PARTICIPLES
10.1. “We now come to one of NT Greek’s favorite parts of speech, the versatile participle, whose use serves to illustrate the genius of the language.”1 According to Wallace, “Mastery of the syntax of participles is mastery of Greek syntax” (613). The participle is a “heavily worked” form in the Greek NT, occurring 6,662 times. Therefore, the ability to analyze it is essential for interpreting virtually any NT text. The participle is frequently described as a verbal adjective, “part adjective, part verb” (Robertson 1101), possessing characteristics of both. As a verbal form it has aspect and voice, and it can take adverbial modifiers and direct objects. It can even function like a main verb in a sentence in a few instances. As an adjective, it takes case, gender, and number, and it can modify a substantive or act as one. The participle is a nonfinite form; that is, like the infinitive, it is not limited by person, nor does it possess mood.
All grammarians realize that participles do not indicate absolute time (past, present, future) but relative time (see below, on participles and time). As with finite verbs, the key feature of participles is not time but verbal aspect, or how the author chooses to represent an action:2 aorist participles convey perfective aspect; present participles convey imperfective aspect; perfect participles convey stative aspect. The rare future participle (only 13 in the NT) conveys action that is expected to take place. No matter what the function of the participle (see below), it still always communicates verbal aspect.3
A key to determining how a participle is being utilized is the presence or absence of the article (with which, if present, the participle agrees in gender, number, and case). If a participle is preceded by an article, it is adjectival—functioning either as an attributive modifier (if it stands in relation to another nominal in the same case, gender, and number) or as a substantive (if it does not modify another nominal). If it does not have an article, the participle usually functions adverbially—and possibly as complementary to another verb in periphrastic constructions or, in a few instances, as a main verb. However, though the presence of the article guarantees that a participle is adjectival, the absence of the article does not guarantee that it is adverbial; some anarthrous participles (i.e., those without the article) are still employed adjectivally. When no article is present, one must pay special attention to the context to determine how a participle is functioning. (Participles that are nominative and lack an article are usually adverbial.) Based on the above discussion, it is important to distinguish the form of a participle (a participle is a participle is a participle!) from the variety of ways it can function (as a substantive; attributive or adverbial modifier; predicate; etc.).
Though there are multiple ways of classifying participles,4 given their description as “verbal adjectives,” we will discuss them according to their adjectival functions (as attributive modifiers, as predicate adjectives, and as substantives) and according to their verbal functions (as adverbial modifiers, supplementary to verbs, as predicates—used as a finite verb). We will also discuss two additional uses: genitive absolutes and periphrastic constructions. One way in which this grammar departs from many previous ones is in its treatment of the adverbial participle. Most grammars subcategorize adverbial participles into at least eight different categories: temporal, causal, concessive, manner, conditional, means, attendant circumstances, purpose, and result.5 However, for reasons to be discussed below, we will avoid using those labels for the participles themselves.
Adjectival Uses of the Participle
Attributive (Noun Modifier)
10.2. A participle can function like an adjective to modify another substantive in a clause by restricting it in some way. This is one of the most common uses of the participle. What distinguishes an adjectival participle from an adjective is that participles provide us with the bonus features of aspect and voice (Porter 186). An attributive participle agrees in case, gender, and number with the substantive it modifies. It may have an article or be anarthrous. Though attributive participles are usually translated as relative clauses (“who . . .”; “which . . .”; “that . . .”), it would be incorrect to conclude that they simply replace relative clauses. They still maintain their distinctives as participles.
| Τοῦτό ἐστιν τὸ αἷμά μου τῆς διαθήκης τὸ ἐκχυννόμενον ὑπὲρ πολλῶν. (Mark 14:24) | This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many. | |
| καὶ οἱ μάρτυρες ἀπέθεντο τὰ ἱμάτια αὐτῶν παρὰ τοὺς πόδας νεανίου καλουμένου Σαύλου. (Acts 7:58) | And the witnesses laid their garments before the feet of a young man named Saul. (an attributive participle without the article) | |
| εἰς ἔνδειξιν τῆς δικαιοσύνης αὐτοῦ διὰ τὴν πάρεσιν τῶν προγεγονότων ἁμαρτημάτων (Rom. 3:25) | For a display of his righteousness because of the passing over of sins previously committed. | |
| Εὐλογητὸς ὁ θεὸς καὶ πατὴρ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὁ κατὰ τὸ πολὺ αὐτοῦ ἔλεος ἀναγεννήσας ἡμᾶς (1 Pet. 1:3) | Blessed is the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who gave us new birth according to his great mercy. | |
| καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ ἀπεκτάνθησαν ἐν τῇ ῥομφαίᾳ τοῦ καθημένου ἐπὶ τοῦ ἵππου τῇ ἐξελθούσῃ ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ (Rev. 19:21) | And the rest died by the sword that comes out of the mouth of the one seated upon the horse. |
Predicate Adjective
10.3. The participle can occur (infrequently) with or without a linking verb as a predicate adjective. It will also be anarthrous.
