“Let’s . . .”).5 As Robertson (931) explains, “It was a necessity for the first person, since the imperative was deficient there.” Sometimes “Let’s go” is a gentle nudge to move; at other times it is a firm exhortation; at still other times it is an out-and-out command. Context, of course, will help one decide which is which.
| ἢ πῶς ἐρεῖς τῷ ἀδελφῷ σου· Ἄφες ἐκβάλω τὸ κάρφος ἐκ τοῦ ὀφθαλμοῦ σου, καὶ ἰδοὺ ἡ δοκὸς ἐν τῷ ὀφθαλμῷ σοῦ; (Matt. 7:4) | Or how can you say to your brother/sister, “Let me remove the speck from your eye,” and look, a log is in your [own] eye? |
The first-person singular hortatory subjunctives in the NT follow either ἄφες (“allow, permit, let”) or δεῦρο (an adverb meaning “come here”).
| ἐγείρεσθε ἄγωμεν· ἰδοὺ ἤγγικεν ὁ παραδιδούς με. (Matt. 26:46) | Get up, let’s go; “Look, the one betraying me is near.” | |
| εἶπαν οὖν πρὸς ἀλλήλους· Μὴ σχίσωμεν αὐτόν, ἀλλὰ λάχωμεν περὶ αὐτοῦ τίνος ἔσται· (John 19:24) | Therefore they said to one another, “Let’s not tear it, but let’s cast lots for it—for whose it will be.” | |
| μηδὲ πορνεύωμεν, καθώς τινες αὐτῶν ἐπόρνευσαν καὶ ἔπεσαν μιᾷ ἡμέρᾳ εἴκοσι τρεῖς χιλιάδες. (1 Cor. 10:8) | Let’s not commit sexual immorality, as some of them committed, and twenty-three thousand fell in one day. | |
| χαίρωμεν καὶ ἀγαλλιῶμεν, καὶ δώσωμεν τὴν δόξαν αὐτῷ, ὅτι ἦλθεν ὁ γάμος τοῦ ἀρνίου καὶ ἡ γυνὴ αὐτοῦ ἡτοίμασεν ἑαυτὴν (Rev. 19:7) | Let’s rejoice and exult and give glory to him, because the marriage of the Lamb has come, and his bride has readied herself. |
8.11. Deliberative. As the label suggests, deliberative subjunctives ask questions, often rhetorical questions, of oneself (first-person singular) or a group of which one is a part (first-person plural). And, to supplement Moule’s observation, a deliberative subjunctive can be more than a hortatory subjunctive “merely . . . turned into a question” (22). Certainly one can turn “Let’s study Greek” into “Shall we study Greek?” with no significant change in meaning. Both are projections about the study of Greek and can be viewed as mild commands. However, it seems to us that it may be helpful to distinguish between the exhortation “Let’s buy bread at the store” and the true (nonrhetorical) question “Shall we buy bread at the store?” Both are still projections, but the question might be asking for a decision rather than making a tacit command.
To add another layer to our discussion, Carson has contributed the category of “pseudodeliberative” subjunctives; that is, first-person subjunctives that do not truly, or properly (within oneself or a group of which one is a part), deliberate at all.6 In his mind, all but seven of the generally accepted deliberative subjunctives in the NT do not actually belong in the category. Commands framed as questions and questions aimed at a third party, for example, would not. Although we suspect that Carson is correct in thinking that the deliberative subjunctive is among the “grammatical categories [that] mask as much as they reveal,” we will treat true examples and pseudoexamples of its use together.7
| εἶπεν αὐτῷ· Σὺ εἶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος ἢ ἕτερον προσδοκῶμεν; (Matt. 11:3) | He said to him, “Are you the one coming, or should/shall we expect another?” (real) | |
| Καὶ ἔλεγεν· Πῶς ὁμοιώσωμεν τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ ἢ ἐν τίνι αὐτὴν παραβολῇ θῶμεν; (Mark 4:30) | And he said, “How shall we compare the kingdom of God, or by what parable shall we illustrate it?” (rhetorical) | |
| εἶπον οὖν πρὸς αὐτόν· Τί ποιῶμεν ἵνα ἐργαζώμεθα τὰ ἔργα τοῦ θεοῦ; (John 6:28) | Therefore they said to him, “What should we do so that we may work the works of God?” (real) | |
| Τί οὖν; ἁμαρτήσωμεν, ὅτι οὐκ ἐσμὲν ὑπὸ νόμον ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ χάριν; μὴ γένοιτο· (Rom. 6:15) | What then, shall we sin because we are not under law but under grace? May it not be! (rhetorical) |
8.12. Prohibition (μή + aorist subjunctive). To express aorist prohibitions (i.e., commands to not do something), NT Greek employs the negated subjunctive rather than the imperative form.8 Why this is the case is a matter for speculation: “All we can say is that (perhaps unaccountably) usage came to dictate that an Aorist prohibition should be expressed by the Subjunctive (not an Imperative), while a present prohibition should be expressed by the Imperative” (Moule 21). For examples, see the treatment of Aorist Prohibitions under the Imperative Mood below.
