DEPENDENT CLAUSES AND CONJUNCTIONS
Dependent Clauses
12.1. As we saw in the previous chapter, there are three basic clause types in Greek: primary (independent), secondary (dependent), and embedded. We have already examined two types of clauses that fall under the latter two categories of secondary and embedded: conditional and relative clauses. These two clause types exhibit a number of important interpretive features that warranted a separate treatment. In this chapter we examine some other types of secondary and embedded clauses. We also consider several major conjunctions and particles and their functions. The following classification presents a fairly standard way of dividing the types of clauses. Our primary focus is on secondary and embedded clauses that contain a finite verb form. We have also included mention of the most common conjunctions that introduce these clauses.
Temporal Clauses
12.2. A temporal clause is a secondary clause that indicates a temporal relationship with the clause it modifies. The most common conjunctions used in such clauses are ὅτε, ὅταν, ἕως, ἄχρι, and μέχρι. The first two (ὅτε, ὅταν) indicate “time when”; the last three (ἕως, ἄχρι, μέχρι) indicate “time up to which.” Expressions of time occur mainly with verbs in the indicative and subjunctive moods. Sometimes participles are used in a clause that indicates a temporal notion (see chap. 10, on participles). Also, infinitives may be used with prepositions to indicate temporal relationships (see chap 9, on infinitives). This section focuses on clauses introduced by a conjunction.
| ἰῶτα ἓν ἢ μία κεραία οὐ μὴ παρέλθῃ ἀπὸ τοῦ νόμου, ἕως ἂν πάντα γένηται. (Matt. 5:18) | Not one iota or one stroke will pass away from the law, until all things have taken place. | |
| ὅτε δὲ ἀνέβησαν ἐκ τοῦ ὕδατος, πνεῦμα κυρίου ἥρπασεν τὸν Φίλιππον (Acts 8:39) | And when they came up out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord carried away Philip. | |
| εἶτα τὸ τέλος, ὅταν παραδιδῷ τὴν βασιλείαν τῷ θεῷ καὶ πατρί, ὅταν καταργήσῃ πᾶσαν ἀρχὴν καὶ πᾶσαν ἐξουσίαν καὶ δύναμιν. (1 Cor. 15:24) | Then the end [comes], whenever he gives the kingdom over to the God and Father, whenever he destroys every ruler and every authority and power. | |
| μέχρι καταντήσωμεν οἱ πάντες εἰς τὴν ἑνότητα τῆς πίστεως καὶ τῆς ἐπιγνώσεως τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ (Eph. 4:13) | Until we all reach the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God. | |
| καὶ ὅταν δώσουσιν τὰ ζῷα δόξαν καὶ τιμὴν καὶ εὐχαριστίαν τῷ καθημένῳ ἐπὶ τῷ θρόνῳ . . . πεσοῦνται οἱ εἴκοσι τέσσαρες πρεσβύτεροι (Rev. 4:9–10) | And whenever the living creatures give glory and honor and thanksgiving to the one seated on the throne . . . , the twenty-four elders will fall. |
This is an example of ὅταν used with a future indicative rather than a subjunctive. The entire construction in verses 9–10 functions as a conditional-like clause: the falling down of the elders (v. 10) is conditioned upon whenever the worship of the four living creatures expressed in the ὅταν clause occurs (v. 9). There is much debate as to the referent of the temporal clause—whether it is fulfilled in Rev. 4, 5, or elsewhere in the book and whether it refers to a definite or repeated occurrence.
Locative (Local) Clauses
12.3. A locative clause is a secondary clause that indicates where something in the clause it modifies is located or where an action takes place (including metaphorical location). In other words, such clauses usually answer the spatial question “Where?” Locative clauses are commonly introduced by ὅπου, ὅθεν, or οὗ.1 The indicative and, less frequently, the subjunctive (usually with ἄν or ἐάν) moods are used in locative clauses.
| ἐλθὼν ἐστάθη ἐπάνω οὗ ἦν τὸ παιδίον. (Matt. 2:9) | Having come, it stood above where the child was. | |
| Μὴ θησαυρίζετε ὑμῖν θησαυροὺς ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς, ὅπου σὴς καὶ βρῶσις ἀφανίζει, καὶ ὅπου κλέπται διορύσσουσιν καὶ κλέπτουσιν· (Matt. 6:19) | Do not lay up for yourself treasures on earth, where moth and corrosion destroy and where thieves break in and steal. | |
| Μωϋσεῖ λελάληκεν ὁ θεός, τοῦτον δὲ οὐκ οἴδαμεν πόθεν ἐστίν. (John 9:29) | God has spoken to Moses, but we do not know from where this man [i.e., Jesus] is. | |
| τὰ ἄνω ζητεῖτε, οὗ ὁ Χριστός ἐστιν ἐν δεξιᾷ τοῦ θεοῦ καθήμενος· (Col. 3:1) | Seek the things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. |
The locative οὗ functions like a relative clause, modifying the substantive τὰ ἄνω.
| Οἶδα ποῦ κατοικεῖς, ὅπου ὁ θρόνος τοῦ Σατανᾶ (Rev. 2:13). | I know where you live, where the throne of Satan is. |
The local adverb ὅπου stands in apposition to ποῦ. The ποῦ introduces a clause that functions as the content of οἶδα (embedded clause).