The participle is parallel to the predicate adjective νεκρός in the previous clause.
Substantive
10.4. The participle can also function as (i.e., fill the slot of) a substantive in a clause. In this case, it does not modify another nominal but acts as one itself (e.g., “the one believing”). A substantival participle can be employed in virtually any way a noun can: subject, direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, and the like. The article usually accompanies this usage of the participle.6
| Ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ τεχθεὶς βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων; (Matt. 2:2) | Where is the one born king of the Jews? |
The participle functions as the subject of the verb ἐστίν.
| φωνὴ βοῶντος ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ· (Mark 1:3) | The voice of one crying in the desert. |
The genitive participle cannot modify φωνή as an attributive (“a voice crying”) but functions as a substantive, with the genitive showing possession.
The accusative participles all function as the direct objects of the infinitive ἀνακαινίζειν.
| χάρις ὑμῖν καὶ εἰρήνη ἀπὸ ὁ ὢν καὶ ὁ ἦν καὶ ὁ ἐρχόμενος (Rev. 1:4) | Grace to you and peace from the one who is and who was and who is coming. |
The participles are the objects of a preposition. Notice the grammatical incongruity with the nominative used after the preposition ἀπό (we would expect the genitive). This incongruity is likely intentional on the part of the author and is meant to get the readers to sit up and take notice. This is probably because the author wants to draw attention to the nature of this expression as a title and its OT antecedent (Exod. 3:14).7
| καὶ ὅταν δώσουσιν τὰ ζῷα δόξαν καὶ τιμὴν καὶ εὐχαριστίαν τῷ καθημένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ θρόνῳ (Rev. 4:9) | And whenever the living creatures give glory and honor and thanksgiving to the one seated upon the throne. (indirect object) | |
| ὁ δράκων ὁ μέγας, ὁ ὄφις ὁ ἀρχαῖος, ὁ καλούμενος Διάβολος καὶ ὁ Σατανᾶς (Rev. 12:9) | The great dragon, the ancient serpent, the one called the devil and Satan. (in apposition to δράκων) |
10.5. The category of the participle often labeled as a “predicate” use (Wallace 618) or as a “complementary” use (BDF §§414–16) probably belongs here as a substantival usage instead. This is the use of the participle along with another nominal in the accusative case, after verbs of perception: thinking, considering, hearing, and seeing. In these instances the participle could be attributive, modifying an accusative nominal. However, it could also be substantival, acting as the complement in a double accusative object-complement construction (see chap. 1, on cases).8 The noun or noun substitute is the object and the participle the complement. In “I saw him studying,” the pronoun “him” is the object, and the participle “studying” is the complement following the verb “saw.”
| εἶδεν πνεῦμα θεοῦ καταβαῖνον ὡσεὶ περιστεράν (Matt. 3:16) | I saw the Spirit of God [object] coming down [complement] as a dove. |
It is possible to analyze this as an attributive use of the participle: “I saw the Spirit of God that was coming down as a dove.” However, this could more easily be seen as the complement in a double accusative object-complement construction.
| ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκετε τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ θεοῦ· πᾶν πνεῦμα ὃ ὁμολογεῖ Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν ἐν σαρκὶ ἐληλυθότα ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστιν (1 John 4:2) | By this we know the Spirit of God: every spirit that confesses Jesus Christ [object] having come [complement] in flesh is from God. |
Again, it is possible to analyze this as an attributive use of the participle: “Every spirit that confesses Jesus Christ who has come in flesh is from God.” Yet, we prefer to understand it as the complement in a double-accusative object-complement construction in indirect discourse (in direct speech: “Every spirit that confesses, ‘Jesus Christ has come in flesh,’ is from God”).
| εἶδον ἄγγελον ἰσχυρὸν κηρύσσοντα ἐν φωνῇ μεγάλῃ· (Rev. 5:2) | I saw a strong angel [object] proclaiming [complement] with a great voice. |
There are a number of examples of this construction in Revelation (see also 7:1, 2; 10:1).
Adverbial Use of the Participles
Verbal Modifier (Circumstantial)
10.6. Like an adverb, the participle can modify another verbal element in the sentence. This usage will never have an article, though the absence of an article is no guarantee that a participle is adverbial. It will also usually be in the nominative case, since the subject of the participle is usually identical with the subject of the main verb; that is, the participle maintains a connection to the subject of the main verb, whether explicit or implied, from which it gets its case, gender, and number.9 The adverbial participle simply specifies the circumstances (hence “circumstantial”) under which the action of the verb it modifies takes place.10
Most grammars subcategorize adverbial participles as temporal, causal, concessive, manner, conditional, means, purpose, and result. Some actually see these as eight different kinds of adverbial participles. Grammatical analysis, then, consists of fitting a given participle into one of these categories. However, we are not convinced that this is the best way to approach adverbial participles. As most grammars admit, these meanings are heavily dependent on the wider context, if they are present at all.11 But the participles themselves do not bear these meanings. If the author wanted unambiguously to indicate time, cause, manner, purpose, condition, or other ideas, there were very clear means of doing so: for example, a ὅτι-clause (cause), a ἵνα-clause (purpose or result), or a clause beginning with ὅτε (time) or ἐάν (condition). The point is that participles are ambiguous and, by themselves, do not indicate such refinements of meaning. They are marked not for these meanings but only for tense, voice, gender, number, and case. Rather, these meanings, if present at all, are context driven. It is not that such nuances are not present; it is just that the participles do not indicate or emphasize them. In other words, a participle seems to be the ideal construction to use when the author does not want to commit to any specific adverbial meaning (cause, manner, condition, etc.). It is therefore probably better to avoid these labels as descriptions of the participle.
