CLAUSES, CONDITIONAL CLAUSES, AND RELATIVE CLAUSES
Three Clause Types
11.1. Up to this point most of our discussion of grammar has taken place at the word or word-group level. The remaining chapters will branch out to consider grammar at the level of the clause and even larger units of discourse. In NT Greek, the basic grammatical unit for analysis is the clause. A clause can be described as a group of words that contains a verb phrase (a verb and any modifiers that go with it),1 though Greek does not require a verb to form a clause. Clauses usually contain a subject as well, but Greek does not require an explicit subject since it is a built-in feature of the verb’s personal ending. Greek exhibits at least three types of clauses: (1) primary, (2) secondary, and (3) embedded clauses. The following provides a brief description of these three types of clauses.
1. Primary clause. A primary clause is not dependent on another clause but stands on its own and usually contains a finite verb. Often known as an independent or main clause, a primary clause can be a statement, question, or command.
2. Secondary clause. A secondary clause modifies another clause, is usually introduced by a conjunction (e.g., ὅτι, ἵνα, ἐάν, or with the relative pronoun ὅς), and contains a finite verb. It is often called a dependent or subordinate clause; it cannot stand alone.
3. Embedded clause. An embedded clause functions as a component within a larger clause (e.g., as subject, direct object, adverbial adjunct) and usually includes a nonfinite verb form (a participle or infinitive). Some embedded clauses appear with a conjunction and finite verb and fill the slot of a noun element (e.g., relative clauses acting as noun or content clauses).
11.2. The different clause types play different roles within a discourse. The primary clauses serve to move the discourse forward or advance the story, while the secondary and embedded clauses further define, add to, elaborate, or supplement the information in the primary clauses.
| ὃς ἐὰν οὖν λύσῃ μίαν τῶν ἐντολῶν τούτων τῶν ἐλαχίστων καὶ διδάξῃ οὕτως τοὺς ἀνθρώπους, ἐλάχιστος κληθήσεται ἐν τῇ βασιλείᾳ τῶν οὐρανῶν· (Matt. 5:19) | Therefore, whoever breaks one of the least of these commandments and teaches people [to do] likewise will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. |
This indefinite relative clause is an embedded clause that functions as the subject of the verb κληθήσεται.
A sentence with two or more primary (independent) clauses joined together like this is sometimes called a compound sentence. A single primary clause is often called a simple sentence.
| [1] Δικαιωθέντες οὖν ἐκ πίστεως εἰρήνην ἔχομεν πρὸς τὸν θεὸν διὰ τοῦ κυρίου ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, [2] διʼ οὗ καὶ τὴν προσαγωγὴν ἐσχήκαμεν τῇ πίστει εἰς τὴν χάριν ταύτην [3] ἐν ᾗ ἑστήκαμεν. (Rom. 5:1–2) | Therefore, [1] having been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ, [2] through whom also we have access by faith into this grace [3] in which we stand. |
This sentence contains a primary clause (“we have peace”), an embedded participle clause (1), and two secondary clauses (2, 3) consisting of two relative clauses. The first is an embedded participle clause that functions as an adverbial modifier of the main verb (ἔχομεν). The second clause is a relative clause that also modifies a previous group of words (“Lord Jesus Christ”), while the third clause modifies an element in the previous secondary clause (“grace”).2
| ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι οὐχ ἡμαρτήκαμεν, ψεύστην ποιοῦμεν αὐτόν (1 John 1:10) | If we say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar. (a secondary clause introduced by ἐάν) |
The Construction of Clauses
11.3. How are clauses put together? As seen above, a typical clause in Greek has a verbal element that indicates a process (though not all Greek clauses have a verb). Clauses can also (but need not) contain a subject, usually in the form of a noun or substantive in the nominative case.
| Subject (implied or specified) | Verb |
Greek clauses can also include a complement, such as a direct object and/or indirect object or, following a linking verb such as εἰμί, a predicate nominative. Direct objects are often expressed by substantives in the accusative case, while indirect objects are expressed by substantives in the dative case. The complement of εἰμί is expressed by a substantive in the nominative case.
