The book of Amos is well known for its demand for socioeconomic justice, although there is much more to its message than this. Many individuals and groups have appealed to this prophetic book in their struggle against discrimination and oppression. Martin Luther King Jr., for instance, quoted 5:24, perhaps the book’s best-known verse, in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech at the Washington Memorial on August 28, 1963.
Author
Based on 1:1, the prophet Amos traditionally has been taken to be the author of the book that bears his name. While a good case can be made that the book comes from the time of the prophet, nowhere is it said that he wrote down its words. The book is well organized and exhibits the author’s great literary skill, which suggests that it was a literary work from the beginning and is not simply a loose collection of messages.
The book itself suggests that Amos was relatively well-to-do, not a poor peasant (1:1; 7:14). Chs. 1–2 reveal an awareness of the international scene, and the quality of the poetry indicates that the prophet was an educated man. Amos clearly was versed in the traditions of Israel and was no stranger to the sanctuaries and spheres of economic and political power. Although neither a priest nor a professional prophet, he must have been an impressive individual to merit the accusation of being a conspirator against the king of Israel (7:10). His message found particular opposition because he was from the southern kingdom of Judah.
Date and Background
The opening verse dates the ministry of Amos during the reigns of King Uzziah (also known as Azariah) in Judah and King Jeroboam II in Israel (2 Kgs 14:23—15:7). Although there are disagreements as to the exact dates of these two kings, all agree that the time frame of Amos’s ministry is about 760–750 BC. There is evidence of a powerful earthquake at Hazor (Stratum VI), Gezer, and Lachish that has been dated to about 760. This probably is the earthquake that 1:1 mentions (also 8:8; perhaps 6:9–10; 9:1). People still remembered its violent effect over two centuries later (Zech 14:5). Amos 8:9 might refer to a lunar eclipse that is dated by the Assyrian Eponym Chronicle to June 16, 763. The evidence of these natural disasters, along with the lack of any mention of the political turmoil in Israel after the death of Jeroboam II or of the Assyrians (who enjoyed a resurgence under Tiglath-Pileser III beginning in 744), indicate a date for the ministry of Amos around 760. The prophet’s predictions about a foreign invasion were fulfilled when Israel fell to the Assyrian armies in 722 (2 Kgs 17:3–5). Israel then ceased to exist as an independent country and became a province of the Assyrian Empire. Many were taken into exile at that time, as well as in 720 BC after another Assyrian campaign into the region (2 Kgs 17:6, 18–20; 18:11; see map).
Themes and Theology
The focus of the theology of the book of Amos is Yahweh (“the LORD”). The name Yahweh appears by itself or in combination with other names and epithets over 80 times in the book. Lord ( ʾ ădōnāy) occurs alone 3 times and in combination some 22 times. God ( ʾ ĕlōhîm) occurs alone twice and in combination with other names for God 9 times. Three doxology passages climax with the declaration “The LORD [God Almighty] is his name” (4:13; 5:8; 9:6). Amos portrays the Lord as sovereign over the nations and history and as the Creator of the earth and the constellations. The epithet “LORD God Almighty” (“Yahweh God of hosts”) appears 8 times, and “LORD Almighty” once. This name and title combination could refer to the heavenly host of angels (1 Kgs 22:19; Neh 9:6; Ps 148:2) or to the stars (Deut 4:19; 2 Kgs 17:16; Jer 8:2). It also can mean the troops of Israel (1 Sam 17:45), though this is not likely in Amos. There is also a strong emphasis on divine speech. God’s voice is like thunder (1:2); the phrases “says the LORD” and “declares the LORD” permeate the book, and God’s oath taking underscores the seriousness of the messages (4:2; 6:8; 8:7).
The fundamental obligation that the God of Israel places on his people is that they practice justice and righteousness. This combination of terms appears in 5:7, 24; 6:12. God demands the proper ordering of society, especially as it pertains to the vulnerable (2:6–8; 3:9–10; 4:1; 5:10–15; 6:3–6; 8:4–6). Although the term “covenant” does not appear in the book, Amos’s message is grounded in Israel’s unique relationship with God, which looked back to the deliverance from Egypt (2:10; 3:1–2) and even earlier to the patriarchs Jacob (6:8; 7:2, 5; 8:7; 9:8) and Isaac (7:9, 16).