So what is the function of the adverbial participle? A helpful way of analyzing adverbial participles is to observe the spatial relationship of the participle to the main verb. Does the participle precede or follow the main verb?
10.7. If the participle precedes the main verb, it usually communicates background or prerequisite action to the main verb, especially when it is in the aorist tense-form. The participle signals information that is of secondary importance to the action of the main verb, so that more attention is placed on the main verb.12 The participle could as well be seen as a step to accomplishing the goal of the main verb (Young 158).
We would also include what most grammarians label “attendant circumstances” under this construction.13 In this “use” of the participle, the action of the participle occurs in close proximity to that of the main verb and is usually construed as a coordinate finite verb connected to the main verb it modifies; an “and” is supplied by the translator. Both the participle and the main verb occur in the aorist tense. For example, in Matt. 28:19 (πορευθέντες οὖν μαθητεύσατε πάντα τὰ ἔθνη) the aorist participle (πορευθέντες) that precedes the main verb (the aorist imperative μαθητεύσατε) is often labeled a participle of attendant circumstances and is translated as an imperative: “Go and make disciples.” While this may be a valid translation, it overlooks the fact that the participle is still subordinate to and modifies the main verb, irrespective of how we translate it.14 Here πορευθέντες, though it may pick up some of the imperatival force of the main verb, depicts action that is prerequisite to or a step to the goal of the action of the main verb (Young 158). It communicates action backgrounded to that of the main verb, with the primary focus being on the imperative, “make disciples.”15 The action of the participle is closely associated with or occurs in close proximity to the action of the main verb but is not necessarily simultaneous with it. This so-called usage is often found in narrative.
Participle → Main Verb
| Τότε Ἡρῴδης λάθρᾳ καλέσας τοὺς μάγους ἠκρίβωσεν παρʼ αὐτῶν τὸν χρόνον τοῦ φαινομένου ἀστέρος (Matt. 2:7) | Then Herod, having called the magi secretly, ascertained from them the time of the appearing of the star. |
The action of calling is prerequisite to, or the background to, the main focus of attention, which is the main verb, “ascertained.”
| καθίσας δὲ ἐκ τοῦ πλοίου ἐδίδασκεν τοὺς ὄχλους. (Luke 5:3) | And sitting in the boat, he taught the crowds. |
The NIV translates this with two coordinate verbs: “Then he sat down and taught the people.” While this may be a valid translation, it obscures the fact that the first verb form is a participle that is subordinate to and indicates action prerequisite to the main verb, “taught.”
| ἐν ᾧ καὶ πιστεύσαντες ἐσφραγίσθητε τῷ πνεύματι τῆς ἐπαγγελίας τῷ ἁγίῳ (Eph. 1:13) | In whom also having believed, you were sealed with the Holy Spirit of promise. |
The two actions either are simultaneous or occur in close proximity.
| Ἀποθέμενοι οὖν πᾶσαν κακίαν καὶ πάντα δόλον . . . ὡς ἀρτιγέννητα βρέφη τὸ λογικὸν ἄδολον γάλα ἐπιποθήσατε (1 Pet. 2:1–2) | Therefore, having put off all evil and all guile . . . , as newborn babies, desire the pure milk of the word. |
Though it may pick up some of the imperatival force of the main verb, the participle ἀποθέμενοι is a prerequisite and backgrounded to the action of the imperative ἐπιποθήσατε.
| καὶ ἐπιστρέψας εἶδον ἑπτὰ λυχνίας χρυσᾶς (Rev. 1:12) | And having turned, I saw seven golden lampstands. |
10.8. When the participle follows the main verb, it tends to further explain or describe in some way what is entailed in the action of the main verb. This is especially true with present-tense participles. That is, “they elaborate the action of the main verb, often providing more specific explanation of what is meant by the main action.”16
Main Verb → Participle
The two present participles (βαπτίζοντες, διδάσκοντες) define further what it means to make disciples: baptizing and teaching.