| Subject | Verb | Complement |
These elements can also be conceptualized as different “slots” in a sentence that can be filled by various grammatical means. In the sentence “Jordan drives a Mustang,” the subject slot is filled with the noun “Jordan,” and the verb slot is filled with “drives.” The complement slot is filled with the noun “Mustang.” But these slots, especially those of the subject and complement, can also be filled with larger units, such as embedded clauses (see above), like a substantival participle clause, an infinitive, or a relative clause (as in “Whoever finds my keys will receive a reward”).3 In addition to the subject, verb, and complement, linguists also often refer to the adverbial adjunct. An adjunct is a part of the clause that indicates the circumstances of the verbal process: for example, time, manner, location, and means.4 In other words, it also is a modifier. Common adjuncts are adverbs or prepositional phrases: “Jordan drove his car down the road” (location) or “The teacher resigned her job after the first week” (time). Adjuncts are also expressed by adverbial participles or infinitive clauses that constitute embedded clauses.5 This brings up an important distinction: adverbial clauses introduced by a conjunction (e.g., ὅτι, ἵνα, ἐάν) with a finite verb form are secondary adverbial clauses, whereas those adverbial clauses with a nonfinite verb—a participle or infinitive—fill the slot of the adverbial adjunct as embedded clauses.
| Subject | Verb | Complement | Adverbial Adjunct |
11.4. Primary clauses can also be subdivided according to the broader functional roles they play in language:
Statements basically provide information, whereas questions require information. Commands require a response (a question can function as a tacit command: “Will you please bring me my tea?”). If I say, “I enjoy learning Greek,” I am giving information. But if I say, “Who took my book?” I am demanding information. If I say, “Give me the book!” I am demanding a response. In Greek, statements or declarations are usually communicated with verbs in the indicative mood. Questions may be expressed in any of the moods and are sometimes introduced by an interrogative word (e.g., τίς).6 Though there are other ways of expressing a command in Greek (e.g., a future-tense verb; see chap. 8, on moods), using the imperative mood is the most common.
| θεὸν οὐδεὶς ἑώρακεν πώποτε· (John 1:18) | No one has ever seen God. (statement) | |
| Νεκρώσατε οὖν τὰ μέλη τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, πορνείαν ἀκαθαρσίαν πάθος ἐπιθυμίαν κακήν (Col. 3:5) | Put to death, therefore, the members that are on the earth: sexual immorality, impurity, passion, evil desire. (command) | |
| Τίς ἄξιος ἀνοῖξαι τὸ βιβλίον καὶ λῦσαι τὰς σφραγῖδας αὐτοῦ; (Rev. 5:2) | Who is worthy to open the scroll and to loose its seals? (question) |
More on Questions
11.5. Greek can form questions in different ways. The three most popular, up-to-date editions of the Greek NT today—UBS5, SBLGNT, and NA28—punctuate questions with the equivalent of an English semicolon (;). The original manuscripts contained no punctuation, so the punctuation in the present editions of the Greek NT is the reasoned decision of the editors of the text, and there is some room for disagreement. Nevertheless, their punctuation provides a good starting point. The deciding factor, however, must always be context. There are three helpful indicators of a question: (1) if a sentence taken as a statement contradicts the other clear statements in the text; (2) if a sentence presents a set of alternatives; (3) if a sentence begins with an interrogative pronoun or adverb (e.g., τίς, ποῦ, πῶς, ποῖος, πόσος).7
11.6. True questions. These questions expect an answer, usually in the form of information. They may or may not be introduced with an interrogative particle or pronoun.
| Ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ τεχθεὶς βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων; (Matt. 2:2) | Where is the one born king of the Jews? | |
| ἁμαρτήσωμεν ὅτι οὐκ ἐσμὲν ὑπὸ νόμον ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ χάριν; (Rom. 6:15) | Shall we sin because we are not under the law but under grace? |
This would make no sense in Paul’s argument if taken as a statement or exhortation.
11.7. Deliberative questions. Some questions in Greek express deliberation and uncertainty even when they seek an answer. These more often occur with a verb in the first person and the subjunctive mood but may also employ the future indicative (see chap. 8, on moods).
| Τί ποιήσω; (Luke 16:3) | What shall I do? | |
| πῶς δὲ ἀκούσωσιν χωρὶς κηρύσσοντος; (Rom. 10:14) | How will they hear without one preaching? (a rhetorical question that demands a response rather than an answer) |
11.8. Negated questions. Some questions are negated, and how they are negated indicates the kind of response they expect. When a question is negated by οὐ, it usually expects a positive answer; but when a question is negated by μή, a negative answer is normally expected.
