NIV Zondervan Study Bible

The book of Psalms (or the Psalter) has been the hymnbook and prayer book for countless generations of Jews and Christians over the centuries. It contains the entire range of human emotion, from the highest points of joy and thanksgiving to the lowest points of depression and loss and everything in between. The psalms are timeless—hence their popularity among believers in all times and all places. Their presence in the Bible instructs the faithful in the best ways to praise and thank God, and they model legitimate ways to grieve and to address God boldly and directly in the midst of pain and sorrow. The psalms are transparent, passionate, emotive, personal, and genuine, and they provide believers with language with which to express their own deepest emotions and passions.

The Psalter expresses almost every major OT theme, adding to our understanding of them. The single, overarching theme of the book of Psalms is God’s kingship, his status as the divine King who rules over all peoples, nations, gods, even elements of nature. So its message inextricably follows some important threads of biblical theology, including the Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Davidic covenants, and it anticipates the new covenant in significant ways.

Title

The English title “Psalms” comes from the Greek title, psalmoi, which was already established by the time of the NT (Luke 20:42; Acts 1:20). Psalmos translates the Hebrew word mizmôr (“a psalm”), both having to do with songs sung to the accompaniment of stringed instruments, giving us an initial insight into the nature of this book: it is a collection of songs, most (if not all) of which informed part of the life of worship for God’s people, even in NT times (Eph 5:19; Col 3:16).

The Hebrew title is tĕhillîm (“praises”), which gives us a further insight into the book’s nature. Despite the many psalms of lament and disorientation, the Psalter’s overall message is that praising God is the desired mode in which people should strive to live.

Author

Like all other books in the Bible, the book of Psalms is a divine-human effort: humans wrote in their own words and styles, inspired by the Holy Spirit (2 Tim 3:16–17; 2 Pet 1:20–21). But unlike the other books in the Bible, the book of Psalms consists primarily of humans’ words to and about God, not God’s words to humans, such as those in the books of Leviticus or Isaiah or the Gospel of John (but see Introduction: The Psalms as God’s Word). In addition, Psalms is a collection of individual compositions that many authors wrote, not a unified narrative or systematic treatise that one person wrote. Here too the Holy Spirit guided the individual authors in their writing (2 Sam 23:1–3; Matt 22:43–44; Acts 1:16; 4:25).

The psalm titles (or “superscripts”) provide clues to the authorship of individual psalms. Of the 150 psalms, 100 have titles of authorship. The Hebrew preposition lĕ—which, depending on the context, can mean “by,” “of,” “belonging to,” “for,” “concerning,” or “dedicated to”—usually indicates authorship. In the psalm titles, the NIV most often renders lĕ as “of,” as in “Of David” (e.g., Ps 25 title). This is best understood as a title of authorship (i.e., “By David”); indeed, the NT assumes that David was the author of psalms attributed to him (Matt 22:43–44; Acts 2:25; 4:25; Rom 4:6; 11:9). But sometimes lĕ does not indicate authorship, as in “For [lĕ] the director of music” (e.g., Pss 4–6; 8) or “For [lĕ] giving grateful praise” (Ps 100). (For subscripts appearing in certain psalms, see Introduction: Psalm Titles.)

In the Hebrew text, 73 psalms have “Of David” in the title, and the NT adds two additional references to David as author: Ps 2 (Acts 4:25–26) and Ps 95 (Heb 4:7). Beyond these, others are attributed to “the Sons of Korah” (Pss 42–49; 84–85; 87–88), Asaph (Pss 50; 73–83), Solomon (Pss 72; 127), Heman (Ps 88), Ethan (Ps 89), and Moses (Ps 90). Ps 88 is doubly attributed to “the Sons of Korah” and “Heman the Ezrahite” (see note on Ps 39 title).