8.13. Emphatic negation (οὐ μή + aorist subjunctive). As indicated in the parentheses, emphatic negation is signaled by the use of two negative particles9 with the aorist subjunctive. The construction has the strength or force of the colloquial expression “No way!” Despite Moulton’s opinion that only Paul (and only 4 times) employed this construction “with its full classical emphasis,”10 we view all of the NT uses (mostly in what Jesus is reported to have said and LXX quotations) of the doubly negated aorist subjunctive as genuinely emphatic. It is indeed possible that in places where the LXX, angels, or Jesus are quoted in the NT, οὐ μή with the aorist subjunctive is “used with a prophetic emphasis that, in addition to its classical emphatic force, carries with it divine certainty, finality, and decisiveness.”11 Such prophetic emphasis, of course, would stem from subject matter and context rather than anything inherent in the grammatical construction. In any case, in the NT, οὐ μή with the aorist subjunctive has not lost its force.
Dependent Clauses
The following are the most common uses of the subjunctive in dependent (secondary) clauses.
8.14. Conditional (with ἐάν). As will be discussed in more detail in chapter 11, on clauses, ἐάν with the subjunctive is used in class 3 conditions, or conditions in which the content of the protasis (if-clause) is presented as a hypothesis. Class 3 conditions imply a tentativeness that first-class conditions (using the indicative mood) do not simply because the subjunctive mood deals in the realm of projection rather than assertion. Hypothetical conditions then, as now, are powerful tools in the hands of a gifted preacher or teacher. NT authors made very good use of class 3 conditions for hortatory purposes.
| ἐὰν γὰρ εἰσέλθῃ εἰς συναγωγὴν ὑμῶν ἀνὴρ χρυσοδακτύλιος ἐν ἐσθῆτι λαμπρᾷ, εἰσέλθῃ δὲ καὶ πτωχὸς ἐν ῥυπαρᾷ ἐσθῆτι (James 2:2) | For if a man enters your assembly with a gold ring and splendid clothes, and also a poor man in filthy clothes enters. |
Here James begins a description of outrageous partiality. Because it is an almost (alas, not quite) unimaginable situation, James is able to challenge his readers to consider their own practices without ever accusing them of the extreme acts he describes. Both James and John may employ hypothetical scenarios, based on sad realities, precisely to leave their readers the space in which to examine their own consciences. Our point is that the interpreter needs to do more than look at the class of a condition to determine its relationship to reality. Moreover, a judicious dose of hyperbolic case study may help cure people of very real moral ills.
This is the first of a series of five class 3 conditions in the immediate context (one in each verse of 1:6–10), in which we think John frames as hypothetical what he knows some (at the very least, the false teachers who have left the church) are actually saying. In this manner, without specifically finger-pointing, he sets before those who have remained the consequences of making the outlined false claims and a tacit exhortation not to make them.12
| μνημόνευε οὖν πῶς εἴληφας καὶ ἤκουσας καὶ τήρει, καὶ μετανόησον· ἐὰν οὖν μὴ γρηγορήσῃς, ἥξω ὡς κλέπτης, καὶ οὐ μὴ γνῷς ποίαν ὥραν ἥξω ἐπὶ σέ· (Rev. 3:3) | Therefore remember what you have received and heard; keep it and repent. Therefore, if you are not alert, I will come as a thief, and you will not know what time I will come to you. |
Christ, too, was a master of the hortatory third-class condition.
8.15. Purpose (telic, final) / result (ecbatic, consecutive) / content (with ἵνα). The NT employs the subjunctive after ἵνα in a variety of ways, the most frequent of which are to indicate purpose, result, and content (for a further treatment, see chap. 12). Purpose and result are naturally and logically linked, so there are ἵνα clauses in the NT that could be interpreted either way. As both Porter (234) and Wallace (472) point out, verbs expressing intention are naturally followed by purpose clauses. Result clauses are more easily distinguished from purpose clauses when the verbs on which they depend do not convey “intention, direction, or purpose” (Porter 234). Content clauses are substantival clauses that function as subjects or objects of verbs or that limit other substantives or adjectives. Although ὅτι with the indicative introduces the majority of NT content clauses, ἵνα with the subjunctive introduces a significant minority. In particular, ἵνα with the subjunctive is used with verbs of striving, wishing, permitting, beseeching, and commanding; ἵνα μή (in order that not / lest) with the subjunctive is used with verbs of fearing and apprehension.13
| Μὴ κρίνετε, ἵνα μὴ κριθῆτε· (Matt. 7:1) | Do not judge so that you will not / lest you be judged. (negative purpose or result) | |
| καὶ ἀπὸ τότε ἐζήτει εὐκαιρίαν ἵνα αὐτὸν παραδῷ. (Matt. 26:16) | And from then he was seeking an opportunity to betray him. (epexegetical content) |
The ἵνα clause explains εὐκαιρίαν in the same way an infinitive would.
