The short account of Jonah’s mission to the city of Nineveh presents a challenging message to its readers. Once we look beyond the popular image of Jonah and the “whale,” we discover a deeply profound story that explores the complex relationship between divine justice and mercy.
Author
Although its central character, “Jonah son of Amittai” (1:1), is credited with composing the song of thanksgiving in 2:2–9, we cannot be certain that he is the book’s author. As it comes to us, the book of Jonah is anonymous. While we may not be able to identify the author, he was clearly a gifted writer, because the story displays an extensive use of literary devices (e.g., concentric structures, key words, wordplay).
Date
Scholars have debated at length when the book of Jonah was composed. According to 2 Kgs 14:25, a prophet by the name of “Jonah son of Amittai” was active during the reign of Jeroboam II (793/92–753 BC). There is good reason to equate that Jonah with the one mentioned in the book of Jonah. This implies that the book cannot have been composed before the middle of the eighth century BC. The earliest known references to the book come from the second century BC. In the absence of further evidence, the majority of scholars tend to favor a date of composition in the fifth or fourth centuries BC, arguing that this is the most likely option on the basis of linguistic features and supposedly historical inaccuracies. However, a strong case can be made for an earlier date of composition.
Genre
Much discussion centers on how the book of Jonah should be understood. Does it report real historical events, or is it a fictional account created to teach an important truth? Those who support the latter understanding point to the series of miraculous events recorded in the book as evidence against its being factually accurate. Could Jonah have possibly survived inside a fish for 72 hours? Would the entire city of Nineveh, both people and animals, have repented at the preaching of a foreign prophet? Could the plant that sheltered Jonah have grown up in one day? Such questions need to be asked and carefully considered. Unfortunately, there are no easy answers. Many modern scholars are drawn toward explanations that avoid affirming the historical nature of the book of Jonah, suggesting that it could be a parable-like story that seeks to communicate a profound truth through a fictional account. While this is a possibility, it cannot be overlooked that Jesus, in common with all the earliest readers of Jonah, assumed the historicity of the story (Matt 12:39–42; 16:4; Luke 11:29–32). For Christians, Jesus’ testimony ought to be viewed as decisive on this issue. To dismiss these exceptional occurrences as utterly impossible simply because they are miraculous automatically excludes belief in an all-powerful God. Yet such a God lies at the heart of the Christian faith, for we believe that this same God raised Jesus Christ to life, an even more miraculous event.
Historical Setting
To appreciate the book’s message, readers need to have some understanding of its historical context. 2 Kings 14:25 identifies Jonah as an eighth-century BC prophet originating from the village of Gath Hepher in the Galilee region. Unlike his contemporaries Amos and Hosea, Jonah grew up in the northern kingdom of Israel and appears to have been loyal to his homeland, prophesying that its borders would extend under King Jeroboam II, during a period when the elite classes prospered. But all was far from well within Israel, and the nation continued to move further and further from serving God during the eighth century BC.
While the Assyrians had been an aggressive enemy against Israel a century earlier, by Jonah’s time their power had waned. However, all this was about to change. In 722 BC the Assyrians would capture Samaria, the capital of Israel, and deport over 27,000 inhabitants before repopulating the region with foreigners. Early readers of Jonah, aware of Samaria’s downfall, likely associated Jonah’s reluctance to go to Nineveh with this traumatic event. Jonah possibly knew from Hosea’s preaching that the Assyrians were a threat to the future well-being of Israel (see Hos 9:3; 10:6; 11:5; cf. Amos 5:27). Conscious from the outset that God would pardon the Assyrians of Nineveh and not destroy their city, Jonah tried to prevent this from happening. By fleeing from God’s presence, he hoped to secure the future safety of Israel. To this end, he was willing to sacrifice his own life rather than be the prophet whose message would cause the Ninevites to repent.
Purpose
Why was the story composed? The plentiful answers to this question generally fall into one of four categories.
1. To encourage repentance. At the heart of the book’s plot is the repentance of the Ninevites at Jonah’s preaching. When Jonah announces the city’s destruction, the Ninevites repent of their wickedness, thus averting God’s judgment. The repentance of wicked pagans provides an example for Jews to follow. For this reason, Jews read the book of Jonah on the Day of Atonement, when they fast and repent of their sins.
2. To show that prophecies of judgment can be conditional. As a story that centers on an unfulfilled prophetic pronouncement of judgment, the book of Jonah highlights the conditional nature of prophecies. In the opinion of some scholars, the book was composed to show that all prophecies of judgment are essentially conditional, spoken by a prophet with the intention of summoning people to repentance. It is claimed that the story of Jonah acts as a counterbalance to the assertion in Deut 18:22: “If what a prophet proclaims in the name of the LORD does not take place or come true, that is a message the LORD has not spoken.” In the case of Jonah, his message was indeed from the Lord.
3. To show how Jews should view Gentiles. Throughout the book, Jonah’s disobedience and anger toward God contrast with the positive actions of pagan Gentiles. In ch. 1 the sailors, in spite of their precarious situation, display compassion for Jonah during the storm. In ch. 3 the people of Nineveh respond immediately by fasting and mourning for their wrongdoing. In marked contrast, Jonah defiantly and stubbornly opposes God’s compassion toward Gentiles.
4. To explore the complex relationship between God’s justice and mercy. Through exploring the very differing attitudes of God and Jonah toward the repentant people of Nineveh, the book of Jonah provides an important insight into the relationship between divine justice and mercy. This is especially true in ch. 4, where Jonah complains to God about the nondestruction of Nineveh and then about the destruction of the plant that shelters him. In both instances, Jonah is so angry with God that he considers life not worth living. Jonah appraises God’s actions in terms of how they will impact him personally. As a prophet, he anticipates that sparing the Ninevites will result in the destruction of his own nation, Israel. Any temporary comfort that he derives from the plant swiftly ends when it wilts. Jonah’s self-centered evaluation of God’s actions reveals that Jonah wants justice for his enemies but mercy for himself (cf. his song of praise in 2:2–9). But God, unlike Jonah, is totally impartial. As a gracious and forgiving God, his mercy may extend to the most unlikely of people.
In assessing why the book of Jonah was composed, all of these ideas merit consideration and each may possibly contribute something toward a final answer. Ultimately, the most appropriate solution will explain why the author of Jonah has included every element within the story. Some answers listed above go much further toward doing this than others.
Jonah in the New Testament
There are three brief references to Jonah in the Gospels (Matt 12:39–42; 16:4; Luke 11:29–32). In all three passages Jesus speaks of “the sign of [the prophet] Jonah” in the context of a “wicked [and adulterous] generation” asking for a sign. The intended sign, according to Luke 11:30, involves some kind of resemblance between Jonah and Jesus, although with Jesus “something greater than Jonah” occurs (Luke 11:32).
The parallels between Jonah and Jesus must not be pushed too far, for they are in many ways very different. Of the possible parallels between them, four are most apparent: (1) Jonah and Jesus call people to repent. (2) As Jonah was “three days and three nights in the belly of a huge fish,” so Jesus will be “three days and three nights in the heart of the earth” (Matt 12:40). (3) The activities of Jonah and Jesus result in repentant Gentiles being saved but wicked Israelites/Jews being punished. (4) Both Jonah and Jesus sacrifice themselves in order to save others, but God delivers them from death. The “sign of Jonah” may consist of some or all of these elements.
Outline
I. Jonah Flees From the Lord (1:1–16)
II. Jonah’s Prayer (1:17—2:10)
III. Jonah Goes to Nineveh (3:1–10)
IV. Jonah’s Anger at the Lord’s Compassion (4:1–11)