Many scholars discount the reliability of the titles—both the titles of authorship and the “historical” titles (see Introduction: Psalm Titles)—citing supposed discrepancies between information in the titles and circumstances within the psalms themselves (e.g., Pss 30; 51); however, even in such cases, one can legitimately explain the supposed discrepancies (see notes on Ps 30 title; 51:18). In the case of Ps 72, “Of Solomon” might be a prayer on behalf of Solomon, as many scholars suggest, but it is equally plausible that Solomon composed the prayer himself with full knowledge of the awesome responsibility that was his and his successors’ as God’s representatives (see 1 Kgs 8; 1 Chr 28:5; 29:23; 2 Chr 9:8; 13:8; see also introduction to Ps 72).

Unless otherwise indicated (e.g., see note on 74 title), the study notes assume that titles like “Of David” indicate direct authorship.

The Psalms as God’s Word

As noted above, the psalms consist (on the surface) of human words to and about God. But the psalmists were not writing simply for themselves as private individuals. In almost all cases, they wrote with a view to others preserving and singing their words. In other words, even though many psalms are intensely personal (e.g., Pss 17; 51), their authors wrote not only to express their own private sentiments but also for the benefit of others. For example, many psalms attributed to an individual (like David) nevertheless are psalms of the community: they use “we,” not “I” (e.g., Pss 65; 80). Further support is that the psalms, for the most part, lack specific historical references; they often appear to be intentionally vague so that any person in any time and any place can relate to the joys or sorrows, enemies, sins, or circumstances and sing or pray right along with the psalmists. In the case of David, his traditional image as a shepherd boy (1 Sam 16:11; 17:34–35) may form the backdrop to some psalms (e.g., Ps 23), but more commonly David wrote with an acute consciousness that he was God’s anointed king, God’s representative on earth, and that his joys and sorrows were usually those of the nation as well (see, e.g., notes on 4:2; 13:3–4; 22:22–24; see also introduction to Ps 28).

While the psalmists each wrote in their own words, employing their own style, they were not doing so on their own authority; they were doing so under the guidance of the Holy Spirit (as noted above). As such, we can understand them to be prophets (2 Pet 1:20–21). Prophets were God’s mouthpieces, speaking God’s words to their own generation and often to later generations as well. When God revealed his words to the prophets, their task was to speak them to the people (Amos 3:1–8). Sometimes God directly revealed to his prophets things that were otherwise unknowable (e.g., 2 Kgs 6:12). And the apostle Peter specifically speaks of David as a prophet when quoting from David’s words in Ps 16:8–11 (Acts 2:29–31).

Several times the OT connects prophecy with music (e.g., 1 Sam 10:5; 2 Chr 29:25–26). In 2 Kgs 3:15–16, Elisha prophesies with music as “background” accompaniment. And in 1 Chr 25:1, the sons of Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun—all associated with psalm writing in one way or another—are set aside for “the ministry of prophesying, accompanied by harps, lyres, and cymbals.” David’s skill with the lyre is also associated with the Lord’s presence with him (1 Sam 16:18). All of this warrants seeing the psalmists as prophets, conveying God’s words—not in the same sense that the classical writing prophets like Isaiah, Jeremiah, or Amos did but nevertheless bringing words from God inspired by the Holy Spirit to the world, in their case, with musical accompaniment.

Furthermore, the psalmists did not write in a vacuum, unaware of God’s previous revelation through history and Scripture. So, e.g., Pss 78; 105–106; 136 all reflect on God’s actions in history in order to instruct later generations of God’s people in how to live (or how not to live). And the psalms often allude to previous Scriptures, showing the high regard that the psalmists had for God’s Word (e.g., see 4:6; 9:5; 16:5; 27:8, 9; 67:1–2 and notes).

As they composed their songs and poems, the psalmists were doing so not simply as private individuals, composing words to and about God. They were also God’s mouthpieces: they passed along great truths via the praises, thanksgivings, laments (and more) that they composed; they revered God’s revelation in event and word; and they modeled proper ways to express our joys, sorrows, and much more. Their words to God are also God’s words to us.