| καὶ ἠρώτησαν αὐτὸν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ λέγοντες· Ῥαββί, τίς ἥμαρτεν, οὗτος ἢ οἱ γονεῖς αὐτοῦ, ἵνα τυφλὸς γεννηθῇ; (John 9:2) | And his disciples asked him saying, “Rabbi, who sinned, this man or his parents, so / with the result that he was born blind?” (result) | |
| μείζονα ταύτης ἀγάπην οὐδεὶς ἔχει, ἵνα τις τὴν ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ θῇ ὑπὲρ τῶν φίλων αὐτοῦ. (John 15:13) | Greater love than this no one has, that someone lay down his/her life for his/her friends. (epexegetical content,a the ἵνα clause explains ταύτης) | |
| aThus Max Zerwick and Mary Grosvenor, A Grammatical Analysis of the Greek New Testament (Rome: Biblical Institute Press, 1981), 333. | ||
| ἀλλ᾽ ἐγὼ τὴν ἀλήθειαν λέγω ὑμῖν, συμφέρει ὑμῖν ἵνα ἐγὼ ἀπέλθω. (John 16:7) | But I tell you the truth, that I go away is to your benefit. (content, subject) | |
| οὐκ ἐρωτῶ ἵνα ἄρῃς αὐτοὺς ἐκ τοῦ κόσμου ἀλλ᾽ ἵνα τηρήσῃς αὐτοὺς ἐκ τοῦ πονηροῦ. (John 17:15) | I do not ask that you take them out of the world, but that you keep them from the evil one. (content, direct object) | |
Both ἵνα clauses function as object complements of ἐρωτῶ.
8.16. Indefinite (most often with forms of ἄν). Because they are more tentative than their definite counterparts, indefinite clauses (relative, e.g., whoever; temporal, e.g., whenever; local, e.g., wherever) commonly use subjunctive verbs.
| ὅστις γὰρ ἂν ποιήσῃ τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πατρός μου τοῦ ἐν οὐρανοῖς, αὐτός μου ἀδελφὸς καὶ ἀδελφὴ καὶ μήτηρ ἐστίν. (Matt. 12:50) | For whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is himself/herself my brother and sister and mother. (relative) | |
| βάπτισμα δὲ ἔχω βαπτισθῆναι, καὶ πῶς συνέχομαι ἕως ὅτου τελεσθῇ. (Luke 12:50) | But I have a baptism to be baptized with, and how consumed I am until it is finished! (temporal/relative) | |
| ὅταν ὁ Χριστὸς φανερωθῇ, ἡ ζωὴ ὑμῶν, τότε καὶ ὑμεῖς σὺν αὐτῷ φανερωθήσεσθε ἐν δόξῃ. (Col. 3:4) | Whenever Christ, your life, appears, then you also will appear with him in glory. (temporal) |
Ὅταν is a contraction of ὅτε and ἄν.
For Practice
8.17. Analyze the subjunctives (in bold) in the following verses.
ὅταν κληθῇς ὑπό τινος εἰς γάμους, μὴ κατακλιθῇς εἰς τὴν πρωτοκλισίαν, μήποτε ἐντιμότερός σου ᾖ κεκλημένος ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ. (Luke 14:8)
εἶπεν οὖν Θωμᾶς ὁ λεγόμενος Δίδυμος τοῖς συμμαθηταῖς· Ἄγωμεν καὶ ἡμεῖς ἵνα ἀποθάνωμεν μετ᾽ αὐτοῦ. (John 11:16)
ἔλεγον οὖν αὐτῷ οἱ ἄλλοι μαθηταί· Ἑωράκαμεν τὸν κύριον. ὁ δὲ εἶπεν αὐτοῖς· Ἑὰν μὴ ἴδω ἐν ταῖς χερσὶν αὐτοῦ τὸν τύπον τῶν ἥλων καὶ βάλω τὸν δάκτυλόν μου εἰς τὸν τύπον τῶν ἥλων καὶ βάλω μου τὴν χεῖρα εἰς τὴν πλευρὰν αὐτοῦ, οὐ μὴ πιστεύσω. (John 20:25)
3ἔπεμψα δὲ τοὺς ἀδελφούς, ἵνα μὴ τὸ καύχημα ἡμῶν τὸ ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν κενωθῇ ἐν τῷ μέρει τούτῳ, ἵνα καθὼς ἔλεγον παρεσκευασμένοι ἦτε, 4μή πως ἐὰν ἔλθωσιν σὺν ἐμοὶ Μακεδόνες καὶ εὕρωσιν ὑμᾶς ἀπαρασκευάστους καταισχυνθῶμεν ἡμεῖς, ἵνα μὴ λέγωμεν ὑμεῖς, ἐν τῇ ὑποστάσει ταύτῃ. 5ἀναγκαῖον οὖν ἡγησάμην παρακαλέσαι τοὺς ἀδελφούς, ἵνα προέλθωσιν εἰς ὑμᾶς καὶ προκαταρτίσωσι τὴν προεπηγγελμένην εὐλογίαν ὑμῶν, ταύτην ἑτοίμην εἶναι οὕτως ὡς εὐλογίαν καὶ μὴ ὡς πλεονεξίαν. (2 Cor. 9:3–5)
προσερχώμεθα οὖν μετὰ παρρησίας τῷ θρόνῳ τῆς χάριτος, ἵνα λάβωμεν ἔλεος καὶ χάριν εὕρωμεν εἰς εὔκαιρον βοήθειαν. (Heb. 4:16)
Optative Mood
8.18. The optative occurs only 68 times in the NT. It was already in decline by the Koine period, probably due to its having a semantic range similar to that of the subjunctive (and perhaps due to the subjunctive’s “easier” endings). Like the subjunctive, the optative mood is one of projection, but with an added element of hesitation or contingency. With Boyer, however, we maintain that “the optative implies a less distinct anticipation than the subjunctive, but not less probable.”14 The mood is used in the NT to convey wishes or prayers and in various potential (contingent) expressions. All but nine of the NT optatives are found in Luke’s and Paul’s writings. The semantic feature of projection with hesitancy accounts for the following usages.