Verbless Clauses
11.9. The NT also contains examples of clauses that are formed without a verbal element. Commonly these clauses contain only a subject and predicate nominative without a linking verb (εἰμί). Such a pattern is sometimes understood as an example of an elided verb (i.e., a verb that has dropped out), which the reader must supply. However, the phenomenon can also be explained by the fact that Greek is able to form clauses without a verbal element, or predicate. Because this seems odd to English speakers, our translations often supply a form of the verb to be.
| Μακάριοι οἱ πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι (Matt. 5:3) | Blessed [are] the poor in spirit. | |
| τίς δὲ συμφώνησις Χριστοῦ πρὸς Βελιάρ, ἢ τίς μερὶς πιστῷ μετὰ ἀπίστου; (2 Cor. 6:15) | And what accord [is there] of Christ with Beliar, or what share [is there] in a believer with an unbeliever? | |
| καὶ ὁ καθήμενος ὅμοιος ὁράσει λίθῳ ἰάσπιδι καὶ σαρδίῳ, καὶ ἶρις κυκλόθεν τοῦ θρόνου ὅμοιος ὁράσει σμαραγδίνῳ. (Rev. 4:3) | And the one seated on the throne [was] like a jasper and ruby stone in appearance, and [there was] a rainbow around the throne like an emerald in appearance. |
The focus of the rest of this chapter and the next is on secondary and embedded clauses. Before moving on, we need to briefly mention two issues related to verbs in clauses. First, secondary and embedded clauses can contain a verb in the indicative or in two nonindicative (i.e., subjunctive or optative) moods. The author’s choice of mood indicates the perspective on the action as it relates to reality. Second, verb tenses in these clauses designate verbal aspect, or the author’s view of the process, and not time (see chap. 6, on the Greek verb system).
11.10. The two clause types treated below could be covered in the next chapter, on dependent (secondary) clauses. However, we have chosen to treat them separately here due to their complexity and the number of important interpretive issues involved. Despite their apparent simplicity, conditional constructions are some of the most important to understand in NT Greek and have been subject to much misunderstanding. The following section will attempt to make sense of the different conditional constructions in the NT.
Recall that conditions consist of two elements: the protasis (the “if” part of the construction, usually introduced in Greek with εἰ or ἐάν), which is the secondary or subordinate clause, and the apodosis (the “then” part, though “then” is not necessarily expressed in Greek or English), which is the primary or independent clause. In the sentence, “If she studies Greek diligently, she will receive an A,” the protasis is “if she studies Greek diligently,” and the apodosis is “she will receive an A.” In other words, the fulfillment of the apodosis (receiving an A) is consequent upon the fulfillment of the protasis (studying diligently). Whether she is actually studying or will study cannot be determined by the conditional construction but only by broader contextual factors (if at all). All that conditionals do is set up a supposition and its consequence: “if this . . . then that.” As Brooks and Winbery (183) explain, “The statement in the apodosis becomes a reality only when the conditions stated in the protasis are met.” The apodosis can be in the form of a statement, a command, or a question.
Greek exhibits several different conditional constructions that grammarians have divided into at least four types: class 1, class 2, class 3, and class 4 conditionals. Some grammars have typically added a number of further labels to characterize or classify conditional sentences: “more vivid,” “future probable,” “future less probable,” “present general,” and the like. However, this scheme depends on the perceived levels of certainty or the time of the fulfillment of the protasis (the “if” part), which can be determined only by contextual and other factors, not the form of the condition itself.
Richard A. Young has attempted to classify conditionals according to speech-act theory (how speakers actually do things with words; e.g., “I pronounce you husband and wife”).8 Applied to conditional sentences, one cannot stop with the surface form (i.e., the class) of the conditions but must explore their underlying semantic functions. Young suggests the following eight functions as a way of classifying conditionals: they can serve to rebuke, lament, argue, request, assert, manipulate, exhort, and mock.
While there is obvious value in considering the various tasks conditionals can perform in different contexts, this scheme ignores the fact that the author still had a choice from among up to four different conditional constructions. The existence of the different forms must mean something; otherwise, why use them? It seems that the clearest and easiest means of classifying conditional sentences is based on the mood of the verb in the protasis, that is, whether the verb is indicative or nonindicative. According to Robertson and Davis, “It is not the conjunction, but the mode that determines the conditional statement.”9 Therefore, we will stick with a common scheme of classifying conditionals according to four classes, though the first two classes actually belong together formally.
In the normal clause order for conditional constructions, the protasis (“if”) comes first, followed by the apodosis (“then”). The reason for this is that the protasis of the conditional clause provides a frame of reference for interpreting the main clause (the “then” part), since the protasis indicates the condition under which the main clause is true. When the order is reversed, there is a more marked construction, and the protasis gains greater prominence.