Structure

The Psalter as we have it is divided into five “books”:

• Book I: Pss 1–41

• Book II: Pss 42–72

• Book III: Pss 73–89

• Book IV: Pss 90–106

• Book V: Pss 107–150

The final psalm in each of the first four books ends with a similar-sounding doxology, including a command to praise the Lord forever and a double “Amen” (except for 106:48, which has only one “Amen”). The final psalm (Ps 150) does not have such a doxology, but the entire psalm itself may function as the concluding doxology to the whole book of Psalms (see introduction to Ps 150).

This division into five “books” occurred early since these doxologies already appear in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT), dating to the third century BC. Indeed, the rabbis noted parallels between Moses and David: the tenth-century AD Midrash (a rabbinical commentary) on the Psalms states, “Just as Moses gave five books of laws to Israel, so David gave five books of Psalms to Israel.” In this way, their human words to and about God are also God’s words to us.

A more nuanced perspective recognizes a modified doxology at the end of Ps 145 (v. 21) and sees Pss 146–150 collectively functioning as a final burst of praise to end the entire Psalter. Pss 146–150 begin and end with hallĕlû-yāh (“Praise the LORD”), and they build in a great, rising crescendo to the climactic Ps 150, instructing readers that praising God is how we are to live.

A further nuance recognizes that Pss 1–2 introduce the entire Psalter, not just Book I; the themes in these two psalms signal most of the great themes that follow in the rest of the book of Psalms (see Introduction: Theology of the Psalms). So “The First Collection of David’s Prayers” begins with Ps 3 (see introduction to Pss 3–41).

We can represent this more nuanced structure as follows:

• Introduction to the Psalter (Pss 1–2): The Righteous and the Wicked, the Lord and His King

• Book I (Pss 3–41): The First Collection of David’s Prayers

• Book II (Pss 42–72): The Second Collection of David’s Prayers

• Book III (Pss 73–89): The Book of Crisis

• Book IV (Pss 90–106): The Lord Reigns

• Book V (Pss 107–150): The Return of the King

• Conclusion (Pss 146–150): Praise the Lord!

But the doxology at the end of Ps 72 is not the final word in that psalm. An additional verse (v. 20) states, “This concludes the prayers of David son of Jesse.” Since the title of Ps 72 states that it is “Of Solomon,” it appears that v. 20 refers to a smaller collection that ends there, not something concerning Ps 72 itself. (This is especially true given that there are 18 additional psalms of David after Ps 72, i.e., 72:20 marks off a collection of [mostly] Davidic psalms, but there are more Davidic psalms to come.) Most scholars believe that this note in 72:20 refers to Books I and II having been joined together as an independent collection prior to the final collection of the psalms into the book of Psalms.

Beyond this, other smaller collections occur within the Psalter that probably existed independently before being incorporated into the book. These include the following:

• Psalms of David (Pss 3–41)

• Psalms of the Sons of Korah (Pss 42–49)

• Psalms of David (Pss 51–65)

• Psalms of Asaph (Pss 73–83)

• Kingship of Yahweh Psalms (Pss 93–99)

• Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134)

• Psalms of David (Pss 138–145)

• hallĕlû-yāh Psalms (Pss 146–150)

In addition, a varying pattern in the use of God’s name is visible in the five books: yhwh (“the LORD”), God’s personal name (see note on 8:1), predominates in Pss 1–41; 84–150, whereas ʾ ĕlōhîm (“God”) predominates in Pss 42–83 (i.e., Book II and the Asaph psalms of Book III). This is especially striking when we note that Ps 14 and Ps 53 are practically identical psalms, but where “the LORD” is found in Ps 14, “God” is found in Ps 53.

The presence of the same psalm in two different “books” of the Psalter (Pss 14; 53) suggests that Books I and II at one time existed independently of each other, coming together later as “The Prayers of David,” as noted (see introductions to Pss 3–41; Pss 42–72). Further evidence of the independent existence of Books I and II is suggested by Ps 70 (in Book II), which is taken from 40:13–17 (in Book I), and Ps 108 (in Book V), which is composed almost entirely of sections from two earlier psalms (in Book II): 57:7–11; 60:5–12.