Volitive (Wish, Prayer, Request)
8.19. Most (about 57 percent) of the NT optatives are volitive, and almost half of those (14× in Paul and 1× in Luke) are found in the idiomatic saying μὴ γένοιτο (May it never be!). The remaining occurrences are found in both formal and informal benedictions, requests (2×), curses (2× or 3×), and in Mary’s decision (presumably an act of will rather than a wish) to accept God’s will humbly and participate in the incarnation (Luke 1:38), with the positive γένοιτο.
Potential
8.20. Both direct and indirect questions can employ the optative, as can conditional sentences. In the NT most of the potential optatives are found in questions (2 direct, 17 indirect) and are often preceded by the particle ἄν; the rest are in more or less “incomplete,” class 4 conditional sentences.
| καὶ προσκαλεσάμενος ἕνα τῶν παίδων ἐπυνθάνετο τί ἂν εἴη ταῦτα· (Luke 15:26) | And having summoned one of the servants, he inquired what these things might be/mean. (indirect question) |
The equivalent direct question is “What are these things” or “What do these things mean?”
| νεύει οὖν τούτῳ Σίμων Πέτρος πυθέσθαι τίς ἂν εἴη περὶ οὗ λέγει. (John 13:24) | Therefore Simon Peter gestured to this man to ask who it might be about whom he spoke. (indirect question) |
The equivalent direct question is “About whom are you speaking?” This is the only optative in the Johannine corpus.
| ὁ δὲ εἶπεν· Πῶς γὰρ ἂν δυναίμην ἐὰν μή τις ὁδηγήσει με; (Acts 8:31) | And he said, “For how can I, unless someone guides me?” (direct question) | |
| τινὲς δὲ ἀπὸ τῆς Ἀσίας Ἰουδαῖοι, οὓς ἔδει ἐπὶ σοῦ παρεῖναι καὶ κατηγορεῖν εἴ τι ἔχοιεν πρὸς ἐμέ (Acts 24:19) | But [there were] some Jews from Asia for whom it was necessary to be present before you and to make an accusation if they might have anything against me. (incomplete class 4 conditional; there is no ἂν + optative in the apodosis) |
8.21. Analyze the optatives (in bold) in the following verses.
ζητεῖν τὸν θεόν, εἰ ἄρα γε ψηλαφήσειαν αὐτὸν καὶ εὕροιεν, καί γε οὐ μακρὰν ἀπὸ ἑνὸς ἑκάστου ἡμῶν ὑπάρχοντα. (Acts 17:27)
Τί οὖν ἐροῦμεν; μὴ ἀδικία παρὰ τῷ θεῷ; μὴ γένοιτο· (Rom. 9:14)
ὑμᾶς δὲ ὁ κύριος πλεονάσαι καὶ περισσεύσαι τῇ ἀγάπῃ εἰς ἀλλήλους καὶ εἰς πάντας, καθάπερ καὶ ἡμεῖς εἰς ὑμᾶς (1 Thess. 3:12)
Imperative Mood
8.22. Although not limited to the realm of issuing orders, the imperative mood is associated with commands and prohibitions. Imperatives direct, entreat, or impose one person’s will on others, but also grant permission. Many older grammars state that the imperative is the furthest removed of the moods from reality.15 We do not find this explanation to be helpful or even entirely accurate. Boyer is correct: “There are degrees of potentiality within the moods, but not between the moods.”16 Is direction demonstrably less likely to be realized than projection (or are projections more or less likely to be realized depending on their mood)? It may be more helpful to see the imperative mood on a scale that moves from assertion to direction or volition (see the table at the beginning of this chapter). Whereas the indicative makes an assertion and the subjunctive and optative make a projection, the imperative mood directs the will or volition of the person(s) being addressed. And unlike English, Greek imperatives can be inflected for third-person as well as for second-person addressees. Third-person imperatives, despite their usual (and, dare we say it, misleading) permissive translation (“Let him/her . . .”), are not necessarily weaker than second-person imperatives. As Gary Long says, “Greek’s 3d person imperative is, however, every bit as direct as its 2d person imperative,”17 if by “direct” he means “directive.” We make this distinction because, as Decker points out, third-person imperatives are often indirect (they are addressed to him/her/it to get “you” to do something) and can be addressed to a third party, instead of to “you,” to soften a direct command.18
