Introduction to

Luke

The Gospel of Luke is the first installment of the two-volume work Luke-Acts. This first volume describes God’s climactic work in the history of salvation through the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ; the second volume points to the power of the gospel of Jesus Christ in forming a renewed people of God.

Author

Although the author does not explicitly identify himself, the evidence points to Luke. The oldest manuscript (late second century AD) names Luke as the author in the attached title, and the roughly contemporary Muratorian Canon and the early church fathers, beginning with Irenaeus, support this identification. The content of both Luke and Acts further confirms this identification. The “we” passages in Acts (Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1—28:16) should best be understood as coming from the pen of a companion of Paul, and Paul’s own writings suggest that Luke was one of his co-workers (Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 24). Paul’s further identification of Luke as a medical doctor (Col 4:14) is consistent with several aspects of this Gospel, such as its prologue (1:1–4), which is similar in length and style to contemporary scientific writings.

Luke’s familiarity with the wider Greco-Roman cultural and political world, as well as its geographic landscape, suggests that he may have been a Gentile. His interest in the salvation of the Gentiles and his distinct ability to write polished Greek appear to confirm this identification. On the other hand, his knowledge of the OT and his intimate knowledge of the Jewish community point to an intimate connection with the Jews. Perhaps he was a Gentile who was attracted to Jewish religious beliefs and practices. In the first century, Gentiles who worshiped in the synagogue but were not full converts to Judaism were identified as “God-fearers,” and Luke’s interest in the “God-fearers” (Acts 14:1; 16:13–14; 17:2–4, 10–12, 17; 18:4; 19:8–10) may reflect his own identity as one of them.

Date

There is a lack of scholarly consensus regarding dating this Gospel, although we can assume that it was written after Mark and before Acts. Those who insist on a pre-AD 70 date note that Luke does not describe Paul’s death (mid-60s) in Acts or show an awareness of Paul’s letters. Those who argue for a date after AD 70 respond by pointing out that Luke was not writing a biography of Paul but an account of the progress of the gospel, and although Luke does not explicitly quote from Paul’s letters, his writings do reflect the influence of Paul’s thought. Definitive arguments are lacking to establish a pre-70 dating, but the issues discussed in Luke-Acts do point to the struggles of the first-century church, and the focus of the active work of the Spirit reflects the reality of the early period of the church. Taking into consideration the fact that Luke was a companion of Paul, it is reasonable to assume that Luke wrote his two-volume work around AD 70.

Intended Audience

In the prologue to each of his volumes, Luke mentions a “Theophilus” (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1). The appellation “most excellent” (Luke 1:3) points to his high social status; in Acts, it is also applied to several Roman officers (Acts 23:26; 24:3; 26:25). It is often assumed that this Theophilus is to be considered the intended reader of this two-volume work, but this narrow identification is doubtful. First, ancient biographies and histories were often public documents written to wider communities, not one individual. Thus, Luke is most likely addressing a wider audience. Second, the content of Luke-Acts addresses a wide variety of issues. To limit this work to the concerns and needs of one individual may not be appropriate.

The content of Luke’s writing points to an audience familiar with Jewish customs and culture but still at home in a Gentile environment. This may again point to the “God-fearers” as the possible target audience, although it seems likely that Luke is addressing a wider mixed audience that contains both Jews and Gentiles. These are likely believers who have received “the things [they] have been taught” (1:4), although the evangelistic thrust of Luke’s message cannot be denied.

Occasion and Purpose

Instead of insisting on one particular event or set of circumstances that led to Luke’s writing this Gospel, it seems better to read Luke’s Gospel as attempting to address a series of issues, even though they are not all equally prominent:

1. Luke’s primary purpose is to strengthen and confirm the faith of the early Christians. He writes so that Theophilus (and other readers) “may know the certainty of the things” they have been taught (1:4). As for the exact “things” that require affirmation, one must look further into Luke’s writings to find them.

2. One of Luke’s main incentives for writing his two-volume work is to emphasize proclaiming the gospel. The first volume establishes the foundation and center of the gospel, while the second volume depicts the power of this gospel as it spread throughout the Roman world.

3. Luke has a particular interest in showing what the coming of Christ means for the identity of God’s people (2:30–33; 3:4–6; 4:16–30; 24:46–47; Acts 1:8; 13:46–47; 28:28). Throughout this two-volume work, Luke highlights the powerful work of Jesus the Messiah, whose death and resurrection ushers in a new era in salvation history, an era that witnesses the power of the gospel among both Jews and Gentiles.