So we now have a picture of individual psalms coming together into small collections that over time were joined with other collections until the final book of Psalms as we know it coalesced, all under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. This would have happened sometime at the end of the OT period, i.e., in the postexilic period (though exact dating is impossible). Many scholars have despaired of finding any unity in the Psalter as a whole, but an apt analogy is sometimes made to a medieval European cathedral, whose construction stretched out over many decades, even centuries, during which time architectural styles may have changed, resulting in a great, multifaceted building. In the end, such a cathedral was one building with many components, each reflecting its own time. Similarly, the Psalter is composed of many individual psalms and smaller collections, each reflecting its own time, that ultimately came together into one great book. And despite the despair of many scholars, it is indeed possible to discern some overarching themes in that book (see Introduction: Theology of the Psalms).

The Psalms in the Septuagint and at Qumran

The Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, adds one psalm of David (Ps 151), but it notes that this psalm is “outside the number,” i.e., that it is not one of the “standard” 150 psalms. In addition, the Septuagint numbers the psalms differently than do our English (and Hebrew) Bibles.

English (and Hebrew) Bibles	Septuagint
1–8	1–8
9–10	9
11–113	10–112
114–115	113
116	114–115
117–146	116–145
147	146–147
148–150	148–150
	151

The so-called Dead Sea Scrolls discovered at Qumran in the 1940s and 1950s include at least 39 psalms manuscripts among them. Most are fragmentary, but for the most part they follow the same structure and order as the Hebrew Bible. One important scroll differs significantly: it includes 39 psalms, many in a different order than we find in our Bibles, and it includes 8 psalms not found among the standard 150 psalms. But this scroll may have been a prayer book that intentionally reordered the psalms and interspersed them with new compositions for devotional or worship purposes.

Psalm Titles

Most psalms (116 of 150) carry short titles, or superscripts, at the beginning of the psalm. The titles appear very early: they are included in the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT, which adds titles for all the psalms except for Pss 1–2, and the NT seems to be aware of these (Acts 4:25; Heb 4:7). The titles are an integral part of the Hebrew text as well, appearing as v. 1 of the psalms (or vv. 1–2).

The following are the main types of psalm titles:

• Authorship (see Introduction: Author).

• Name of a collection, e.g., “Of the Sons of Korah” (Pss 42–49) or “A song of ascents” (Pss 120–134).

• Type of psalm, e.g., mizmôr (“psalm”), šir (“song”), maśkîl, or miktām. Many of these ancient classifications are not fully understood today, and the NIV simply includes notes such as “Title: Probably a literary or musical term” (see NIV text note on the title of Ps 7).

• Musical notations such as a tune title (e.g., Pss 9; 22; 45; 56), a musical instruction—such as “For the director of music” (e.g., Pss 4–6) or “With stringed instruments” (e.g., Pss 4; 6; 54–55)—or other designation (e.g., Pss 6–8; 12).

• Notes on the use of a psalm (e.g., Pss 30; 100; 102).

• Historical notes about an occasion in David’s life (Pss 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51–52; 54; 56–57; 59–60; 63; 142).

These categories are not mutually exclusive; several appear together in the title of some psalms, e.g., Pss 4–7; 45; 52; 60.

The psalm in Hab 3 has a title (superscript) characteristic of those in the Psalter—“A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet. On shigionoth” (Hab 3:1)—but it also has a postscript—“For the director of music. On my stringed instruments” (Hab 3:19). This (and other evidence) has led some scholars to propose that whenever “For the director of music” appears followed by an “optional” prepositional phrase (as in Hab 3:19b: “On my stringed instruments”), this part of the superscript should actually be considered a postscript to the previous psalm.