Class 1 Condition
11.11. This class of conditional employs εἰ with a verb in the indicative mood in the protasis; the verb in the apodosis can be in any mood. It is the most common conditional construction in the NT, occurring about 300 times, and could be considered the default condition. According to Robertson and Davis, “It is the normal condition unless there is reason for using one of the others.”10 The class 1 conditional makes an assertion for the sake of argument11 without reference to whether the condition is in reality fulfilled or not (Zerwick 102). Actual fulfillment can be determined, if at all, only by the context. An older approach to class 1 conditionals proposed that because they use the indicative mood in the protasis, they portray the action as a reality, and therefore the εἰ can or should be translated as “since.”12 However, this approach is being abandoned because there are far too many examples in the NT where this understanding simply does not work. It also incorrectly assumes that the indicative mood requires that the action be a reality. One body of research13 has suggested that 63 percent of all class 1 conditionals are either obviously false (12 percent) or undetermined as to whether true or false (51 percent). Only 37 percent were deemed to be true based on the context. If these statistics are even close to accurate, the class 1 conditional cannot mean that the action in the protasis is true and εἰ should not be translated with “since.” Only the context can determine this, and often the context is ambiguous. In fact, class 1 conditionals can be used back to back to assert opposite things (see Matt. 12:27–28 below); they both cannot be true.
Other descriptions of the class 1 condition to be avoided are “real condition” or “determined as fulfilled,” found in some grammars, since they could imply that the protasis is real or even thought to be real. Nor is it always accurate to call them “assumed true for the sake of argument.”14 To say that the author assumes the truth of the condition or expects his readers to do so might at times be too strong (e.g., when the author knows that something asserted is false). Class 1 conditions assert something only for the sake of argument. The force of the class 1 conditional is captured in the following expanded paraphrase: “If—and whether it is indeed true or not can be concluded based only on context; it is only being asserted for the sake of the argument—. . . , then . . .” Such an approach may be less exciting exegetically, but we think it is more accurate.
| καὶ λέγει αὐτῷ· Εἰ υἱὸς εἶ τοῦ θεοῦ, βάλε σεαυτὸν κάτω· (Matt. 4:6) | And he said to him, “If you are the Son of God, throw yourself down.” |
The class 1 condition does not communicate whether Satan does or does not believe Jesus is the Son of God. It only makes an assertion for the sake of argument.
This classic example of class 1 conditionals demonstrates that “since” cannot be the meaning of εἰ in class 1 protases. Both protases cannot be true, because they make opposite assertions.
| εἰ δὲ ἐκ θεοῦ ἐστιν, οὐ δυνήσεσθε καταλῦσαι αὐτούς· (Acts 5:39) | But if it is from God, you will not be able to overthrow them. | |
| νυνὶ δὲ ἀποκατήλλαξεν . . . παραστῆσαι ὑμᾶς ἁγίους καὶ ἀμώμους . . ., εἴ γε ἐπιμένετε τῇ πίστει (Col. 1:22–23) | But now he has reconciled . . . to present you holy and blameless . . . , if indeed you remain in the faith. |
The protasis follows the apodosis for emphasis.
| εἰ γὰρ ἀποφυγόντες τὰ μιάσματα τοῦ κόσμου . . . τούτοις δὲ πάλιν ἐμπλακέντες ἡττῶνται, γέγονεν αὐτοῖς τὰ ἔσχατα χείρονα τῶν πρώτων. (2 Pet. 2:20) | For if having escaped the defilements of the world . . . and again having become entangled in these they are overpowered, the last state has become worse for them than the first. | |
| εἴ τις εἰς αἰχμαλωσίαν, εἰς αἰχμαλωσίαν ὑπάγει· (Rev. 13:10) | If anyone [is to go] into captivity, into captivity they will go. |
11.12. In our judgment, even when the context indicates that the protasis is indeed true, it is still not advisable to translate εἰ as “since.” First of all, Greek had the resources available for the author to say “since”: ἐπεί, ἐπειδή. Second, translating class 1 conditions with “since” obscures the rhetorical effect of the conditional. The function of the class 1 conditional is to leave the judgment as to its truthfulness up to the reader or hearer so that they will draw the appropriate conclusion.15 Sometimes, when the context makes it clear that the condition is true, the class 1 condition can become a “tool of persuasion” to move readers to agree with what is stated in the apodosis (Wallace 692).
| Εἰ οὖν συνηγέρθητε τῷ Χριστῷ, τὰ ἄνω ζητεῖτε (Col. 3:1) | Therefore, if you have been raised with Christ, seek the things above. |
The preceding context (2:9–15) makes it clear that the readers have in fact died with Christ and have been raised with Christ, so they should draw the appropriate conclusion and carry out the command to seek the things above.