4. Other purposes of Luke’s two-volume work have been proposed: to explain the delay of Jesus’ return, to defend the early Christian movement for the Roman audience, and to combat proto-Gnosticism. None of these, however, can explain the entirety of Luke’s two-volume work, even though particular passages may support one of these purposes.

Genre

In both form and content, this Gospel resembles those of Mark and Matthew. All three can be read as belonging to the broad category of Greco-Roman biographies (see the discussion in “Introduction to the Gospels and Acts”). The fact that Luke’s second volume (Acts) is to be identified as “history” does not prevent one from reading Luke’s Gospel as a biography since early samples of Greco-Roman biographies are often embedded in historical works.

Unlike their modern counterparts, ancient biographies focused on the public life and career of a person. Their authors aimed at addressing the concerns of their communities rather than revealing private details to satisfy their readers’ curiosity. These biographies often contained material from various subgenres.

These brief descriptions aid our reading of the Gospels. For Luke, the birth narrative (chs. 1–2) focuses on the identity and significance of Jesus and his mission rather than on the private details of his childhood years. In addressing the wider concerns of the Christian community, Luke focuses not just on Jesus himself but also on the significance of Jesus’ life for his followers. Thus, personal details such as Jesus’ height or appearance are beyond the realm of Luke’s concerns. Since Luke considers Jesus’ death and resurrection to be the foundational events for the life of the church, the last week of Jesus’ life on earth occupies approximately 20 percent of his Gospel.

Finally, just as ancient biographies include material from different genres, Luke’s Gospel also includes a prologue (1:1–4), hymns (e.g., 1:46–55), speeches (e.g., 4:16–27), a genealogy (3:23–38), call accounts (e.g., 5:1–11), miracles (e.g., 5:12–15), proverbs or sayings (e.g., 6:39), prophecies (e.g., 9:22), prayers (e.g., 11:2–4), parables (e.g., 15:1–32), and apocalyptic material (e.g., 21:25–28). Although his Gospel contains diverse material, Luke follows ancient biographies in focusing on one central character. But while ancient biographies were concerned with human characters, Luke’s Gospel will make it abundantly clear that Jesus is also the Son of God.

Themes and Theology

Several significant themes stand out in Luke’s presentation of the life and mission of Jesus:

1. Fulfilling God’s promises. Luke emphasizes that God is fulfilling his plan of salvation. First, Luke uses the OT to emphasize that the life of Jesus is the climax of salvation history. By alluding to the OT throughout the birth narrative (chs. 1–2) and explicitly quoting it when introducing Jesus’ ministry (e.g., 3:4–6; 4:18–19), Luke highlights God’s ancient promises as he interprets the significance of this new era. Second, Luke repeatedly uses the Greek word dei (“it is necessary”; see 2:49 [“had to”]; 4:43 [“must”]; 9:22 [“must”]) with reference to the predetermined plan of God.

2. Christ. Luke frequently uses titles for Jesus that connect him with recurring themes and paradigms that begin in the OT. Introducing Jesus as the Messiah in the birth narrative (1:32–33, 68–75; 2:8–14) places him within the royal Davidic paradigm. Jesus as the prophet of the end of times (4:16–31; 13:33; 24:19) fulfills the roles of Moses, Elijah, and Elisha. By identifying Jesus as the Son of God, Luke not only emphasizes Jesus’ divinity (22:70) but also his role as the new Adam who fulfills God’s intentions and plans for humanity (3:38).

3. Holy Spirit. In the birth narrative, Luke draws attention to the Holy Spirit’s intensive activity in the announcement that the new eschatological era has arrived (1:15, 35, 67; 2:25–27). Luke’s second volume (Acts) makes this explicit: the outpouring of the Spirit signifies the presence of the “last days” (Acts 2:17). These references to the Spirit pave the way for how Luke portrays Jesus as “anointed” by the Spirit (4:18; 3:22). Not only does the emphasis on the Spirit establish a significant Christological point, it also links Jesus and his disciples because they also experience the outpouring of the Spirit prior to their apostolic mission (Acts 2:1–12).