The psalm titles are not numbered in English Bibles, but they appear as v. 1—or occasionally as vv. 1–2 (Pss 51–52; 54; 60)—in the Hebrew Bible. Accordingly, verse numberings in the Hebrew Bible differ slightly from those in English Bibles. In the NIV, the original psalm titles appear in italics before v. 1 of a psalm.

Psalm Types

The ancient psalmists had their own classifications for psalms (e.g., mizmôr, šiggāyôn, miktām, etc.), many of which are not understood today. Most scholars today pay little attention to these terms. The NIV usually includes a text note such as “Title: Probably a literary or musical term” in these cases (see, e.g., the NIV text note on the title for Ps 7).

In the past century, scholars have created their own categories of psalms that are sometimes, though not always, helpful in understanding the psalms. In broadest terms, psalms are classified as individual or communal compositions, though individuals sometimes wrote on behalf of the community (e.g., Pss 65; 80) or vice versa (e.g., Pss 42–43; 88). Psalms are also classified as (1) praise (e.g., Pss 8; 33; 100; 103; 113; 117; 150) or thanksgiving (e.g., Pss 9; 107; 118; 136) psalms or (2) lament (e.g., Pss 5–6; 42–43; 86; 88) psalms. Within these broad categories, many scholars find subcategories such as psalms of trust or confidence, petition, penitence, imprecation (cursing), and more; but many of these overlap and, in the end, such exercises often reveal more about the ingenuity of the scholar than about the truths of the psalm. Because of this, minimal attention is paid to modern-day subcategories in the study notes of this Bible.

Praise is often understood as exalting God for his character (i.e., for who he is), whereas thanksgiving is understood as responding to God for things he has done for the psalmist, especially after a difficult time. However, the two actually overlap, because God’s character can only be known through the things he does. So even when the psalmists are thanking God for things he has done, they are praising him, in keeping with the Hebrew title of the book (tĕhillîm, “praises”). The psalms of praise typically follow a pattern: (1) a call to praise, (2) reasons for praise, and sometimes (3) a renewed call to praise. Thanksgiving psalms also typically follow a pattern: (1) a call to praise, sometimes (2) reasons for praise, then (3) a focus on the psalmists’ needs and what God has done in answering their prayers, and (4) further praise.

Lament psalms tend to follow a more complex pattern: (1) address to God and introductory petition, (2) the lament proper, (3) confession of trust or assurance of being heard, (4) petition, and (5) praise or vow to praise. Though these are psalms of deep pain and emotion, it is instructive to note that in almost all lament psalms, praise is a component, confirming that praising God is the desired mode in which people should strive to live. (Ps 88 is a notable exception; see introduction to Ps 88.) It is instructive to note that more than half of the psalms are laments of some type; their inclusion in the Psalter provides a rich (though sadly underused) resource for instruction on legitimate ways to express grief, pain, discontent, and even anger—all within the framework of a relationship with God.

Sometimes psalms are grouped according to content, and some of these are identified as such in the study notes. These include the following: Kingship of Yahweh psalms (Pss 47; 93–99; 145); royal or Messianic psalms (Pss 2; 18; 20–21; 45; 72; 89; 101; 110; 132; 144); wisdom psalms (Pss 1; 19; 32; 34; 37; 49; 73; 112; 119; 128), a subcategory of which is Torah psalms (dealing with God’s instruction or law: Pss 1; 19; 119); and historical psalms (Pss 78; 105–106; 136). Some scholars would include more or less psalms in each of these individual categories, which shows the fluidity of such modern classifications.

The Psalms as Poetry

The NIV lays out the psalms in poetic form with short lines paralleling other short lines. Most are balanced two-line pairs, though there are occasional three-line groupings. The two most fundamental aspects of Hebrew poetry are terseness (short lines typically consisting of 3–4 words in Hebrew) and parallelism (lines that echo each other in some way).

Synonymous Parallelism

“Synonymous” parallelism typically consists of two lines, with the second playing off the first in some way. An example is 1:5:

Therefore	the wicked	will not stand	in the judgment,
nor	sinners		in the assembly	of the righteous.