Causal Clauses
12.4. A secondary clause can indicate the basis or reason for the clause it modifies. That is, it signals a cause-effect relationship (Porter 237). Cause can also be indicated by a preposition with a pronoun (διὰ τοῦτο, see below) or infinitive (διά + article + infinitive). However, we will focus on causal clauses with finite verbs that are introduced by conjunctions: ὅτι, διότι, and ἐπεί are the most common (γάρ usually introduces a main clause). Causal clauses, as well as the following two types of clauses, purpose and result, frequently come after the main clause they modify (Turner 344–45). When they are clause initial (come first), more attention is drawn to them.
| Οὐκ ἔξεστιν βαλεῖν αὐτὰ εἰς τὸν κορβανᾶν, ἐπεὶ τιμὴ αἵματός ἐστιν· (Matt. 27:6) | It is not lawful to put them in the temple treasury, since it is blood money. | |
| συνεχύθη, ὅτι ἤκουον εἷς ἕκαστος τῇ ἰδίᾳ διαλέκτῳ λαλούντων αὐτῶν· (Acts 2:6) | They were confused, because each one heard them speaking in their own dialect. | |
| καὶ ἀδημονῶν διότι ἠκούσατε ὅτι ἠσθένησεν. (Phil. 2:26) | And being distressed because you heard that he was sick. | |
| Μακάριος ἀνὴρ ὃς ὑπομένει πειρασμόν, ὅτι δόκιμος γενόμενος λήμψεται τὸν στέφανον τῆς ζωῆς (James 1:12) | Blessed is the person who endures trial, because when he/she has been tested, he/she will receive the crown of life. | |
| ἀγγέλους ἑπτὰ ἔχοντας πληγὰς ἑπτὰ τὰς ἐσχάτας, ὅτι ἐν αὐταῖς ἐτελέσθη ὁ θυμὸς τοῦ θεοῦ. (Rev. 15:1) | The seven angels have the seven last plagues, because in them the wrath of God is completed. (explaining why they are the seven last plagues) |
Purpose Clauses
12.5. A purpose clause is a secondary clause that indicates the intention of the verbal process in the clause that it modifies. According to Dana and Mantey, “the function of the purpose clause is to express the aim of the action denoted by the main verb” (282). Such clauses are sometimes referred to as “final” or “telic” clauses (Moule 138). A common means of showing purpose is with an infinitive with or without a preposition and/or genitive article (e.g., Matt. 2:2: ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ, “We have come in order to worship him”). Again, this section focuses on purpose clauses with a finite verb introduced by conjunctions. Common conjunctions are ἵνα and (less commonly) ὅπως, followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood, though on a few occasions ἵνα is followed by a future-tense verb (Moule 139; cf. John 7:3: ἵνα . . . θεωρήσουσιν).
The use of ἵνα here is disputed. Though some have proposed result as the meaning of ἵνα, others have argued for purpose (BDF §369[1]), suggesting a strong predestinarian notion: the reason Jesus spoke in parables was to obscure his message from some. Moule (143) thinks that the use of ἵνα here is an instance of the blurring of purpose and result.
| οὗτος ἦλθεν εἰς μαρτυρίαν, ἵνα μαρτυρήσῃ περὶ τοῦ φωτός, ἵνα πάντες πιστεύσωσιν διʼ αὐτοῦ. (John 1:7) | This one came as a witness in order that he might witness concerning the light, in order that all might believe through him. |
The second ἵνα clause modifies the first one.
| λαὸς εἰς περιποίησιν, ὅπως τὰς ἀρετὰς ἐξαγγείλητε τοῦ ἐκ σκότους ὑμᾶς καλέσαντος εἰς τὸ θαυμαστὸν αὐτοῦ φῶς· (1 Pet. 2:9) | A people as a possession, in order that you might proclaim the virtues of the one who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light. | |
| ἡμεῖς οὖν ὀφείλομεν ὑπολαμβάνειν τοὺς τοιούτους, ἵνα συνεργοὶ γινώμεθα τῇ ἀληθείᾳ. (3 John 8) | Therefore, we ought to support such people, in order that we might be fellow workers in the truth. | |
| ἐδόθη αὐτῷ θυμιάματα πολλὰ ἵνα δώσει ταῖς προσευχαῖς τῶν ἁγίων πάντων (Rev. 8:3). | Much incense was given to him in order that he will offer it with the prayers of all the saints. |
This is one of the few instances where ἵνα is followed by a verb in the future tense-form (see also Rev. 22:14). If the choice of the future is intentional, Porter suggests that “where a choice is offered between the Subjunctive and the Future, the Future is the more heavily marked semantically,” indicating what can be expected to take place.2
12.6. A result clause is a secondary clause that designates the result or outcome of the action of the clause it modifies and is often labeled a consecutive clause. Quite often, result clauses are difficult to distinguish from purpose clauses in meaning (and in form, since both can be introduced by ἵνα). Porter (234) says that result clauses may occur with verbs that do not suggest intention or direction and do not express actions that come about by some motivating force. Purpose clauses focus on the intention of the action, while result clauses focus on the outcome of the action.3 The most common conjunctions introducing result clauses are ὥστε (usually followed by an infinitive) and ἵνα (with the subjunctive).