Along with its relationship to reality, tense usage in the imperative mood has been a matter of debate. Therefore, although verbal aspect is discussed more fully in chapter 6, it is necessary to revisit it here. In the NT the imperative, like the subjunctive, is confined almost exclusively to two tense-forms, or two aspects.19 Aorist imperatives view their verbal processes as complete wholes, and present imperatives view their verbal processes as in progress. In a system in which opposition between aorist and present plays a key role, the aorist is the “default” tense, and the present is chosen for special emphasis.20 As Boyer states, “It is contrary to the basic significance of the aorist to make it special in any way.”21 A common scheme found in many grammars is that aorist imperatives communicate specific, ingressive, or urgent actions; presents communicate habitual, repeated, or characteristic actions. The aorist prohibitions are seen as warnings not to begin an action (“Don’t ever”), present prohibitions as commands to stop an action already in progress (“Stop”; Dana and Mantey 299–302). However, the variety of contexts in which imperatives and prohibitions occur simply do not bear this out. This also confuses aspect and Aktionsart. Neither aspectual choice indicates the kind of action (Aktionsart) in view; only context can do this. Aorist commands are neither necessarily urgent nor punctiliar or specific; present commands need not be general and do not themselves imply continuity or repetition. By the same token, aorist prohibitions do not necessarily warn against starting something, and present prohibitions often do not mean “Stop!”22 Before turning to the particular uses of the imperative mood, we implore our readers, “the temptation to standardize the translation of the various imperatival usages should be resisted.”23
Commands and Prohibitions
8.23. Just over 80 percent of NT imperatives can be classified as positive commands (1,169) to do something or negative prohibitions (188) against doing something.24 This is in keeping with the mood’s essential expression of direction. The following chart illustrates our understanding of verbal aspect in the imperative mood.
Two Aspects in Second-Person Commands and Prohibitions
| Aspect | Command | Prohibition (with μή) |
|---|---|---|
| Present (Imperfective): Used to highlight a verbal process by viewing it as in progress *(with no necessary expectation of continuous action) | Do it! | Don’t do it! |
| *(Be doing it!) | *(Don’t be doing it!) | |
| Aorist (Perfective): Used to indicate a verbal process as a complete whole | Do it! | Don’t do it! (with the subjunctive) |
1. Present-tense commands
a. Second person
| ἀσθενοῦντας θεραπεύετε, νεκροὺς ἐγείρετε, λεπροὺς καθαρίζετε, δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλετε· δωρεὰν ἐλάβετε, δωρεὰν δότε. (Matt. 10:8) | Heal those who are sick, raise the dead, cleanse the lepers, throw out demons. Freely you received, freely give. |
All of these commands are general, as is the aorist δότε.
| ὁ δὲ εἶπεν· Φέρετέ μοι ὧδε αὐτούς. (Matt. 14:18) | And he said, “Bring them [the loaves and fish] to me here.” |
The context indicates neither continuity nor repetition; the command is specific.
All imperative forms of ὑπάγω in the NT are in the present tense.
b. Third person
| Ὅταν δὲ ἴδητε τὸ βδέλυγμα τῆς ἐρημώσεως ἑστηκότα ὅπου οὐ δεῖ, ὁ ἀναγινώσκων νοείτω, τότε οἱ ἐν τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ φευγέτωσαν εἰς τὰ ὄρη (Mark 13:14) | But whenever you see the abomination of desolation standing where it should not be, the one reading must understand, then those in Judea should flee to the mountains. (specific) |
| πάντα ὑμῶν ἐν ἀγάπῃ γινέσθω. (1 Cor. 16:14) | Your everything / all you do must be done in love. (general) |
Remember that neuter plural subjects often take a singular verb.
All imperatives of ἔρχομαι in Revelation are present. There is one aorist form in John 4:16.
2. Aorist-tense commands
a. Second person
| σὺ δὲ νηστεύων ἄλειψαί σου τὴν κεφαλὴν καὶ τὸ πρόσωπόν σου νίψαι (Matt. 6:17) | And you, when fasting, anoint your head and wash your face. (general) |
| καὶ φέρετε τὸν μόσχον τὸν σιτευτόν, θύσατε, καὶ φαγόντες εὐφρανθῶμεν (Luke 15:23) | And bring the fattened calf, kill it, and let’s celebrate with feasting. (specific, as is the present-tense φέρετε) |
| ἠγοράσθητε γὰρ τιμῆς· δοξάσατε δὴ τὸν θεὸν ἐν τῷ σώματι ὑμῶν. (1 Cor. 6:20) | For you were bought with a price; therefore, glorify God in your body. (general) |
| Διὸ τὰς παρειμένας χεῖρας καὶ τὰ παραλελυμένα γόνατα ἀνορθώσατε (Heb. 12:12) | Therefore strengthen your drooping hands and your weakened knees. (general) |
| ἐγὼ ὅσους ἐὰν φιλῶ ἐλέγχω καὶ παιδεύω· ζήλευε οὖν καὶ μετανόησον. (Rev. 3:19) | I rebuke and discipline whomever I love. Therefore be zealous and repent. (general, as is the present-tense ζήλευε) |
| ὁ δὲ ἔφη· Τί γὰρ κακὸν ἐποίησεν; οἱ δὲ περισσῶς ἔκραζον λέγοντες· Σταυρωθήτω. (Matt. 27:23) | And he said, “For what evil has he done?” But they were shouting all the more, saying, “He must be crucified.” (specific) |
Note the use of the aorist active in Mark 15:13 (Σταύρωσον αὐτόν) and the present active in Luke 23:21 (Σταύρου σταύρου αὐτόν).