In this example, the parallelism is “synonymous” but “incomplete,” because the verb phrase “will not stand” is missing in the second line, even though its force carries over to that line. To maintain the balance between the two lines, the poet has added the additional phrase “of the righteous” as “compensation.”

The often-stated idea that the second poetic line “says the same thing as the first” is misleading, as it tends to downplay the contribution of the second line in explaining the first, adding to it, narrowing its focus, or any number of other ways in which it might play off of the first line. A better way of understanding the relationship between two poetic lines is to think of them in this way: The first line makes a statement; the second line then expands upon that statement, limits it, clarifies it, or in some other way plays off of the thought in the first line. This idea can be expressed as follows: “Line A is so and, what’s more, Line B is so.” This elevates the second line to the status of being equally as important as the first line, as it adds its own distinctive contributions, rather than unimaginatively restating the thought of the first line. In our example from 1:5, the second line, then, shows that the general category of “the wicked” is more specifically “sinners” and that the righteous will stand in the judgment but that the wicked will not survive that judgment nor stand with the righteous.

Antithetical Parallelism

“Antithetical” parallelism involves contrasts; an example is 37:9:

For those who	are evil		will be destroyed,
but those who	hope	in the LORD	will inherit	the land.

In this case, the second line contrasts with the first, both in terms of the overall message of each line as well as in the contrasts between each element of the two lines.

Acrostic Poems

Acrostic poems were built using successive letters of the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet, typically one verse (though sometimes more than one) per letter. The acrostic poems in the OT are Pss 9–10 (which together constitute an acrostic poem); 25; 34; 37; 111; 112; 119; 145; Prov 31:10–31; Lam 1; 2; 3; 4. The acrostic pattern would have served as a mnemonic device for remembering the poems.

Selah

Selah (selâ) occurs 71 times in 39 different psalms. It does not occur with any regularity, and its meaning is unclear. It likely was a musical or liturgical notation. Because of this uncertainty, the NIV does not include this word in the text of the psalms but refers to it only in NIV text notes (see, e.g., NIV text note on 3:2).

Other Characteristics of Hebrew Poetry

Hebrew poetry frequently employs literary devices—alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, paronomasia, chiasms, and more—to accentuate its message and impact on readers and hearers. But most of these are not accessible without knowledge of Hebrew.

Beyond the formal characteristics of terseness and parallelism, Hebrew poetry contrasts with prose in several ways:

• Selectivity. Poetry tends to be more selective than prose due to the limits the poetic structure itself imposes as well as the terseness of the individual lines. For example, compare the prose (narrative) account of the Israelites’ crossing the Red Sea in Exod 14 with the poetic (hymnic) reflection on that event in Exod 15:1–18; the prose text is much more detailed.

• Figurative and Emotive Language. Poetry tends to use more figurative language than prose, and it tends to be more emotive. For example, David uses highly figurative and emotive language to describe his desperate plight in 69:1–4, which contrasts sharply with the unembellished, straightforward narrative account of his grief in another situation in 2 Sam 12:16.

• The Stage. Poetry tends to reach into the heavenly realms more than prose does. For example, compare (a) the straightforward narrative summary of the battle against the Canaanites in Judg 4:23–24, where the stage upon which the events unfold is confined to a specific battlefield, with (b) the poetic description of that same battle in Judg 5:4–5, 20, where the stage includes the cosmos.

• Time Frame. Prose tends to be confined to past-time events, as narrative texts mostly tell us about events that have already taken place, while poetry is not so time-bound. The past, the present, and even the future all figure prominently in the poetry of the psalms.

Poetry Outside the Book of Psalms

The book of Psalms is not the only repository for poems. Many occur elsewhere in the OT, usually in narrative contexts (see Gen 49:1–28; Exod 15:1–18; Deut 32:1–43; 33; Judg 5; 1 Sam 2:1–10; 2 Sam 1:17–27; 22; 23:1–7; 1 Chr 16:7–36; Isa 38:9–20; the book of Lamentations; Jonah 2:1–9; Hab 3). And most of the wisdom and prophetic books are written in poetic form, though not as individual, self-contained compositions as in the Psalter.