Is this an example of purpose or result? It is possible that it is neither and that the ἵνα clause is a content (embedded) clause that is epexegetical to σημεῖα μεγάλα, further describing what the great signs are (see below, on content clauses).4
Comparative Clauses
12.7. A comparative clause is a secondary clause that provides the basis on which the clause it modifies is compared.5 Hence, it functions to elucidate the clause it modifies by way of a comparison. It often expresses the manner in which the action of the clause it modifies takes place. Common conjunctions introducing comparative clauses are ὡς, καθώς, καθάπερ, ὥσπερ, and ὡσεί.
| δίδαξον ἡμᾶς προσεύχεσθαι, καθὼς καὶ Ἰωάννης ἐδίδαξεν τοὺς μαθητὰς αὐτοῦ. (Luke 11:1) | Teach us to pray, just as John also taught his disciples. | |
| Εὐθύνατε τὴν ὁδὸν κυρίου, καθὼς εἶπεν Ἠσαΐας ὁ προφήτης. (John 1:23) | Prepare the way of the Lord, just as Isaiah the prophet spoke. | |
| καθάπερ καὶ Δαυὶδ λέγει τὸν μακαρισμὸν τοῦ ἀνθρώπου ᾧ ὁ θεὸς λογίζεται δικαιοσύνην χωρὶς ἔργων· (Rom. 4:6) | Just as David also pronounces a blessing on the person to whom God credits righteousness without works. | |
| ἀλλὰ καλούμενος ὑπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ, καθώσπερ καὶ Ἀαρών. (Heb. 5:4) | But being called by God, just as also Aaron. | |
| Καὶ εἶδον . . . ἀρνίον ἑστηκὸς ὡς ἐσφαγμένον (Rev. 5:6) | And I saw . . . a Lamb standing as slain. |
Content Clauses
12.8. A content clause indicates the substance of another grammatical unit, such as the subject or direct object, or the content of a verb of perception (speaking, seeing, hearing, believing, confessing, etc.) in direct discourse. In other words, they are embedded clauses rather than secondary clauses. When they are the content of a verb of perception, they function as the direct object or clausal complement of the verb, giving the substance of what was said, heard, seen, believed, and the like. When modifying substantives or adjectives, the content clause stands in apposition to or is epexegetical to them (Wallace 678). Content clauses are most commonly introduced by ὅτι and ἵνα. The use of ἵνα to introduce content clauses is due to ἵνα beginning to take over some of the functions of infinitives in Koine Greek.6
| Ἐμὸν βρῶμά ἐστιν ἵνα ποιήσω τὸ θέλημα τοῦ πέμψαντός με (John 4:34) | My food is that I do the will of the one who sent me. |
The content clause is the predicate complement of ἐστίν.
| διανοίγων καὶ παρατιθέμενος ὅτι τὸν χριστὸν ἔδει παθεῖν καὶ ἀναστῆναι ἐκ νεκρῶν, καὶ ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ χριστός (Acts 17:3) | Explaining and demonstrating that it was necessary for Christ to suffer and be raised from the dead and that this one is the Messiah. | |
| οὐ παυόμεθα . . . προσευχόμενοι καὶ αἰτούμενοι ἵνα πληρωθῆτε τὴν ἐπίγνωσιν τοῦ θελήματος αὐτοῦ (Col. 1:9) | We do not cease . . . praying and asking that you might be filled with the knowledge of his will. |
The ἵνα clause indicates the content of praying and asking, not the purpose.
The ὅτι is epexegetical to αὕτη.
| ἀλλὰ ἔχω κατὰ σοῦ ὅτι τὴν ἀγάπην σου τὴν πρώτην ἀφῆκες. (Rev. 2:4) | But I have against you that you have left your first love. |
Indirect Discourse
12.9. Clauses can be used to report indirectly the content of a speech or thought with verbs of communication and perception. Indirect discourse is a specific type of content clause (see the preceding section). It is helpful to recognize the difference between direct and indirect discourse. In both cases, what is spoken or thought fills the slot of the direct object of a verb of perception (speaking, thinking, etc.), but how they record the speech is different. In direct discourse, we report directly (with the original speaker’s words): “The student said, ‘I really want to take a Greek course.’ ” The quotation “I really want to take a Greek course” functions as the direct object (i.e., the content) of the verb “said.” The first-person pronoun I identifies the original speaker of the words. However, in indirect discourse the same speech is recorded from the perspective of the person recording the speech or thought. To use the example from above, we would say, “The student said that he really wants to take a Greek course.” Notice the transfer from the first-person “I want” (direct discourse) to the third-person “he wants” (indirect discourse) in the words spoken. A key to recognizing indirect discourse is agreement between the person(s) doing the communicating or perceiving (“the student” in our example) and the pronoun(s) used to refer to them in the content clause (Porter 269; “he” in our example). Both are in the third person. In direct discourse the persons do not agree: “student” and “I.” Since there were no quotation marks in Koine Greek, the context ultimately must determine whether a sentence records direct or indirect discourse. Two common ways of expressing indirect discourse are with clauses introduced by a conjunction (especially ὅτι and ἵνα) or by an infinitive.