| Ἔλεγεν δὲ πρὸς πάντας· Εἴ τις θέλει ὀπίσω μου ἔρχεσθαι, ἀρνησάσθω ἑαυτὸν καὶ ἀράτω τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καθ᾽ ἡμέραν καὶ ἀκολουθείτω μοι. (Luke 9:23) | And he was saying to all, “If anyone wishes to come after me he/she must deny him/herself and take up his/her cross daily and follow me.” (general, as is the present-tense ἀκολουθείτω) |
| τὸ ἐπιεικὲς ὑμῶν γνωσθήτω πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις. ὁ κύριος ἐγγύς· (Phil. 4:5) | Your gentleness should be known to all people. The Lord is near. (general) |
| ἀσθενεῖ τις ἐν ὑμῖν; προσκαλεσάσθω τοὺς πρεσβυτέρους τῆς ἐκκλησίας, καὶ προσευξάσθωσαν ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν ἀλείψαντες αὐτὸν ἐλαίῳ ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι τοῦ κυρίου· (James 5:14) | Is anyone among you weak/sick? He/she should call the elders of the church, and they should pray over him/her, anointing him/her in the name of the Lord. (general, as are the present imperatives in the previous verse) |
| Εἴ τις ἔχει οὖς ἀκουσάτω. (Rev. 13:9) | If anyone has an ear, he/she must hear. (general) |
3. Present-tense prohibitions
a. Second person
These present imperatives are frequently taken as expressing prohibitions against the already ongoing act of sinning: “stop letting sin rule,” “stop presenting your members.” The aorist παραστήσατε is then given an ingressive meaning: “start to present” (after they have stopped the former).25 However, this reflects a misunderstanding of the tense-forms and incorrectly assumes, apart from any clear contextual evidence, that the readers are already engaged in the action (which they are told to stop). Instead, the present-tense prohibitions are used to draw attention to the theme begun in 6:1 of freedom from the reign of sin. The aorist command simply summarizes the positive counterpart.
b. Third person
4. Aorist-tense prohibitions
a. Second person (see above, on subjunctive prohibitions). Since some grammars indicate that aorist prohibitions tend to be specific (in both type and time of action),26 all but a couple of examples we have chosen to use below are general in their scope.27
| ὑμεῖς δὲ μὴ κληθῆτε· Ῥαββί, εἷς γάρ ἐστιν ὑμῶν ὁ διδάσκαλος, πάντες δὲ ὑμεῖς ἀδελφοί ἐστε· (Matt. 23:8) | But you, do not be called Rabbi, for you have / yours is one teacher, and you all are brothers and sisters. |
| καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ αἴροντός σου τὸ ἱμάτιον καὶ τὸν χιτῶνα μὴ κωλύσῃς. (Luke 6:29) | And from the one who takes your coat, do not withhold your shirt either. |
| μὴ θαυμάσῃς ὅτι εἶπόν σοι Δεῖ ὑμᾶς γεννηθῆναι ἄνωθεν. (John 3:7) | Do not marvel that I said to you, “It is necessary for you to be born again / from above.” |
This example cannot be “don’t start to marvel,” since the context is pretty clear that Nicodemus is already astonished at what Jesus is saying.
This seems to be an example where “don’t start to write” works, since John says he was about to write these things down in the first part of the verse.
b. Third person. There are only eight aorist prohibitions in the NT that use imperative forms; all occur in the Gospels, half of them in parallel passages. All are specific according to Huffman and can be understood as prohibiting an action from ever occurring.28
| σοῦ δὲ ποιοῦντος ἐλεημοσύνην μὴ γνώτω ἡ ἀριστερά σου τί ποιεῖ ἡ δεξιά σου (Matt. 6:3) | But when you are doing something charitable, your left hand must not know what your right hand is doing. |
| ὁ ἐπὶ τοῦ δώματος μὴ καταβάτω μηδὲ εἰσελθάτω τι ἆραι ἐκ τῆς οἰκίας αὐτοῦ (Mark 13:15) | The one on the housetop must not go down or enter to take anything from his/her house. |
Entreaty (Request)
8.24. Although entreaties, or requests, might well be treated as a subcategory under commands, we have chosen to highlight them here. All that makes an imperative an entreaty rather than a command is context; therefore, special attention must be paid to context. In general, social or vocational inferiors do not command their superiors, and superiors do not entreat inferiors. But, with Wallace (488), we recognize that since we are dealing with written documents, we cannot determine by tone of voice, gesture, or tacit “please” when this general rule is broken. At the same time, we can state with confidence, based on his character, that Jesus asked the woman at the well for water rather than ordering her. We can also assume that Jesus taught his disciples to make humble requests of God rather than to place arrogant demands on him. It should go without saying that ontological inferiors ought not to command their superior; that is, people should not command God. Not surprisingly, most of the NT imperatives of entreaty are found in prayers, and most (80 percent) of the entreaties are in the aorist tense-form. Unfortunately, Boyer explains this predominance of aorists, which is out of keeping with the overall NT preference for present imperatives, with the observation that it “is in accord with usual Greek practice and reflects the tendency of requests and prayers to be occasional and specific.”29 Since both present and aorist imperatives are used for both general and specific commands, prohibitions, and entreaties,30 “it is best to regard the aorist as grammaticalizing the entirety of the request; that is, when we pray, we normally commit the whole matter to God” (Young 144–45).