Theology of the Psalms

As human words to and about God, the psalms instruct us in myriad ways about how to worship God. They teach us how to sing, dance, rejoice, give thanks, confess sin, grieve, express anger, make requests of God, proclaim God’s name far and wide, and much more. They are a rich resource both for individual and corporate use.

As God’s Word to us (see Introduction: The Psalms as God’s Word), the book of Psalms engages almost all of the great themes of the Bible. Beginning with the introductory Pss 1–2, the Psalter lays out the two ways (that of the righteous versus that of the wicked), the importance of relying on God and his Word, God’s sovereignty and rule over all people and nations (and his attendant concern for them), the interplay between divine and human kingship, and God as a place of refuge for all.

The Psalter’s overarching theme celebrates God’s sovereign rule as the great King over all things. The climactic declaration is that “the LORD reigns” (see note on 93:1). God rules over creation itself and over all nations and people groups—including his own chosen people Israel—down to each individual person. He is a good God: holy, loving, merciful, protective of his people, faithful, a keeper of promises, a giver of good gifts. He is a just God: vindicating his people, punishing evil, caring for the marginalized. He is a great and powerful God: the Creator and Sustainer of all things, mightier than any god humans can conjure up, more powerful than all the nations and armies of the world.

As the sovereign King, God asserts his control over the most powerful forces in nature (see notes on 24:1; 93:3; 96:5, 12; 135:5–7). He proclaims his authority over all the false gods of the nations, gods that were such a temptation for his own people time and time again (see notes on 82:1; 95:3; 96:4, 5; 97:7). He opposes the wicked, whether individuals (e.g., 1:4–6) or nations (e.g., Ps 2), and will mete out justice for their wickedness (see notes on 1:4–6; 11:6; 62:12; 75:7; 91:8; 149:6, 7–9; see also introduction to Ps 2). He protects the vulnerable in society—the widow, the fatherless, the outsider, and the poor—and expects his representatives on earth to carry out this mission (see note on 82:3–4).

God’s plan for the nations is that his people Israel be a testimony to them, causing them to turn to God; it is an inclusive vision that shows God’s desire for all peoples to know him (see notes on 83:16, 18; see also introductions to Pss 67; 117). God chose Jerusalem (i.e., Mount Zion) to be the earthly “capital” of God’s kingdom (see notes on 2:6; 9:11; see also introduction to Ps 132); this was the site of the temple, which was God’s dwelling place on the earth (see notes on 5:7; 26:8; 28:2; see also introduction to Ps 24). He anointed David and his descendants to be his royal representatives on earth—his vice-regents—and so the Davidic kings had great responsibility for leading the nation in following the Lord and defending the cause of justice in society (see notes on 2:6, 7; 40:6–10; 89:3; see also introductions to Pss 45; 101; 132). In all of this, God himself is the source of ultimate refuge for those who are troubled (see notes on 2:12; 18:1–2; 144:2).

The Abrahamic, Mosaic, and Davidic covenants all play a prominent role in the psalms, the first and third of these also pointing ahead to the new covenant promised in the prophetic books (especially Jer 31:31–34) and fulfilled in the person and work of Jesus Christ. On the Abrahamic covenant, see notes on 72:17b; 105:9–11; see also introductions to Pss 37; 67; 105. On the Mosaic covenant, see note on 25:10. On the Davidic covenant, see notes on 2:6, 7; 40:6–10; 89:3; see also introductions to Pss 45; 132). On the new covenant, see notes on Jer 31:32–33. See “Covenant.”

The structure of the book of Psalms—with its many individual psalms coming together into collections of like-minded psalms that ultimately were joined into the five “books” of psalms—is not a random structure. Rather, an unfolding story line reflects the great, overarching theme of God’s sovereign rule as the great King.