In Greek, unlike English, indirect discourse is reported in the same tense/aspect and mood as would have been used by the original speaker when the statement was made, even if it is now past from the standpoint of the one who is recording it.7 This is despite the fact that other changes may take place in the transfer from direct to indirect speech, such as person (see above). Galatians 2:14: εἶδον ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθοποδοῦσιν πρὸς τὴν ἀλήθειαν τοῦ εὐαγγελίου, “I saw that they did not act rightly toward the truth of the gospel.” Notice that the present tense of the verb is retained from when Paul originally made the observation; in English we translate it as past. The following examples contain indirect discourse introduced by a conjunction.
| Εἰ υἱὸς εἶ τοῦ θεοῦ, εἰπὲ ἵνα οἱ λίθοι οὗτοι ἄρτοι γένωνται. (Matt. 4:3) | If you are the Son of God, say that these stones become bread [i.e., tell these stones to become bread]. |
The original speech would have included an imperative, “Become bread!”
| ἐλθόντες οἱ πρῶτοι ἐνόμισαν ὅτι πλεῖον λήμψονται· (Matt. 20:10) | And having come, the first group thought that they would receive more. |
Notice the agreement in person (third) between the ones doing the perceiving (the first group) and the subject of the content clause (“they”).The original thought would have been, “We will receive more.”
| Ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι. (Luke 22:70) | You say that I am. |
The original speech would be “You are. . . .”
The following examples contain indirect discourse introduced by an infinitive (see chap. 9, on infinitives).
| ὁ λέγων μὴ μοιχεύειν μοιχεύεις; (Rom. 2:22) | The one who says not to commit adultery, do you commit adultery? |
The original speech would have been a prohibition: “Do not commit adultery!”
| Εἴ τις δοκεῖ θρησκὸς εἶναι (James 1:26) | If anyone thinks he/she is religious. |
The original thought would have been, “I am religious.”
| τῶν λεγόντων ἑαυτοὺς Ἰουδαίους εἶναι (Rev. 3:9) | Those claiming themselves to be Jews. |
The original speech would have been “We are Jews” (see also Rev. 2:9; 3:9; 10:9: λέγων αὐτῷ δοῦναί μοι).
For Practice
12.10. In the following passages, analyze the types of dependent clauses according to the discussion above.
20προσεύχεσθε δὲ ἵνα μὴ γένηται ἡ φυγὴ ὑμῶν χειμῶνος μηδὲ σαββάτῳ· 21ἔσται γὰρ τότε θλῖψις μεγάλη οἵα οὐ γέγονεν ἀπʼ ἀρχῆς κόσμου ἕως τοῦ νῦν οὐδʼ οὐ μὴ γένηται. 22καὶ εἰ μὴ ἐκολοβώθησαν αἱ ἡμέραι ἐκεῖναι, οὐκ ἂν ἐσώθη πᾶσα σάρξ· διὰ δὲ τοὺς ἐκλεκτοὺς κολοβωθήσονται αἱ ἡμέραι ἐκεῖναι. 23τότε ἐάν τις ὑμῖν εἴπῃ· Ἰδοὺ ὧδε ὁ χριστός, ἤ· Ὧδε, μὴ πιστεύσητε· 24ἐγερθήσονται γὰρ ψευδόχριστοι καὶ ψευδοπροφῆται, καὶ δώσουσιν σημεῖα μεγάλα καὶ τέρατα ὥστε πλανῆσαι εἰ δυνατὸν καὶ τοὺς ἐκλεκτούς· 25ἰδοὺ προείρηκα ὑμῖν. 26ἐὰν οὖν εἴπωσιν ὑμῖν· Ἰδοὺ ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ ἐστίν, μὴ ἐξέλθητε· Ἰδοὺ ἐν τοῖς ταμείοις, μὴ πιστεύσητε· 27ὥσπερ γὰρ ἡ ἀστραπὴ ἐξέρχεται ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν καὶ φαίνεται ἕως δυσμῶν, οὕτως ἔσται ἡ παρουσία τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· 28ὅπου ἐὰν ᾖ τὸ πτῶμα, ἐκεῖ συναχθήσονται οἱ ἀετοί. (Matt. 24:20–28)
5Καὶ ἔστιν αὕτη ἡ ἀγγελία ἣν ἀκηκόαμεν ἀπʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀναγγέλλομεν ὑμῖν, ὅτι ὁ θεὸς φῶς ἐστιν καὶ σκοτία ἐν αὐτῷ οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδεμία. 6ἐὰν εἴπωμεν ὅτι κοινωνίαν ἔχομεν μετʼ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἐν τῷ σκότει περιπατῶμεν, ψευδόμεθα καὶ οὐ ποιοῦμεν τὴν ἀλήθειαν· 7ἐὰν δὲ ἐν τῷ φωτὶ περιπατῶμεν ὡς αὐτός ἐστιν ἐν τῷ φωτί, κοινωνίαν ἔχομεν μετʼ ἀλλήλων καὶ τὸ αἷμα Ἰησοῦ τοῦ υἱοῦ αὐτοῦ καθαρίζει ἡμᾶς ἀπὸ πάσης ἁμαρτίας. (1 John 1:5–7)
Some Major Conjunctions and Their Functions
12.11. Conjunctions, or connectors, are small, indeclinable words (function words) that join and relate various words or groups of words to each other, from single words to clauses and larger units of discourse. They “make explicit implicit relations between clauses.”8 Therefore, conjunctions are one of the clearest indications of how a discourse is to be “put together” by the reader. By linking various units of discourse together, conjunctions also give it cohesion. Conjunctions are sometimes combined to form a single construction (like ἄρα οὖν) or to form a single word (e.g., τοιγαροῦν, 1 Thess. 4:8; Heb. 12:1). Greek exhibits a rather detailed system of conjunctions. To help make sense of them, we can employ two modes of classification.