| κρίμα ἑαυτῷ ἐσθίει καὶ πίνει μὴ διακρίνων τὸ σῶμα. (1 Cor. 11:29) | He/she eats and drinks judgment upon himself/herself, not discerning the body. | |
| Τῇ προσευχῇ προσκαρτερεῖτε, γρηγοροῦντες ἐν αὐτῇ ἐν εὐχαριστίᾳ (Col. 4:2) | Devote [yourselves] to prayer, being watchful in it with thanksgiving. | |
| Ἄγε νῦν οἱ πλούσιοι, κλαύσατε ὀλολύζοντες ἐπὶ ταῖς ταλαιπωρίαις ὑμῶν ταῖς ἐπερχομέναις. (James 5:1) | Come now, rich people, weep, wailing because of the miseries that are coming upon you. | |
| καὶ ἔβαλον χοῦν ἐπὶ τὰς κεφαλὰς αὐτῶν καὶ ἔκραξαν κλαίοντες καὶ πενθοῦντες (Rev. 18:19) | And they threw dust on their heads and cried out, weeping and mourning. (further specifying what the “crying out” is) |
10.9. This kind of analysis, we suggest, is more important than assigning the traditional labels found in most grammars (time, cause, manner, conditional, etc.). The participle is “unmarked” for those kinds of meanings, and the student should not feel compelled to assign one. Rather, the participle is used to prioritize verbal actions in relationship to that of the main verb. As Runge states, “The most important thing to understand about the participle is the idea of prioritization of action.”17 That is, certain actions (conveyed through participles) play a subordinate, modifying role over against the main verb, which is the primary focus. Participles either provide background or prerequisite information, or they further explain and describe in more detail the action of the main verb. Nevertheless, the adverbial participle can occur in contexts that indicate various adverbial nuances (time, cause, concession, manner, condition, purpose, means, etc.). Rather than saying, “This is a causal participle,” it is more accurate, though more cumbersome, to say, “This is an adverbial participle used in a context that indicates a causal relationship to the main verb,” if the evidence in the context points to such a conclusion. Even then, this is not the most important thing communicated by the participle. But in the absence of clear contextual indicators, most of the time “it may simply be better not to specify the relation between the participle and the other elements of the construction” (Porter 191). Many are ambiguous and could fit more than one category. Below are some examples of the participle functioning in different types of contexts.
1. Cause. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest cause.
| Δικαιωθέντες οὖν ἐκ πίστεως εἰρήνην ἔχομεν πρὸς τὸν θεόν (Rom. 5:1) | Therefore, having been justified [since we have been justified] by faith, we have peace with God. |
2. Manner. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest manner.
| παραγίνεται Ἰωάννης ὁ βαπτιστὴς κηρύσσων ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ τῆς Ἰουδαίας (Matt. 3:1) | John the Baptist came, preaching in the desert of Judea. |
3. Time. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest time (see the section on participles and time below).
| καὶ ἔκραξαν βλέποντες τὸν καπνὸν τῆς πυρώσεως αὐτῆς (Rev. 18:18) | And they cried out, seeing [when they saw] the smoke from its burning. (though this could also suggest cause) |
4. Concession. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest concession (“in spite of, although”).
See also Heb. 5:8, where the concessive force of the participle ὤν is made clear by the particle καίπερ (although).
5. Instrument. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest instrument or means.
| ἀλλὰ ἑαυτὸν ἐκένωσεν μορφὴν δούλου λαβών (Phil. 2:7) | But he emptied himself, [by] taking on the form of a slave. |
6. Purpose or result. The participle can be used in a context that may suggest purpose or result.
| Καὶ ἰδοὺ νομικός τις ἀνέστη ἐκπειράζων αὐτὸν (Luke 10:25) | And look, a certain lawyer stood up, testing [in order to test] him. |
7. Condition. The participle can be used in a context that may express a condition (“if”).
| πῶς ἡμεῖς ἐκφευξόμεθα τηλικαύτης ἀμελήσαντες σωτηρίας; (Heb. 2:3) | How shall we escape, ignoring [if we ignore] such a great salvation? (could be causal) |
Participles and Time
10.10. There has been ample discussion on the relationship between participles and time. Though participles in and of themselves indicate verbal aspect rather than time, it is commonly accepted that they do have a temporal relationship within the context (Zerwick 129). That is, they indicate time relative to that of the main verb. However, the temporal relationship is not always clear. A very influential proposal is that aorist participles indicate antecedent (past) time in relationship to the main verb, present participles indicate time simultaneous (contemporaneous) with that of the main verb, and future participles indicate action subsequent (future) to the main verb.18 This is natural, since action that is conceived of as perfective, grammaticalized with the aorist participle, lends itself to being used of action that is complete and thus preceding another action. The present tense, since it conceives of the action as developing or unfolding, lends itself to portraying an action that overlaps (is simultaneous) with another one.
| οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς ἐμπαίζοντες μετὰ τῶν γραμματέων καὶ πρεσβυτέρων ἔλεγον· (Matt. 27:41) | The chief priests with the scribes and elders, mocking, were saying. (the present tense used of simultaneous action) | |
| ἀκούσας τὴν καθʼ ὑμᾶς πίστιν ἐν τῷ κυρίῳ Ἰησοῦ . . . , οὐ παύομαι εὐχαριστῶν (Eph. 1:15–16) | Having heard of your faith in the Lord Jesus . . . , I do not stop giving thanks. (the aorist participle used of antecedent action) | |
| ζῶντες ἐβλήθησαν οἱ δύο εἰς τὴν λίμνην τοῦ πυρός (Rev. 19:20) | While living, the two (beasts) were thrown into the lake of fire. (the present participle used of simultaneous action) |
While there are plenty of examples of this, there are also numerous exceptions to this so-called rule. A more promising proposal is that word order plays a role in indicating temporal relationship. When the participle precedes the main verb, it tends to indicate action prior (antecedent) to the action of the main verb; when the participle follows the main verb, it tends to indicate action that is simultaneous or subsequent to the action of the main verb. As Porter says, this is only a generalization, but it is one that often holds true.19
10.11. Antecedent action. In the following examples of the participle preceding the main verb, the action of the participle appears to be antecedent to that of the verb.
| ἐληλακότες οὖν ὡς σταδίους εἴκοσι πέντε ἢ τριάκοντα θεωροῦσιν τὸν Ἰησοῦν (John 6:19) | Therefore, having rowed about twenty-five or thirty stadia, they beheld Jesus. |
Here the rowing a distance (expressed with the perfect participle) seems to temporally precede the seeing.
| ἓν οἶδα ὅτι τυφλὸς ὢν ἄρτι βλέπω. (John 9:25) | One thing I know, that [once] being blind, now I see. |
The present participle is used for antecedent action.
| ἐν ᾧ καὶ ὑμεῖς ἀκούσαντες τὸν λόγον τῆς ἀληθείας, τὸ εὐαγγέλιον τῆς σωτηρίας ὑμῶν, ἐν ᾧ καὶ πιστεύσαντες ἐσφραγίσθητε τῷ πνεύματι (Eph. 1:13) | In whom you also—having heard the word of truth, the gospel of your salvation, in which having also believed—were sealed with the Spirit. |
Though it is possible that the action of the participles is antecedent to that of the main verb, “were sealed,” the idea may be that the actions are closely related.
10.12. Simultaneous action. In the following examples of the participle following the main verb, the action of the participle appears to be contemporaneous with (occurring at the same time as) the action of the verb. When the aorist participle is used of simultaneous action, the main verb is usually also in the aorist tense-form.
| Εἰ πνεῦμα ἅγιον ἐλάβετε πιστεύσαντες; (Acts 19:2) | Did you receive the Holy Spirit when you believed? |
The aorist participle seems to indicate action that takes place at the same time as, or closely associated with, the main verb “receive,” which is also aorist (see Eph. 1:13 above, where the aorist participle “having believed” precedes the main verb and indicates antecedent action).
| συνεζωοποίησεν ὑμᾶς σὺν αὐτῷ· χαρισάμενος ἡμῖν πάντα τὰ παραπτώματα (Col. 2:13) | He made you alive together with him, forgiving us all our trespasses. (an aorist participle following an aorist main verb) |
The forgiving seems to be simultaneous with the act of making alive rather than a temporally subsequent event.
| καὶ ἔκραξαν κλαίοντες καὶ πενθοῦντες λέγοντες· (Rev. 18:19) | And they cried out, weeping and mourning, saying. (present participles following an imperfect main verb) |
10.13. Subsequent action. In the following examples of the participle following the main verb, the action of the participle appears to be subsequent to (occurring after) that of the verb.
| ἰδοὺ νομικός τις ἀνέστη ἐκπειράζων αὐτὸν λέγων· (Luke 10:25) | Look, a certain lawyer got up, testing him, saying. |
Both present participles are subsequent (future) in relation to the act of getting up.
| Ἀγρίππας ὁ βασιλεὺς καὶ Βερνίκη κατήντησαν εἰς Καισάρειαν ἀσπασάμενοι τὸν Φῆστον. (Acts 25:13) | Agrippa the king and Bernice arrived in Caesarea, greeting Festus. | |
| εἰσῆλθεν ἐφάπαξ εἰς τὰ ἅγια, αἰωνίαν λύτρωσιν εὑράμενος. (Heb. 9:12) | He entered once for all into the holy place, finding an eternal redemption. |
Most likely the action of finding takes place subsequent to the entrance into the holy place (Porter 190).
There are obviously some examples in the NT that resist this scheme (e.g., ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν, “answering, he said”: the answering does not come before the saying).20 As seen above, sometimes the position of the participle indicates prioritizing of action. But at least the above demonstrates that the aspects of the participle can all be used in different temporal contexts. Ultimately, the safest procedure is to examine each participle in its broader context, along with its verbal aspect and its position in relationship to the main verb, in order to determine the temporal relationship between the participle and the verb that it modifies.