The religious ideology of the northern kingdom of Israel sanctioned its unjust government and social order and thereby presented a distorted view of the Lord (7:13). The roots of this system went back to the division of the united monarchy over a century before, when Jeroboam I established an alternative to the worship of the Lord, which was centered in Jerusalem (1 Kgs 12:25–33). Israel crowded the sanctuaries to worship their god, but the Lord rejected this self-serving nationalistic faith that ignored his ethical demands (Amos 4:4–5; 5:4–6, 21–25; 7:9–17). This society and its theology were unacceptable to the Lord. As judgment, God would send an unnamed enemy to invade the northern kingdom (3:11; 6:14). Its fortresses and dwellings would be destroyed (3:15; 6:8–10) and the temple at Bethel torn down (9:1; cf. 3:14; 5:5–6; 8:3). The day of the Lord, which the people believed would be a time of victory, instead would bring defeat and sorrow (5:18–20; cf. 2:14–16; 5:1–3, 16–17; 8:9–14). Many, in particular the leaders, would be taken far from the land (4:2–3; 5:5, 26–27; 6:7; 9:9).
The prophetic call to turn to God was given in the hope that a remnant, a faithful few, might respond and survive this fate (5:4–6, 14–15). Sometime after the devastation, the exiles would return, rebuild the cities, and work their fields once more (9:13–15). The northern kingdom of Israel and its rulers were illegitimate in God’s sight and had no place in his plans for that future day. This is clear from the fact that the Lord had roared from Jerusalem and its temple (1:2) and that final restoration would come under a Davidic monarchy (9:11).
Judgment was not limited to Israel. The nations were accountable to the Lord for their treatment of his people and their cruelty in war (1:3—2:3). Their deserved punishment would be defeat in battle and exile. God’s sovereignty over other peoples also extends to his involvement in their migrations (9:7). In the future they will come under his rule more directly in that eschatological day of peace and abundance (9:12).
Structure and Literary Features
The book of Amos can be separated into four parts: the inscription and summary words of the preface (1:1–2), the judgments directed against the nations (chs. 1–2), the messages directed against the northern kingdom (chs. 3–6), and the visions of chs. 7–9.
These large sections can be subdivided. The command to “Hear this word,” coupled with further specification at 3:1 and 5:1, marks the start of two major segments. As the notes will make clear, chs. 5–6 are composed of three concentric literary structures or chiasms. The section of visions can be organized into three sequences of visions (7:1–9; 8:1–3; 9:1–10), each of which is followed by theological expansion (7:10–17; 8:4–14; 9:11–15).
There are several other outstanding literary features of the book. These include the penchant for series of five (e.g., the fivefold refrain “ ‘yet you have not returned to me,’ declares the LORD” in 4:4–11; the five descriptors of 4:13; the five visions in chs. 7–9) and seven items (e.g., the list of seven types of soldiers in 2:14–16). The messages of 1:3—2:16, which all begin with “For three sins . . . even for four” (1:3, 6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1, 4, 6), exhibit an x/x+1 structure (here x is 3). This pattern was not uncommon in the ancient Near East and also appears in Prov 30:15–16, 18–19, 21–23, 29–31. Amos’s imagery is powerful and the language direct.
Outline
I. Preface (1:1–2)
II. Judgment on the Nations (1:3—2:16)
A. Judgment on Israel’s Neighbors (1:3—2:3)
B. Judgment on Judah (2:4–5)
C. Judgment on Israel (2:6–16)
III. More Details About Israel’s Sin and Fate (3:1—6:14)
A. Divine Exposure of Israel’s Guilt (3:1—4:13)
1. Witnesses Summoned Against Israel (3:1–15)
2. Israel Has Not Returned to God (4:1–13)
B. Lament for the Death of Israel (5:1—6:14)
1. A Lament and Call to Repentance (5:1–17)
2. The Day of the Lord (5:18–27)
3. Woe to the Complacent (6:1–7)
4. The Lord Abhors the Pride of Israel (6:8–14)
IV. Five Visions of Israel’s Future (7:1—9:15)
A. Three Visions of Disaster (7:1–9)
B. Expansion: Amos and Amaziah (7:10–17)
C. The Fourth Vision: A Basket of Ripe Fruit (8:1–3)
D. Expansion: The Cost of Religious Perversion (8:4–14)
E. The Fifth Vision: Israel to Be Destroyed (9:1–10)
F. Expansion: Israel’s Restoration (9:11–15)