Class 2 Condition
11.13. The class 2 conditional should actually be seen as a subset of the class 1 conditional, since they both contain an indicative verb in the protasis. The class 2 conditional construction is marked in the protasis by εἰ with an indicative-mood verb in the imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect tense-form and in the apodosis by the particle ἄν with a verb in the imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect tense-form. This is also known as the contrary-to-fact condition, since what is stated in the protasis is asserted by the speaker or writer to be contrary to what is true for the sake of argument. The apodosis (“then”) states what would have been a reality if the protasis (“if”) had been true. In English, if we say “If you had studied, you would have received an A,” what is stated in the protasis (“if you had studied”) is stated as untrue or contrary to fact. And if the protasis is contrary to fact, then the apodosis remains unfulfilled. The force of the class 2 conditional can be illustrated in this expanded paraphrase: “If you had studied (and it is being asserted that you didn’t), you would have received an A (but you did not, because you did not study).” Class 2 conditionals can function as a mild rebuke (Young 230). “If you had studied, you would have received an A” is a way of saying, “You should have studied.”
We have translated ἄν as “would” in the above examples, but that is not its meaning.
Class 3 Condition
11.14. The class 3 conditional construction uses ἐάν and a verb in the subjunctive mood in the protasis.16 The verb in the apodosis can be in any mood. There are around 277 instances of the class 3 condition in the NT. Based on its use of the subjunctive mood, this condition is often treated as if it implies a greater likelihood of fulfillment than the class 4 conditional, though lacking the “certainty” of the class 1 condition. Therefore, some grammars label it the “more probable” condition;17 the fulfillment of the protasis is seen as likely or probable. The problem is that the label fails to account for most instances of the class 3 conditionals in the NT. James Boyer, whose 1982 work is often cited, estimated that only 23 percent of all class 3 conditionals in the NT are probable based on the context.18 This means that there is no built-in “probability” or “likelihood” to class 3 conditionals. How (im)probable or (un)likely it is that the condition will be fulfilled can be determined only by the context, if at all, since many times the context itself is unclear. Even Wallace (696), who says the class 3 conditions are uncertain but still likely to be fulfilled, recognizes that there are many exceptions, because some seem unlikely. Instances that most clearly demonstrate that probability cannot be the main semantic feature are those where class 3 conditions are used back to back to make opposing suppositions. They cannot both be more probable (see Matt. 6:14–15 below). The most satisfying definition of the class 3 condition, based on the use of the subjunctive mood in the protasis, is Porter’s: “A third class conditional . . . , in distinction to a first class conditional, is more tentative and simply projects some action or event for hypothetical consideration.”19 Only the context can tell why the author chooses to be more tentative and merely project an action. At times class 3 conditionals can serve a hortatory purpose, as mitigated exhortations: “If you forgive one another” can convey “You should forgive one another.” See also chapter 8, on moods.
Some grammarians distinguish between “future probable conditions” and “present general conditions” under the umbrella of class 3 conditions.20 However, there are no formal criteria for this distinction (both have ἐάν with the subjunctive in the protasis, and there is little consistency in the tense-forms that appear), so the interpreter must judge whether the condition seems to be generic (present general) or specific (future probable; Wallace 697). Therefore, these labels will not be used in this discussion. As Boyer observes, these two “types” of class 3 conditions are more an issue of subject matter than of grammar.21
| ἐὰν γὰρ ἀφῆτε τοῖς ἀνθρώποις τὰ παραπτώματα αὐτῶν, ἀφήσει καὶ ὑμῖν ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὁ οὐράνιος· ἐὰν δὲ μὴ ἀφῆτε τοῖς ἀνθρώποις, οὐδὲ ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ἀφήσει τὰ παραπτώματα ὑμῶν. (Matt. 6:14–15) | For if you forgive people their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you; but if you do not forgive people, neither will your Father forgive your trespasses. |
These two class 3 conditions make opposite statements; they cannot both be more probable.