Complementary (Supplementary)
10.14. The participle sometimes completes the meaning of a finite verb. It occurs with verbs of ceasing or continuing and verbs that express emotion.21
The main verb is completed by two participles (see also Eph. 1:16).
| ὑμεῖς δέ, ἀδελφοί, μὴ ἐγκακήσητε καλοποιοῦντες. (2 Thess. 3:13) | But you, brothers and sisters, do not lose heart in doing good. |
Here the participle complements an aorist prohibition.
Predicate (Independent)
10.15. Although this usage is sometimes questioned and is rare, the participle can function as a finite verb; that is, it does not modify another verb (the adverbial modifier above), but it fills the slot of and acts as a finite verb. In these instances it is also possible that the participle completes an assumed or elided verb εἰμί.
| οὐ μόνον δέ, ἀλλὰ καὶ καυχώμενοι ἐν τῷ θεῷ (Rom. 5:11) | And not only [this], but also we boast in God. | |
| καὶ ἔχων ἐν τῇ δεξιᾷ χειρὶ αὐτοῦ ἀστέρας ἑπτά, καὶ ἐκ τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ ῥομφαία δίστομος ὀξεῖα ἐκπορευομένη (Rev. 1:16) | And he has in his right hand seven stars, and from his mouth proceeds a sharp two-edged sword. |
Here both participles seem to function as finite verbs in clauses that contain no finite verb forms. Revelation may have a number of other examples of the participle used as a finite verb (as possibilities, see 4:2, 4, 7, 8; 6:2; 9:17; 10:2, 8; 14:1; 19:12; 21:12, 14).22
There may also be some examples in the NT of the participle acting as an imperative verb. Again, this is fairly rare, but there is no reason to assume a “missing” verb that the participle supposedly modifies.23 The participle is simply taking the place of an imperative verb. Some think that this has been influenced by Hebrew idiom, where a Hebrew participle can function as a finite verb. However, James Moulton has demonstrated that this occurs in secular Greek outside of the NT.24
| Ἡ ἀγάπη ἀνυπόκριτος. ἀποστυγοῦντες τὸ πονηρόν, κολλώμενοι τῷ ἀγαθῷ· (Rom. 12:9) | Love [should be] without hypocrisy. Hate the evil; cling to the good. |
For other possible examples, see Rom. 12:10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, 19; 2 Cor. 8:24; 1 Pet 2:18; 3:7.
Two Further Uses of the Participle
Genitive Absolute
10.16. As the name “absolute” suggests, this use of the participle is grammatically unconnected (though it is conceptually related) to something in the main clause. (Contrast this with the use of the participle as a verbal modifier or attributive modifier above.) In Greek this construction consists of a genitive participle, usually accompanied by a genitive substantive that functions as the subject of the participle. There are two other identifying features of the genitive absolute. First, the subject of the participle (when there is one, it is in the genitive case) is not the same as the subject of the verb in the main clause (e.g., “Kara having eaten her lunch, he arrived at the bank”: the person doing the action of the participle, “having eaten,” is not the same as the person performing the action of the verb in the main clause, “arrived”). By contrast, in adverbial participles the subject of the participle is the same as that of the main verb (e.g., “While eating lunch, she studied for her exam”). Second, the genitive absolute usually occurs at the beginning of the sentence. Especially in narrative, the genitive absolute is used to indicate a transition from one topic or scene to another, a “switch reference.”25 The genitive absolute is more common in narrative than in the Epistles.
| Τοῦ δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας . . . , ἰδοὺ μάγοι ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν παρεγένοντο (Matt. 2:1) | Now Jesus being born in Bethlehem of Judea . . . look, magi from the east arrived. |
Note that the person involved in the act of being born (Jesus, the subject) is different from the subject of arriving (the magi). The genitive absolute provides a transition to a new subject: the magi and their arrival.
| Τελευτήσαντος δὲ τοῦ Ἡρῴδου ἰδοὺ ἄγγελος κυρίου φαίνεται κατʼ ὄναρ τῷ Ἰωσὴφ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ (Matt. 2:19) | And Herod having died, look, an angel of the Lord appeared in a dream to Joseph in Egypt. |
The genitive absolute closes the previous section on Herod (2:16–18) by referring to his death in order to transition to a new scene and actor: the angel who appears to Joseph.
| ἐξελθόντος αὐτοῦ ἐκ τοῦ πλοίου εὐθὺς ὑπήντησεν αὐτῷ ἐκ τῶν μνημείων ἄνθρωπος ἐν πνεύματι ἀκαθάρτῳ (Mark 5:2) | When he came out of the boat, immediately a man with an unclean spirit from the tombs met him. | |
| ἐποικοδομηθέντες ἐπὶ τῷ θεμελίῳ τῶν ἀποστόλων καὶ προφητῶν, ὄντος ἀκρογωνιαίου αὐτοῦ Χριστοῦ Ἰησοῦ (Eph. 2:20) | Having been built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief cornerstone. |
Note that those who have been built upon the foundation are distinguished from the one who is the cornerstone. The most intriguing feature is that the genitive absolute construction comes at the end of the sentence, after the main clause. This probably has the effect of highlighting Jesus as the main stone in the building.
| Χριστοῦ οὖν παθόντος σαρκὶ καὶ ὑμεῖς τὴν αὐτὴν ἔννοιαν ὁπλίσασθε (1 Pet. 4:1) | Therefore, Christ having suffered in the flesh, you also, arm yourselves with the same mind. |
Here the genitive absolute functions to switch the topic from the suffering of Christ, which was the topic of 3:18–22, to its implications for the readers.