First, they can be divided into those that indicate a relationship between elements of equal status (paratactic conjunctions) and those that indicate a relationship between a subordinate clause and the clause on which it depends (hypotactic conjunctions). These are sometimes referred to as coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, respectively. In the sentence “She needed to buy fruit, but she bought ice cream instead,” the conjunction but joins two clauses of equal status in paratactic relationship. However, if we say, “She bought ice cream, so that she was not able to buy fruit,” the conjunction so that joins a clause that is in hypotactic relationship to the first clause: the “so that” clause is subordinate to the first clause (She bought ice cream). The following common Greek conjunctions introduce paratactic (coordinating) and hypotactic (subordinating) relationships:
Paratactic: καί, δέ, οὖν, οὕτως, δίο, γάρ, ἀλλά, τέ, οὐδέ, μηδέ, ἤ, μέν
Hypotactic: ὅτι, ἵνα, ὅπως, εἰ, ἐάν, ὅτε, ὅταν, ἕως, ὡς, καθώς, ὥσπερ, ὅπου, ἀχρί
When clauses are joined together without the aid of a conjunction, it is known as asyndeton (“not bound together”). “Asyndeton means that the writer did not feel compelled to specify a relation.”9 There may still be a semantic relationship between the clauses, but the author has chosen not to indicate it grammatically.
| Χαίρετε ἐν κυρίῳ πάντοτε· πάλιν ἐρῶ, χαίρετε. τὸ ἐπιεικὲς ὑμῶν γνωσθήτω πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις. ὁ κύριος ἐγγύς· (Phil. 4:4, 5) | Rejoice in the Lord always; again I say, rejoice. Your gentleness should become known to all people. The Lord is near. |
Notice the lack of conjunctions coordinating or subordinating.
Second, the conjunctions in Greek can be organized according to their adverbial and logical functions. The adverbial usages of the conjunctions have already been explored in the above discussion of adverbial clauses and the conjunctions that introduce them: temporal, locative, causal, purpose, result, comparative, and content. Conjunctions can also perform a number of logical tasks. The following list includes the most common conjunctions involved in these functions, but is not exhaustive (Wallace 761).
1. Continuative: καί, δέ (and, also)
2. Explanatory: γάρ, καί (for, namely)
3. Adversative: δέ, ἀλλά, πλήν, εἰ μή, μενοῦν (but, however, rather)
4. Summarizing: οὖν, οὕτως (thus, in conclusion)
5. Alternation: ἤ (or)
6. Correlation: μὲν . . . δέ (on the one hand . . . on the other hand), καὶ . . . καί and καὶ . . . τε (both . . . and)
7. Inferential: οὖν, ἄρα, δίο, οὕτως (therefore)
While this list enumerates the clause types in which these conjunctions commonly occur, these labels probably reflect more the necessity of translating the conjunctions into English in their contexts. But we should not analyze the meaning of conjunctions based on the best way to translate them. Another complicating factor is that several conjunctions appear in more than one category (e.g., καί, δέ, οὖν). This raises a number of questions: What are the meanings of the conjunctions themselves? What is the difference between them if some can signal the same logical relationship? How should the reader understand the types of clauses they introduce?
The goal of this section is not to exhaustively discuss or classify all the conjunctions; instead, it will treat several of the more common, major conjunctions found in the NT. You have already been introduced to some conjunctions in the above explanations of the various secondary adverbial clauses and of conditional clauses in the previous chapter. We will consider five additional conjunctions that introduce a paratactic relationship: καί, δέ, ἀλλά, οὖν, γάρ, and μὲν . . . δέ. These have been selected due to their frequency and/or the significant roles that they can play in exegesis.
Καί
12.12. This conjunction is treated first because, along with δέ, it is the most commonly used conjunction in the NT, occurring over 8,000 times. Καί is used to connect just about any grammatical unit, such as words, phrases, clauses, and paragraphs. It can occur at the very beginning of a sentence or somewhere within it. Despite its frequency, καί has proved difficult to classify precisely because it is used in such a wide variety of ways. Wallace (761) classifies καί as ascensive (“also, even”), connective (“and, also”), contrastive (“but”), correlative (“both . . . and”), and explanatory (“that is, namely”). Young (188–89) lists fourteen different “meanings” of καί!10 Furthermore, the usage of καί apparently overlaps with other conjunctions: δέ, ἀλλά, and γάρ. The diversity in the use of καί, along with its apparent overlap with other conjunctions, raises the question of its basic meaning. We suggest that such notions as contrast, concession, purpose, and the like are conveyed by the contexts in which καί occurs rather than belonging to the meaning of καί itself. For example, just because we can translate καί as “but” in some contexts does not necessitate the creation of the semantic category “adversative καί.”
It is more useful to understand the meaning of καί in terms of what it says about the relationship between the clauses it connects. Καί functions to add or associate clauses, connecting them closely together. “When καί introduces a new sentence or paragraph it indicates a close thematic relation to the preceding sentence or paragraph.”11 It could be seen as the “default” conjunction used when the author simply wants to link words or clauses together. There may be a semantic relationship between the clauses, such as contrast, purpose, concession, explanation, and the like. But this belongs to the context, not to the meaning of καί. What καί does is tell us that the author wants to associate clauses closely together.