The first protasis follows one main verb, and the second precedes the next main verb. The two conditions make opposite suppositions, which cannot both be more probable.
| ἐάν τις ἐν ὑμῖν πλανηθῇ ἀπὸ τῆς ἀληθείας καὶ ἐπιστρέψῃ τις αὐτόν, γινωσκέτω ὅτι ὁ ἐπιστρέψας ἁμαρτωλὸν . . . σώσει ψυχὴν αὐτοῦ . . . καὶ καλύψει πλῆθος ἁμαρτιῶν. (James 5:19–20) | If anyone among you is led astray from the truth and someone turns him/her, he/she should know that the one who turns a sinner . . . will save his/her soul . . . and will cover a multitude of sins. | |
| ἐὰν φανερωθῇ ὅμοιοι αὐτῷ ἐσόμεθα (1 John 3:2) | If he is revealed, we will be like him. |
The appearance of Christ is not being portrayed as more probable or likely; it is certain.
| κινήσω τὴν λυχνίαν σου ἐκ τοῦ τόπου αὐτῆς, ἐὰν μὴ μετανοήσῃς (Rev. 2:5) | I will remove your lampstand from its place, if you do not repent. |
This is probably an implicit exhortation: they should repent. Notice that the protasis follows the apodosis to emphasize the need for repentance.
Class 4 Condition
11.15. The class 4 conditional construction is marked by εἰ and a verb in the optative mood in the protasis, and the particle ἄν and a verb in the optative mood in the apodosis. In this conditional construction, the protasis is more uncertain, vague, or hesitant than the class 3 conditional.22 As virtually all grammars recognize, there are no complete examples of this construction in the NT. The following are often cited as partial constructions:
| οὓς ἔδει ἐπὶ σοῦ παρεῖναι καὶ κατηγορεῖν εἴ τι ἔχοιεν πρὸς ἐμέ (Acts 24:19) | For whom it was necessary to be present before you and to make an accusation, if anyone might have anything against me. |
Here the imperfect is used in the apodosis. This might be the closest we have to a full class 4 conditional sentence in the NT.
| εἰ καὶ πάσχοιτε διὰ δικαιοσύνην, μακάριοι. (1 Pet. 3:14) | If you should also suffer because of righteousness, [you are] blessed. (with a verbless apodosis; see also 3:17) |
Caragounis says that if the author had finished the conditional sentence, he would have written μακάριοι ἂν εἴητε (you would be blessed).23
The following table summarizes the different conditional constructions.
| Class of Condition | Protasis | Apodosis |
|---|---|---|
| Class 1 | εἰ + verb in the indicative mood | verb in any tense or mood |
| Class 2 | εἰ + verb in the indicative mood in a secondary tense (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) | ἄν + verb in the indicative mood in a secondary tense (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect) |
| Class 3 | ἐάν + verb in the subjunctive mood | verb in any tense and mood |
| Class 4 | εἰ + verb in the optative mood | ἄν + verb in the optative mood |
For Practice
11.16. Analyze the conditional clauses in the following texts.
12Εἰ δὲ Χριστὸς κηρύσσεται ὅτι ἐκ νεκρῶν ἐγήγερται, πῶς λέγουσιν ἐν ὑμῖν τινες ὅτι ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔστιν; 13εἰ δὲ ἀνάστασις νεκρῶν οὐκ ἔστιν, οὐδὲ Χριστὸς ἐγήγερται· 14εἰ δὲ Χριστὸς οὐκ ἐγήγερται, κενὸν ἄρα τὸ κήρυγμα ἡμῶν, κενὴ καὶ ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν. . . . 17εἰ δὲ Χριστὸς οὐκ ἐγήγερται, ματαία ἡ πίστις ὑμῶν, ἔτι ἐστὲ ἐν ταῖς ἁμαρτίαις ὑμῶν. . . . 19εἰ ἐν τῇ ζωῇ ταύτῃ ἐν Χριστῷ ἠλπικότες ἐσμὲν μόνον, ἐλεεινότεροι πάντων ἀνθρώπων ἐσμέν. (1 Cor. 15:12–19)
8ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι ἁμαρτίαν οὐκ ἔχομεν, ἑαυτοὺς πλανῶμεν καὶ ἡ ἀλήθεια οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν ἡμῖν. 9ἐὰν ὁμολογῶμεν τὰς ἁμαρτίας ἡμῶν, πιστός ἐστιν καὶ δίκαιος ἵνα ἀφῇ ἡμῖν τὰς ἁμαρτίας καὶ καθαρίσῃ ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ πάσης ἀδικίας. 10ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι οὐχ ἡμαρτήκαμεν, ψεύστην ποιοῦμεν αὐτὸν καὶ ὁ λόγος αὐτοῦ οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν ἡμῖν. 2:1Τεκνία μου, ταῦτα γράφω ὑμῖν ἵνα μὴ ἁμάρτητε. καὶ ἐάν τις ἁμάρτῃ, παράκλητον ἔχομεν πρὸς τὸν πατέρα Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν δίκαιον. . . . 3Καὶ ἐν τούτῳ γινώσκομεν ὅτι ἐγνώκαμεν αὐτόν, ἐὰν τὰς ἐντολὰς αὐτοῦ τηρῶμεν. (1 John 1:8–2:3)