10.17. A periphrastic construction consists of a form of an auxiliary verb (εἰμί or perhaps γίνομαι) and a participle. A periphrastic participle is a roundabout way of expressing what could be expressed with a normal finite verb form.26 According to Porter (45), the auxiliary (εἰμί or γίνομαι) contributes the mood, person, and number, while the participle contributes the verbal aspect and voice to the construction. The following combinations are found in the NT.
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| present tense of εἰμί | present participle | present indicative |
| καὶ καλέσουσιν τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἐμμανουήλ· ὅ ἐστιν μεθερμηνευόμενον Μεθʼ ἡμῶν ὁ θεός. (Matt. 1:23) | And they will call his name Emmanuel, which is interpreted, “God with us.” | |
| καθὼς καὶ ἐν παντὶ τῷ κόσμῳ ἐστὶν καρποφορούμενον καὶ αὐξανόμενον (Col. 1:6) | Just as also in all the world it is bearing fruit and growing. |
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| imperfect tense of εἰμί | present participle | imperfect indicative |
| καὶ ἦν διδάσκων αὐτοὺς ἐν τοῖς σάββασιν· (Luke 4:31) | And he was teaching them on the Sabbath. | |
| ἤμην δὲ ἀγνοούμενος τῷ προσώπῳ ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις (Gal. 1:22) | But I was unknown by face to the churches. |
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| future tense of εἰμί | present participle | future indicative |
| καὶ ἔσεσθε μισούμενοι ὑπὸ πάντων διὰ τὸ ὄνομά μου. (Mark 13:13) | And you will be hated by everyone because of my name. |
See also Mark 13:25: ἔσονται ἐκ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ πίπτοντες.
| Μὴ φοβοῦ· ἀπὸ τοῦ νῦν ἀνθρώπους ἔσῃ ζωγρῶν. (Luke 5:10) | Do not fear; from now on you will be catching people. |
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| present tense of εἰμί | perfect participle | perfect indicative |
| Πολλὰ . . . ἄλλα σημεῖα ἐποίησεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς . . . , ἃ οὐκ ἔστιν γεγραμμένα ἐν τῷ βιβλίῳ τούτῳ· (John 20:30) | Many . . . other signs Jesus did . . . which are not written in this scroll. | |
| καὶ ἐστὲ ἐν αὐτῷ πεπληρωμένοι (Col. 2:10) | And you are full/complete in him. |
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| imperfect tense of εἰμί | perfect participle | pluperfect indicative |
The pluperfect periphrastic construction has basically displaced the pluperfect indicative form in the NT.
| ὅτε ἦμεν νήπιοι, ὑπὸ τὰ στοιχεῖα τοῦ κόσμου ἤμεθα δεδουλωμένοι· (Gal. 4:3) | When we were infants, we were enslaved by the elements of the world. | |
| καὶ ἡ γυνὴ ἦν περιβεβλημένη πορφυροῦν καὶ κόκκινον (Rev. 17:4) | And the woman was clothed with purple and scarlet. |
| Auxiliary Verb | Participle | Parallel Indicative Form |
| future tense of εἰμί | perfect participle | future perfect indicative |
| καὶ ὃ ἐὰν δήσῃς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἔσται δεδεμένον ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς, καὶ ὃ ἐὰν λύσῃς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς ἔσται λελυμένον ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς. (Matt. 16:19) | Whatever you bind upon the earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose upon the earth will be loosed in heaven. |
This is probably the most famous example of a future perfect periphrastic in the NT and perhaps the most problematic; there is significant debate as to how to interpret this construction. Based on an understanding of the perfect tense as indicating a past action with ongoing results, the future perfect is understood as indicating a future binding and loosing that is determined by a past act: what is bound on earth has already been bound in the past in heaven. However, based on verbal aspect, the perfect tense indicates an existing state, so that we should see it as simply a future state of binding and loosing with no necessary reference to a past event that produced the state. Most likely it refers to the binding and loosing as a future state of affairs. But this does not logically entail that heavenly decisions are contingent on earthly decisions (i.e., that heaven ratifies the decisions that are first made on earth). How one interprets these participles carries important theological implications.27
| καὶ πάλιν· Ἐγὼ ἔσομαι πεποιθὼς ἐπʼ αὐτῷ· (Heb. 2:13) | And again, “I will trust in him.” |
10.18. One natural question concerns the difference between a normal indicative verb form and a periphrastic construction. Are they merely synonymous, or is there a distinction in meaning? Why might an author choose a periphrastic construction? Though it is difficult to tell why someone might use one construction over another, an author might use a periphrastic construction because it replaces a verb form that is dying out or has died out (like the pluperfect or future perfect) or for stylistic variation from standard verb forms. Additionally, as Porter suggests, “grammarians who wish to stress that the periphrastic is more emphatic or significant” are likely correct.28
For Practice
10.19. Analyze the participles (in bold) in the following sections of texts based on the preceding discussion. Particularly notice their positions in relationship to the main verbs and what those indicate about their function and status vis-à-vis the main verbs.