The conjunction καί can also be used adverbially, in which case it is emphatic. This is often called the ascensive use of καί and can be translated “also,” “even,” or “indeed.” It calls special attention to what follows it. The key to identifying this usage is to notice its position. It usually occurs in postposition (i.e., it is not the first word of the clause) when it functions adverbially.12
| οὐ περὶ τῶν ἡμετέρων δὲ μόνον ἀλλὰ καὶ περὶ ὅλου τοῦ κόσμου. (1 John 2:2) | And not concerning ours only, but also concerning the entire world’s. | |
| Ἐγένοντο δὲ καὶ ψευδοπροφῆται ἐν τῷ λαῷ (2 Pet. 2:1) | And false prophets also came about among the people. |
Δέ
12.13. The postpositive conjunction δέ occurs just under 3,000 times in the NT and is frequently considered to have significant overlap with καί. Therefore, it is classed both as a continuative conjunction (“and”) and as a contrastive one (“but”; Dana and Mantey 244). Wallace (761) treats it as ascensive (“even”), connective, explanatory, and transitional.13 Dana and Mantey (244) add “emphatic” (“indeed”). Again, while these may be appropriate ways to translate δέ in different contexts, they do not determine its actual meaning. In contrast to καί, which links clauses and paragraphs in close relationship,14 δέ seems to “represent a new step or development in the author’s story or argument.”15 That is, the clause introduced by δέ “represents the writer’s choice to explicitly signal that what follows is a new, distinct development in the story or argument, based on how the writer conceived of it.”16 While καί indicates continuity, δέ signals discontinuity. This explains its common use in adversative contexts: that it indicates a new or distinct development lends itself to signaling contrast. In its various contexts δέ should be understood as signaling a new step or development in an argument (e.g., a new topic, character, or focus).
| ἦν δὲ ἐκεῖ πρὸς τῷ ὄρει ἀγέλη χοίρων μεγάλη (Mark 5:11) | And there was there on the mountain a large herd of pigs. |
Δὲ indicates that the subject has changed from an unclean spirit (Legion) to “pigs.”
| τὸ δοκίμιον ὑμῶν τῆς πίστεως κατεργάζεται ὑπομονήν· ἡ δὲ ὑπομονὴ ἔργον τέλειον ἐχέτω. . . . Εἰ δέ τις ὑμῶν λείπεται σοφίας, αἰτείτω παρὰ . . . θεοῦ· . . . αἰτείτω δὲ ἐν πίστει (James 1:3–6) | The testing of your faith produces endurance; and endurance should have its perfect work. . . . And if anyone of you lacks wisdom, he/she should ask God. . . . But he/she should ask in faith. |
Δὲ indicates each new step or development in James’s chain of argument.
| ἡ δὲ κεφαλὴ αὐτοῦ καὶ αἱ τρίχες λευκαὶ ὡς ἔριον λευκόν (Rev. 1:14) | And his head and hair were white as white wool. |
The δέ shifts the focus of attention to a particular aspect of the vision of Christ, his head.
Ἀλλά
12.14. According to Dana and Mantey (240), ἀλλά “is a strong adversative conjunction” but is also “clearly emphatic in several passages” (with the sense of “certainly, in fact”; cf. Porter 205). But other conjunctions can also be used in clauses that indicate contrast (δέ, πλήν). So what is the contribution of ἀλλά to specifying the relationships between the clauses it connects? The conjunction ἀλλά can be seen to provide a correction to the preceding clause or section with which it stands in contrast. “The constraint that it brings to bear is ‘correction’ of some aspect in the preceding context.”17
At times ἀλλά can be translated with an emphatic nuance: “indeed, certainly” (Dana and Mantey 240–41).
| οἱ δὲ πρὸς αὐτόν· Ἀλλʼ οὐδʼ εἰ πνεῦμα ἅγιον ἔστιν ἠκούσαμεν. (Acts 19:2) | And they said to him, “Indeed we have not heard that there is a Holy Spirit.” | |
| ἀλλὰ ἀπολογίαν, ἀλλὰ ἀγανάκτησιν, ἀλλὰ φόβον, ἀλλὰ ἐπιπόθησιν, ἀλλὰ ζῆλον, ἀλλὰ ἐκδίκησιν· (2 Cor. 7:11) | Indeed defense, indeed indignation, indeed fear, indeed longing, indeed zeal, indeed vengeance. |
Οὖν
12.15. Οὖν is an important postpositive conjunction in the Greek NT. According to Porter (214), its “inferential sense is predominant.” It draws a conclusion or inference from what precedes. Other possible senses have been suggested: it can be transitional, responsive, emphatic, and even contrastive (Dana and Mantey 253–56). But as with other conjunctions, this wide diversity of “senses” probably belongs to the context and not the meaning of οὖν. Itself, οὖν indicates a further development that draws an inference or conclusion from what comes before it. It continues the main line of argument or narrative. Sometimes it signals a resumption when the main line of discourse has been interrupted, usually by supporting or explanatory material (sometimes introduced by γάρ).18 Thus it can pick up a main thread of thought that was interrupted.
| ἀσφαλῶς οὖν γινωσκέτω πᾶς οἶκος Ἰσραὴλ (Acts 2:36) | Therefore, all the house of Israel should know beyond a doubt. |
Οὖν draws a conclusion from Peter’s previous speech.
| Παρακαλῶ οὖν ὑμᾶς ἐγώ (Eph. 4:1) | Therefore, I exhort you. | |
| Ἔχοντες οὖν, ἀδελφοί, παρρησίαν εἰς τὴν εἴσοδον τῶν ἁγίων ἐν τῷ αἵματι Ἰησοῦ (Heb. 10:19) | Therefore, brothers and sisters, having confidence of access to the sanctuary by the blood of Jesus. |
This use of οὖν resumes the call to the readers to take advantage of their access to heaven in 4:14–16 after a long intervening argument for Christ’s superior priesthood in 7:1–10:18.