Relative Clauses
11.17. A relative clause is introduced with a relative pronoun, which usually is related to another clause through an antecedent or “head.” When the pronoun is linked like this to an antecedent, it functions as a modifier. However, sometimes the relative pronoun does not have an antecedent in the immediate context, and its clause functions as an embedded clause, usually filling a substantive slot (like subject or direct object) within a larger clause. That is, a relative clause can function in two ways: a secondary or subordinate clause functioning as an adjective, and an embedded clause functioning as a substantive. An example of the former would be “I saw the book that was lying on the table.” The relative pronoun “that” modifies its antecedent, “book,” in the main clause. But if we say “Whoever studies Greek daily will receive an A,” the relative pronoun “whoever” (which also lacks an antecedent) introduces a clause that fills the slot of the subject of “will receive.” When functioning as a modifier, relative clauses normally follow their antecedent. According to Porter, they do this over 80 percent of the time in the Greek NT.24 This is because relative clauses usually add new information to the already established information in the clauses they modify.
Some grammars distinguish between restrictive and descriptive relative clauses (see Young 231). Restrictive relative clauses identify their antecedents, whereas descriptive relative clauses attribute a quality to their antecedents. However, since this is not strictly a grammatical issue but depends on understanding from the context, the line between these two is not always clear.
Relative Clause as a Modifier (Secondary Clause)
11.18. This is the most common function of the relative clause: it modifies another clause to which it is connected by its antecedent. Sometimes the modifying relative pronoun is the object of a preposition in its own clause. For issues relating to the agreement between the relative pronoun and its antecedent, see chapter 2, on pronouns.
| οἱ μαθηταί σου θεωρήσουσιν σοῦ τὰ ἔργα ἃ ποιεῖς· (John 7:3) | Your disciples will behold your works that you do. | |
| τῆς διαθήκης ἧς διέθετο ὁ θεὸς πρὸς τοὺς πατέρας ὑμῶν (Acts 3:25) | The covenant that God decreed with your fathers. | |
| τῆς βασιλείας τοῦ θεοῦ, ὑπὲρ ἧς καὶ πάσχετε (2 Thess. 1:5) | The kingdom of God, on behalf of which also you suffer. |
The relative pronoun is the object of a preposition within its clause.
| πόσῳ μᾶλλον τὸ αἷμα τοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὃς διὰ πνεύματος αἰωνίου ἑαυτὸν προσήνεγκεν (Heb. 9:14) | How much more the blood of Christ, who through the eternal Spirit offered himself. | |
| Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ἣν ἔδωκεν αὐτῷ ὁ θεὸς (Rev 1:1) | The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave to him. |
Relative Clause as a Substantive (Embedded Clause)
11.19. Occasionally, the relative clause does not have an antecedent in another clause, but the entire relative clause functions as a noun element embedded within another clause. When it does, it usually appears as the subject or direct object of a sentence.
1. Subject of the sentence
| Ὃς ἔχει ὦτα ἀκούειν ἀκουέτω. (Mark 4:9) | Who has ears to hear should listen. |
The relative clause is the subject of ἀκουέτω (see also Matt. 7:24).
2. Direct object of the sentence
| γράψον οὖν ἃ εἶδες καὶ ἃ εἰσὶν καὶ ἃ μέλλει γίνεσθαι μετὰ ταῦτα. (Rev. 1:19) | Therefore, write what you see and what is and what is about to take place after these things. |
The relative pronouns are the subjects or direct objects within their own clauses, but each entire relative clause functions as the direct object of γράψον (see also Rev. 3:11, κράτει ὃ ἔχεις).
3. Object of a preposition
| ἔμαθεν ἀφʼ ὧν ἔπαθεν τὴν ὑπακοήν (Heb. 5:8) | He learned obedience from what he suffered. |
The relative ὧν is the object of the preposition ἀπό, and the entire prepositional phrase modifies ἔμαθεν (see also Matt. 10:11, εἰς ἣν δʼ ἂν πόλιν ἢ κώμην εἰσέλθητε).