1Τοῦ δὲ Ἰησοῦ γεννηθέντος ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας ἐν ἡμέραις Ἡρῴδου τοῦ βασιλέως, ἰδοὺ μάγοι ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν παρεγένοντο εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα 2λέγοντες· Ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ τεχθεὶς βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων; εἴδομεν γὰρ αὐτοῦ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ καὶ ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ. 3ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ βασιλεὺς Ἡρῴδης ἐταράχθη καὶ πᾶσα Ἱεροσόλυμα μετʼ αὐτοῦ, 4καὶ συναγαγὼν πάντας τοὺς ἀρχιερεῖς καὶ γραμματεῖς τοῦ λαοῦ ἐπυνθάνετο παρʼ αὐτῶν ποῦ ὁ χριστὸς γεννᾶται. 5οἱ δὲ εἶπαν αὐτῷ· Ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας· οὕτως γὰρ γέγραπται διὰ τοῦ προφήτου· 6Καὶ σύ, Βηθλέεμ γῆ Ἰούδα, οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν τοῖς ἡγεμόσιν Ἰούδα· ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ ἐξελεύσεται ἡγούμενος, ὅστις ποιμανεῖ τὸν λαόν μου τὸν Ἰσραήλ. 7Τότε Ἡρῴδης λάθρᾳ καλέσας τοὺς μάγους ἠκρίβωσεν παρʼ αὐτῶν τὸν χρόνον τοῦ φαινομένου ἀστέρος, 8καὶ πέμψας αὐτοὺς εἰς Βηθλέεμ εἶπεν· Πορευθέντες ἐξετάσατε ἀκριβῶς περὶ τοῦ παιδίου· ἐπὰν δὲ εὕρητε, ἀπαγγείλατέ μοι, ὅπως κἀγὼ ἐλθὼν προσκυνήσω αὐτῷ. (Matt. 2:1–8)
8νῦν δὲ φῶς ἐν κυρίῳ· ὡς τέκνα φωτὸς περιπατεῖτε, 9ὁ γὰρ καρπὸς τοῦ φωτὸς ἐν πάσῃ ἀγαθωσύνῃ καὶ δικαιοσύνῃ καὶ ἀληθείᾳ, 10δοκιμάζοντες τί ἐστιν εὐάρεστον τῷ κυρίῳ· 11καὶ μὴ συγκοινωνεῖτε τοῖς ἔργοις τοῖς ἀκάρποις τοῦ σκότους, μᾶλλον δὲ καὶ ἐλέγχετε, 12τὰ γὰρ κρυφῇ γινόμενα ὑπʼ αὐτῶν αἰσχρόν ἐστιν καὶ λέγειν· 13τὰ δὲ πάντα ἐλεγχόμενα ὑπὸ τοῦ φωτὸς φανεροῦται, 14πᾶν γὰρ τὸ φανερούμενον φῶς ἐστιν. διὸ λέγει· Ἔγειρε, ὁ καθεύδων, καὶ ἀνάστα ἐκ τῶν νεκρῶν, καὶ ἐπιφαύσει σοι ὁ Χριστός. 15Βλέπετε οὖν ἀκριβῶς πῶς περιπατεῖτε, μὴ ὡς ἄσοφοι ἀλλʼ ὡς σοφοί, 16ἐξαγοραζόμενοι τὸν καιρόν, ὅτι αἱ ἡμέραι πονηραί εἰσιν. 17διὰ τοῦτο μὴ γίνεσθε ἄφρονες, ἀλλὰ συνίετε τί τὸ θέλημα τοῦ κυρίου· 18καὶ μὴ μεθύσκεσθε οἴνῳ, ἐν ᾧ ἐστιν ἀσωτία, ἀλλὰ πληροῦσθε ἐν πνεύματι, 19λαλοῦντες ἑαυτοῖς ψαλμοῖς καὶ ὕμνοις καὶ ᾠδαῖς πνευματικαῖς, ᾄδοντες καὶ ψάλλοντες τῇ καρδίᾳ ὑμῶν τῷ κυρίῳ, 20εὐχαριστοῦντες πάντοτε ὑπὲρ πάντων ἐν ὀνόματι τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τῷ θεῷ καὶ πατρί, 21ὑποτασσόμενοι ἀλλήλοις ἐν φόβῳ Χριστοῦ. (Eph. 5:8–21)