Γάρ
12.16. The postpositive conjunction γάρ is often viewed as a causal conjunction. Robertson (1190) says that its primary sense is “explanatory.” Porter (207) also mentions an inferential sense. And Dana and Mantey (243) think that it can be used emphatically and suggest the translations “really, certainly, indeed.” A more comprehensive understanding is that it serves “to strengthen some aspect of a previous assertion.”19 Therefore, γάρ does not advance the main line of the discourse or move it forward. Instead, it “introduces explanatory material that strengthens or supports what precedes.”20 Material introduced by γάρ can support by way of explanation, reason or cause, inference, or clarification.
| Μετανοεῖτε, ἤγγικεν γὰρ ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν. (Matt. 3:2) | Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near. | |
| Ἀδὰμ γὰρ πρῶτος ἐπλάσθη, εἶτα Εὕα· (1 Tim. 2:13) | For Adam was created first, then Eve. |
The precise nature of the connection is disputed. Is it causal, explanatory, or illustrative?
| Ἀδύνατον γὰρ . . . πάλιν ἀνακαινίζειν εἰς μετάνοιαν (Heb. 6:4–6) | For it is impossible . . . to renew again to repentance. |
12.17. The postpositive particle μέν introduces a clause that is often (but not always) followed by another clause introduced by δέ. The conjunctions stand in a correlative relationship and are often translated “on the one hand . . . on the other.” More specifically, the μέν anticipates and points forward to the clause introduced by δέ. In other words, “the particle μέν . . . is anticipatory in nature, creating the expectation that another related point will follow.”21 The “related point,” then, is often introduced by δέ (less frequently by τε or καί). Therefore, one should read the construction this way: μέν (anticipates an important, corollary point coming up) . . . δέ (here is the related, corollary point). The two units often stand in contrast to one another. The information introduced by δέ is more prominent than that introduced by μέν, since it is anticipated by the latter.
| τὸ μὲν πνεῦμα πρόθυμον ἡ δὲ σὰρξ ἀσθενής. (Mark 14:38) | On the one hand the spirit is willing, but on the other hand the flesh is weak. | |
| ἅτινά ἐστιν λόγον μὲν ἔχοντα σοφίας ἐν ἐθελοθρησκίᾳ καὶ ταπεινοφροσύνῃ καὶ ἀφειδίᾳ σώματος, οὐκ ἐν τιμῇ τινι πρὸς πλησμονὴν τῆς σαρκός. (Col. 2:23) | Which on one hand have the appearance of wisdom in false worship and humility and severe treatment of the body, [but] not in any value against the indulgence of the flesh. (with no following δέ) |
The syntax of this verse is difficult. For a reading similar to the one proposed here, see the NRSV, NIV, ESV. Although there is no following δέ, the clause introduced by μέν still seems to anticipate the clause “not in any value against the indulgence of the flesh.”
| ὑπὸ ἀνθρώπων μὲν ἀποδεδοκιμασμένον παρὰ δὲ θεῷ ἐκλεκτὸν ἔντιμον (1 Pet. 2:4) | On the one hand rejected by people, but on the other hand chosen and valuable before God. |
Some Additional Common Conjunctions and Particles
12.18. The following section is meant to briefly summarize and illustrate a handful of other common particles and conjunctions in the NT. A couple of entries are not technically conjunctions or particles but seem to function as such in the NT.
Ἄν
12.19. This particle adds an element of uncertainty, contingency, or indefiniteness to the word or clause within which it occurs. It can be used with other words (e.g., a relative pronoun) or as part of a clause (e.g., the apodosis of a class 2 condition). It usually occurs with a verb in the subjunctive mood.
| ὃς δʼ ἂν εἴπῃ κατὰ τοῦ πνεύματος τοῦ ἁγίου, οὐκ ἀφεθήσεται αὐτῷ (Matt. 12:32) | But whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit, he/she will not be forgiven. |
See also 1 Cor. 4:5 (ἕως ἂν ἔλθῃ), where ἄν is used with a temporal particle (ἕως) to mean “until whenever he comes.”
Ἄρα
12.20. This is an inferential particle that is often combined with οὖν, perhaps to indicate a more emphatic conclusion or inference.22
| ἄρα οὖν, ἀδελφοί, στήκετε (2 Thess. 2:15) | Therefore, brothers and sisters, stand firm. |
See also Matt. 7:20, ἄρα γε.
Γε
12.21. This postpositive particle lends emphasis to the word or phrase with which it occurs and is often translated “indeed,” “even,” “at least,” “in fact” (Young 199). According to Robertson, it serves “to bring into prominence the particular word with which it occurs” (1147). It often occurs in combination with other conjunctions or particles such as ἀλλά, ἄρα, εἰ, and καί.
| καί γε οὐ μακρὰν ἀπὸ ἑνὸς ἑκάστου ἡμῶν ὑπάρχοντα. (Acts 17:27) | And indeed, he is not far away from each one of us. |
See also Col. 1:23.
Δίο
12.22. This inferential conjunction introduces a conclusion and is perhaps slightly stronger than οὖν.
| Διό, πολλὴν ἐν Χριστῷ παρρησίαν ἔχων (Philem. 8) | Therefore, having much confidence in Christ. |
See also Luke 1:35.