In the introductory Pss 1–2, God the King installs his chosen, anointed king on Mount Zion as his royal representative (Ps 2) and the exemplar of the righteous man (Ps 1). David is the OT symbol of the righteous king, and his psalms dominate Book I (Pss 3–41), where the prevailing note is one of lament, arising out of David’s distresses.

In Book II (Pss 42–72), other voices join David’s (the sons of Korah, Asaph), and it occasionally notes national concerns alongside individual ones. The book ends on a high note, speaking of the ideal human king as one with a universal reign (Ps 72).

Book III (Pss 73–89) is one of crisis, both personal and national. It begins with doubts about God’s justice (Ps 73) and ends with two despairing psalms (Pss 88–89), the final one questioning God’s commitment to the Davidic covenant.

Book IV (Pss 90–106) marks a major turning point in the Psalter. The focus turns to a time when there was no human king: the time of Moses (Ps 90). It celebrates God’s role as the great King (Pss 93–99). Book IV answers the despair at the end of Book III. It says, in effect, that if people were tempted to look for their security in the Davidic king, then they would end up disappointed; they needed to look to the Lord as their refuge and strength and as their great King.

Book V (Pss 107–150) shows that God’s commitment to his promises to David remained unwavering, and David therefore returns to prominence in this book, especially at the beginning and end (Pss 108–110; 138–145) and in the important Ps 132. The book ends by extolling David, the Lord’s anointed king (Ps 144), and the Lord himself, the divine King (Ps 145), echoing the beginning of the Psalter (Pss 1–2), which also features the Lord and his anointed king. And in the final climax of praise (Pss 146–150), Ps 149 anticipates God’s victory over the rebellious nations and rulers introduced in Ps 2.

Jesus, the Son of God and son of David, embodies and fulfills the promises of the psalms, which are rooted in the promises God gave to Abraham and David concerning the blessings he would give their descendants, and through them, all peoples. God promised Abraham that kings would come from his line (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11), later revealed as being through the line of Judah (Gen 49:10). In 2 Sam 7:11–16, God promised David—who was from the line of Judah—that he would always have a descendant on the throne (see also 89:3–4, 28–37; 132). He was God’s chosen, anointed king, sitting on “the throne of the LORD” (1 Chr 29:23), with God’s kingdom entrusted into the care of his descendants (2 Chr 13:5, 8). David was the symbol of the ideal, godly king, the standard by which later kings were judged (e.g., 1 Kgs 15:3, 11; 2 Kgs 14:3; 16:2; 18:3; 22:2). In the Psalter, the royal psalms celebrate this ideal, which David embodies (see introductions to Pss 2; 18; 20; 21; 45; 72; 89; 101; 132; 144).

But even the godliest OT kings—David, Hezekiah, Josiah—fell short of the true, ideal King, and so the ultimate fulfillment of the promises to Abraham and David had to await the coming of their great descendant, Jesus Christ, i.e., Jesus the Messiah (see Matt 1:1). The Davidic psalms, then, ultimately point ahead to Jesus, the anointed King and the greatest of the sons of David.

Jesus was the ultimate example of the righteous person in Ps 1 and of God’s anointed son, the King Messiah, in Ps 2. Jesus also experienced most of the same travails that David and other psalmists did, so their laments and prayers anticipated his own (e.g., Pss 16; 22; 69). The NT repeatedly shows the psalms being fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus (e.g., Matt 13:34–35; 21:16, 42; John 2:17; 15:25; 19:24, 28, 36; Acts 2:25–35; 13:32–37; Rom 15:3; 1 Cor 15:25–27; 1 Pet 2:7).

The psalms thus represent a priceless treasure trove of resources for relating to God in all circumstances. They instruct us in how to live, and they teach us great truths about God the great King, his sovereign rule over all things, and his plan for reconciling the world to himself through his Son Jesus, the Christ.