| Οὕτως οὖν προσεύχεσθε ὑμεῖς· Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς· ἁγιασθήτω τὸ ὄνομά σου (Matt. 6:9) | Therefore, you pray this way, “Our Father who is in heaven, let your name be sanctified.” |
Jesus commands or entreats (present, general) his disciples to entreat (aorist, general and viewed as a whole) God.
| καὶ προσελθόντες οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ἠρώτουν αὐτὸν λέγοντες· Ἀπόλυσον αὐτήν, ὅτι κράζει ὄπισθεν ἡμῶν. (Matt. 15:23) | And having approached, his disciples requested of him, saying, “Send her away, because she is crying behind us.” |
| ἡ δὲ ἐλθοῦσα προσεκύνει αὐτῷ λέγουσα· Κύριε, βοήθει μοι. (Matt. 15:25) | But the woman who came knelt before him, saying, “Lord, help me.” |
Though it is in the present tense, we understand this entreaty as urgent and specific.
Permission
8.25. Some imperatives grant permission or consent rather than give explicit direction. “Rather than an appeal to the will, this category involves a response to the will of another.”31 Again, this depends on the context. Of the 27 classified in this way by Boyer, 17 are in the second person.32 Perhaps this will further dispel the notion that third-person imperatives must have a permissive sense in Greek.
| καὶ ἀποκριθεὶς ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν πρὸς αὐτόν· Σίμων, ἔχω σοί τι εἰπεῖν. ὁ δέ· Διδάσκαλε, εἰπέ, φησίν. (Luke 7:40) | And answering, Jesus said to him, “Simon, I have something to say to you.” And he said, “Teacher, speak.” |
Peter isn’t entreating Jesus but rather indicating that he is willing to hear what Jesus has to say.
| ὅτε οὖν εἶδον αὐτὸν οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς καὶ οἱ ὑπηρέται ἐκραύγασαν λέγοντες· Σταύρωσον σταύρωσον. λέγει αὐτοῖς ὁ Πιλᾶτος· Λάβετε αὐτὸν ὑμεῖς καὶ σταυρώσατε, ἐγὼ γὰρ οὐχ εὑρίσκω ἐν αὐτῷ αἰτίαν. (John 19:6) | Therefore when they saw him, the chief priests and officers shouted, saying, “Crucify, crucify.” Pilate said to them, “Take him and you crucify [him], for I find no case against him.” |
Against his better judgment, Pilate is granting permission.
Not only do all four aorist imperatives grant permission, but they also are made durative by ἔτι.
Condition
8.26. In certain contexts, imperatival clauses act similarly to protases of conditional sentences. An imperative followed by καί and a future indicative (“Do x, and y will happen”) creates an idiomatic construction that can be understood as pragmatically if not formally equivalent to a condition. At the same time, Porter’s caution is valid: “Contextually the first verb may express a condition or supposition for the second process, but formally the Imperative is nothing but an Imperative and its [+ direction] semantic force is present.”33 The presence of the semantic force of the imperative in the twenty or so undisputed conditional imperatives in the NT is clear enough: “The imperative expresses the desire of the speaker/writer to fulfill the condition.”34 John 2:19, however, raises a question; it fits the imperative + καί + future indicative pattern, but in what sense is Jesus directing the Jews to destroy the temple? Alternately, Eph. 4:26 would make a great deal of sense as a conditional construction (“If you are angry, don’t sin . . .”), but it does not fit the pattern, involving as it does an imperative followed by καί and a prohibition.35
Greeting and Interjection
8.27. The imperative mood also came to be used in certain greetings and exclamations. These are idiomatic uses that do not carry the imperative’s normal directive force. In the latter two examples below, the interjections (singular imperatives in form) are addressed to a plural audience.
| καὶ εὐθέως προσελθὼν τῷ Ἰησοῦ εἶπεν· Χαῖρε, ῥαββί· καὶ κατεφίλησεν αὐτόν. (Matt. 26:49) | And immediately, having come to Jesus, he said, “Greetings, Rabbi,” and he kissed him. | |
| Ἴδε ἐγὼ Παῦλος λέγω ὑμῖν ὅτι ἐὰν περιτέμνησθε Χριστὸς ὑμᾶς οὐδὲν ὠφελήσει. (Gal. 5:2) | Look, I, Paul, say to you that if you become circumcised, Christ is no benefit to you. | |
| Ἄγε νῦν οἱ πλούσιοι, κλαύσατε ὀλολύζοντες ἐπὶ ταῖς ταλαιπωρίαις ὑμῶν ταῖς ἐπερχομέναις. (James 5:1) | Come now, rich people, weep, wailing because of the miseries that are coming upon you. |
Other Ways to Express a Command
8.28. The following summarizes a handful of other ways that commands can be expressed in the NT with constructions other than with the imperative mood.