Ἰδού, Ἴδε
12.23. These are markers of attention or prominence, drawing attention to something that follows. Their use is common in narrative and in John’s Apocalypse.
| καὶ εἶδον, καὶ ἰδοὺ ἵππος λευκός (Rev. 6:2) | And I saw, and look, a white horse. |
See also Matt. 9:2.
Τότε
12.24. This important adverb can be employed as a connector in narrative, appearing especially in the Gospel of Matthew.23 It also highlights sequential events in narrative. According to Levinsohn, it can be used at subsections or in the concluding events of a story.24
| τότε λέγει αὐτῷ ὁ Ἰησοῦς. . . . τότε ἀφίησιν αὐτὸν ὁ διάβολος (Matt. 4:10–11) | Then Jesus said to him. . . . Then the devil left him. |
See also Matt. 24:30.
12.25. Analyze the conjunctions and particles in the following two texts in light of our discussion above. Pay careful attention to what they say about the way the discourse develops and how the clauses are related to each other. Can you explain the alternation between καί and δέ in these verses? Also, what is the function of τότε in Matt. 2:7?
1ἰδοὺ μάγοι ἀπὸ ἀνατολῶν παρεγένοντο εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα 2λέγοντες· Ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ τεχθεὶς βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων; εἴδομεν γὰρ αὐτοῦ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ καὶ ἤλθομεν προσκυνῆσαι αὐτῷ. 3ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ βασιλεὺς Ἡρῴδης ἐταράχθη καὶ πᾶσα Ἱεροσόλυμα μετʼ αὐτοῦ, 4καὶ συναγαγὼν πάντας τοὺς ἀρχιερεῖς καὶ γραμματεῖς τοῦ λαοῦ ἐπυνθάνετο παρʼ αὐτῶν ποῦ ὁ χριστὸς γεννᾶται. 5οἱ δὲ εἶπαν αὐτῷ· Ἐν Βηθλέεμ τῆς Ἰουδαίας· οὕτως γὰρ γέγραπται διὰ τοῦ προφήτου· 6Καὶ σύ, Βηθλέεμ γῆ Ἰούδα, οὐδαμῶς ἐλαχίστη εἶ ἐν τοῖς ἡγεμόσιν Ἰούδα· ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ ἐξελεύσεται ἡγούμενος, ὅστις ποιμανεῖ τὸν λαόν μου τὸν Ἰσραήλ. 7Τότε Ἡρῴδης λάθρᾳ καλέσας τοὺς μάγους ἠκρίβωσεν παρʼ αὐτῶν τὸν χρόνον τοῦ φαινομένου ἀστέρος, 8καὶ πέμψας αὐτοὺς εἰς Βηθλέεμ εἶπεν· Πορευθέντες ἐξετάσατε ἀκριβῶς περὶ τοῦ παιδίου· ἐπὰν δὲ εὕρητε, ἀπαγγείλατέ μοι, ὅπως κἀγὼ ἐλθὼν προσκυνήσω αὐτῷ. 9οἱ δὲ ἀκούσαντες τοῦ βασιλέως ἐπορεύθησαν, καὶ ἰδοὺ ὁ ἀστὴρ ὃν εἶδον ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ προῆγεν αὐτούς, ἕως ἐλθὼν ἐστάθη ἐπάνω οὗ ἦν τὸ παιδίον. 10ἰδόντες δὲ τὸν ἀστέρα ἐχάρησαν χαρὰν μεγάλην σφόδρα. (Matt. 2:1–10)
4Διαιρέσεις δὲ χαρισμάτων εἰσίν, τὸ δὲ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα· 5καὶ διαιρέσεις διακονιῶν εἰσιν, καὶ ὁ αὐτὸς κύριος· 6καὶ διαιρέσεις ἐνεργημάτων εἰσίν, ὁ δὲ αὐτὸς θεός, ὁ ἐνεργῶν τὰ πάντα ἐν πᾶσιν. 7ἑκάστῳ δὲ δίδοται ἡ φανέρωσις τοῦ πνεύματος πρὸς τὸ συμφέρον. 8ᾧ μὲν γὰρ διὰ τοῦ πνεύματος δίδοται λόγος σοφίας, ἄλλῳ δὲ λόγος γνώσεως κατὰ τὸ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα, 9ἑτέρῳ πίστις ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ πνεύματι, ἄλλῳ χαρίσματα ἰαμάτων ἐν τῷ ἑνὶ πνεύματι, 10ἄλλῳ ἐνεργήματα δυνάμεων, ἄλλῳ προφητεία, ἄλλῳ διακρίσεις πνευμάτων, ἑτέρῳ γένη γλωσσῶν, ἄλλῳ ἑρμηνεία γλωσσῶν· 11πάντα δὲ ταῦτα ἐνεργεῖ τὸ ἓν καὶ τὸ αὐτὸ πνεῦμα, διαιροῦν ἰδίᾳ ἑκάστῳ καθὼς βούλεται. 12Καθάπερ γὰρ τὸ σῶμα ἕν ἐστιν καὶ μέλη πολλὰ ἔχει, πάντα δὲ τὰ μέλη τοῦ σώματος πολλὰ ὄντα ἕν ἐστιν σῶμα, οὕτως καὶ ὁ Χριστός· 13καὶ γὰρ ἐν ἑνὶ πνεύματι ἡμεῖς πάντες εἰς ἓν σῶμα ἐβαπτίσθημεν. . . . (1 Cor. 12:4–13)