Other Functions of the Relative Clause
11.20. Relative clauses may also perform a variety of other semantic roles. They can sometimes indicate condition, purpose, concession, reason, or ground.25 It must be recognized that these are not grammatical categories but semantic ones that depend on the function of the relative clause within its context.26
1. Condition
| ὃς ἂν θέλῃ ἐν ὑμῖν εἶναι πρῶτος, ἔσται πάντων δοῦλος· (Mark 10:44) | Whoever desires to be first [i.e., if anyone desires to be first] among you, [he/she] shall be a servant of all. |
2. Purpose
| Ἰδοὺ ἐγὼ ἀποστέλλω τὸν ἄγγελόν μου πρὸ προσώπου σου, ὃς κατασκευάσει τὴν ὁδόν σου. (Matt. 11:10) | Look, I am sending my messenger before you, who will prepare your way [i.e., in order that he might prepare your way]. |
| ὃς ἐν νόμῳ καυχᾶσαι, διὰ τῆς παραβάσεως τοῦ νόμου τὸν θεὸν ἀτιμάζεις; (Rom. 2:23) | You who boast in the law [i.e., although you boast in the law], through transgression of the law do you dishonor God? |
4. Reason-result
| Διὸ παρέδωκεν αὐτοὺς ὁ θεὸς . . . , οἵτινες μετήλλαξαν τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ θεοῦ ἐν τῷ ψεύδει (Rom. 1:24–25) | Therefore God gave them over . . . who exchanged the truth of God [i.e., because they exchanged the truth of God] for the lie. |
5. Grounds-conclusion
| οἵτινες ἀπεθάνομεν τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ, πῶς ἔτι ζήσομεν ἐν αὐτῇ; (Rom. 6:2) | We who have died to sin [i.e., since we have died to sin], how shall we still live in it? |
For Practice
11.21. Analyze the relative clauses in the following texts from Matthew and Colossians according to their function; also, identify the antecedent of the pronouns.
ὃς δʼ ἂν φονεύσῃ, ἔνοχος ἔσται τῇ κρίσει. . . . ὃς δʼ ἂν εἴπῃ τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ· Ῥακά, ἔνοχος ἔσται τῷ συνεδρίῳ· ὃς δʼ ἂν εἴπῃ· Μωρέ, ἔνοχος ἔσται εἰς τὴν γέενναν τοῦ πυρός. (Matt. 5:22)
ἀλλʼ ὅστις σε ῥαπίζει εἰς τὴν δεξιὰν σιαγόνα, στρέψον αὐτῷ καὶ τὴν ἄλλην· (Matt. 5:39)
οἶδεν γὰρ ὁ πατὴρ ὑμῶν ὧν27 χρείαν ἔχετε πρὸ τοῦ ὑμᾶς αἰτῆσαι αὐτόν. (Matt. 6:8)
Προσέχετε ἀπὸ τῶν ψευδοπροφητῶν, οἵτινες ἔρχονται πρὸς ὑμᾶς ἐν ἐνδύμασι προβάτων. (Matt. 7:15)
10καὶ ἐστὲ ἐν αὐτῷ πεπληρωμένοι, ὅς ἐστιν ἡ κεφαλὴ πάσης ἀρχῆς καὶ ἐξουσίας, 11ἐν ᾧ καὶ περιετμήθητε περιτομῇ ἀχειροποιήτῳ ἐν τῇ ἀπεκδύσει τοῦ σώματος τῆς σαρκός, ἐν τῇ περιτομῇ τοῦ Χριστοῦ, 12συνταφέντες αὐτῷ ἐν τῷ βαπτισμῷ, ἐν ᾧ καὶ συνηγέρθητε διὰ τῆς πίστεως τῆς ἐνεργείας τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ ἐγείραντος αὐτὸν ἐκ νεκρῶν· (Col. 2:10–12)
5Νεκρώσατε οὖν τὰ μέλη τὰ ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, πορνείαν, ἀκαθαρσίαν, πάθος, ἐπιθυμίαν κακήν, καὶ τὴν πλεονεξίαν ἥτις ἐστὶν εἰδωλολατρία, 6διʼ ἃ ἔρχεται ἡ ὀργὴ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐπὶ τοὺς υἱοὺς τῆς ἀπειθείας· 7ἐν οἷς καὶ ὑμεῖς περιεπατήσατέ ποτε ὅτε ἐζῆτε ἐν τούτοις· (Col. 3:5–7)