1. Verbs of volition (in the indicative; see above). Verbs of exhorting and commanding, with the infinitive.
| Παρακαλῶ οὖν ὑμᾶς . . . ἀξίως περιπατῆσαι τῆς κλήσεως ἧς ἐκλήθητε (Eph. 4:1) | Therefore I exhort you . . . to walk worthily of the calling with which you were called. |
2. Infinitives
| χαίρειν μετὰ χαιρόντων, κλαίειν μετὰ κλαιόντων. (Rom. 12:15) | Rejoice with those who rejoice, weep with those who weep. |
3. Participles. See chapter 10, on participles.
4. Future indicative
| Ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἐρρέθη τοῖς ἀρχαίοις· Οὐ φονεύσεις· (Matt. 5:21) | You have heard that it was said to those of old, “You shall not murder!” |
For Practice
8.29. Analyze the imperatives (in bold) in the following texts. Be sure to consider tense-form usage.
ἔφη αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς· εἰ θέλεις τέλειος εἶναι, ὕπαγε πώλησόν σου τὰ ὑπάρχοντα καὶ δὸς τοῖς πτωχοῖς, καὶ ἕξεις θησαυρὸν ἐν οὐρανοῖς, καὶ δεῦρο ἀκολούθει μοι. (Matt. 19:21)
τότε λέγει αὐταῖς ὁ Ἰησοῦς· μὴ φοβεῖσθε· ὑπάγετε ἀπαγγείλατε τοῖς ἀδελφοῖς μου ἵνα ἀπέλθωσιν εἰς τὴν Γαλιλαίαν, κἀκεῖ με ὄψονται. (Matt. 28:10)
6ὁ δὲ Ἰησοῦς ἐπορεύετο σὺν αὐτοῖς. ἤδη δὲ αὐτοῦ οὐ μακρὰν ἀπέχοντος ἀπὸ τῆς οἰκίας ἔπεμψεν φίλους ὁ ἑκατοντάρχης λέγων αὐτῷ· Κύριε, μὴ σκύλλου, οὐ γὰρ ἱκανός εἰμι ἵνα ὑπὸ τὴν στέγην μου εἰσέλθῃς· 7διὸ οὐδὲ ἐμαυτὸν ἠξίωσα πρὸς σὲ ἐλθεῖν· ἀλλὰ εἰπὲ λόγῳ, καὶ ἰαθήτω ὁ παῖς μου· 8καὶ γὰρ ἐγὼ ἄνθρωπός εἰμι ὑπὸ ἐξουσίαν τασσόμενος, ἔχων ὑπ᾽ ἐμαυτὸν στρατιώτας, καὶ λέγω τούτῳ· Πορεύθητι, καὶ πορεύεται, καὶ ἄλλῳ· Ἔρχου, καὶ ἔρχεται, καὶ τῷ δούλῳ μου· Ποίησον τοῦτο, καὶ ποιεῖ. (Luke 7:6–8)
11Παράγγελλε ταῦτα καὶ δίδασκε. 12μηδείς σου τῆς νεότητος καταφρονείτω, ἀλλὰ τύπος γίνου τῶν πιστῶν ἐν λόγῳ, ἐν ἀναστροφῇ, ἐν ἀγάπῃ, ἐν πίστει, ἐν ἁγνείᾳ. (1 Tim. 4:11–12)
8ἐγγίσατε τῷ θεῷ, καὶ ἐγγιεῖ ὑμῖν. καθαρίσατε χεῖρας, ἁμαρτωλοί, καὶ ἁγνίσατε καρδίας, δίψυχοι. 9ταλαιπωρήσατε καὶ πενθήσατε καὶ κλαύσατε· ὁ γέλως ὑμῶν εἰς πένθος μετατραπήτω καὶ ἡ χαρὰ εἰς κατήφειαν· (James 4:8–9)
1Καὶ τῷ ἀγγέλῳ τῆς ἐν Σάρδεσιν ἐκκλησίας γράψον· Τάδε λέγει ὁ ἔχων τὰ ἑπτὰ πνεύματα τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ τοὺς ἑπτὰ ἀστέρας· Οἶδά σου τὰ ἔργα ὅτι ὄνομα ἔχεις ὅτι ζῇς, καὶ νεκρὸς εἶ. 2γίνου γρηγορῶν καὶ στήρισον τὰ λοιπὰ ἃ ἔμελλον ἀποθανεῖν, οὐ γὰρ εὕρηκά σου τὰ ἔργα πεπληρωμένα ἐνώπιον τοῦ θεοῦ μου· 3μνημόνευε οὖν πῶς εἴληφας καὶ ἤκουσας καὶ τήρει, καὶ μετανόησον· ἐὰν οὖν μὴ γρηγορήσῃς, ἥξω ὡς κλέπτης, καὶ οὐ μὴ γνῷς ποίαν ὥραν ἥξω ἐπὶ σέ· (Rev. 3:1–3)