4. Salvation. Luke emphasizes that Jesus saves sinners. Jesus is “the Son of Man [who] came to seek and to save the lost” (19:10). Luke portrays Jesus as the one who saves by using the Greek words sōzō (“to save”; see 6:9; 8:12; 9:24; 13:23; 17:19 [“made you well”]; 18:26), sōtēria (“salvation”; see 1:69, 71, 77; 19:9), and sōtērion (“salvation”; see 2:30; 3:6).

5. Including outcasts and Gentiles. Luke emphasizes how God includes both outcasts and Gentiles. First, he emphasizes marginal groups that are often excluded from Israel. Through acts of table-fellowship, Jesus redefines God’s people by including “tax collectors and sinners” (5:30; 7:34; 15:1). This inclusion is based on the principle of divine reversal since in the last days it is the outcasts who will be invited to the eschatological banquet, but “not one of those who were [originally] invited will get a taste of my banquet” (14:24). Second, Luke emphasizes how God includes Gentiles. He introduces this theme in his Gospel (2:32; 3:6; 4:25–27; 7:1–10) and fully develops it in the second volume (Acts 1:8; 10:1—11:18; 15:1–35).

Outline

I. Introduction (1:1–4)

II. Dawn of a New Era (1:5—2:52)

A. The Birth of John the Baptist Foretold (1:5–25)

B. The Birth of Jesus Foretold (1:26–38)

C. Mary Visits Elizabeth (1:39–45)

D. Mary’s Song (1:46–56)

E. The Birth of John the Baptist (1:57–66)

F. Zechariah’s Song (1:67–80)

G. The Birth of Jesus (2:1–21)

H. Jesus Presented in the Temple (2:22–40)

I. The Boy Jesus at the Temple (2:41–52)

III. Preparation for Jesus’ Ministry (3:1—4:13)

A. John the Baptist Prepares the Way (3:1–20)

B. The Baptism and Genealogy of Jesus (3:21–38)

C. Jesus Is Tested in the Wilderness (4:1–13)

IV. The Galilean Ministry (4:14—9:50)

A. Proclamation in Words and Deeds (4:14–44)

1. Jesus Rejected at Nazareth (4:14–30)

2. Jesus Drives Out an Impure Spirit (4:31–37)

3. Jesus Heals Many (4:38–44)

B. Formation of a New Community (5:1—6:16)

1. Jesus Calls His First Disciples (5:1–11)

2. Jesus Heals a Man With Leprosy (5:12–16)

3. Jesus Forgives and Heals a Paralyzed Man (5:17–26)

4. Jesus Calls Levi and Eats With Sinners (5:27–32)

5. Jesus Questioned About Fasting (5:33–39)

6. Jesus Is Lord of the Sabbath (6:1–11)

7. The Twelve Apostles (6:12–16)

C. Teachings for the New Community (6:17–49)

1. Blessings and Woes (6:17–26)

2. Love for Enemies (6:27–36)

3. Judging Others (6:37–42)

4. A Tree and Its Fruit (6:43–45)

5. The Wise and Foolish Builders (6:46–49)

D. Responses to the Gospel (7:1—8:21)

1. The Faith of the Centurion (7:1–10)

2. Jesus Raises a Widow’s Son (7:11–17)

3. Jesus and John the Baptist (7:18–35)

4. Jesus Anointed by a Sinful Woman (7:36–50)

5. The Parable of the Sower (8:1–15)

6. A Lamp on a Stand (8:16–18)

7. Jesus’ Mother and Brothers (8:19–21)

E. Authority and Identity of Jesus (8:22—9:50)

1. Jesus Calms the Storm (8:22–25)

2. Jesus Restores a Demon-Possessed Man (8:26–39)

3. Jesus Raises a Dead Girl and Heals a Sick Woman (8:40–56)

4. Jesus Sends Out the Twelve (9:1–9)

5. Jesus Feeds the Five Thousand (9:10–17)

6. Peter Declares That Jesus Is the Messiah (9:18–20)

7. Jesus Predicts His Death (9:21–27)

8. The Transfiguration (9:28–36)

9. Jesus Heals a Demon-Possessed Boy (9:37–43a)

10. Jesus Predicts His Death a Second Time (9:43b–50)

V. Journey to Jerusalem (9:51—19:44)

A. Commission and Reception (9:51—11:13)

1. Samaritan Opposition (9:51–56)

2. The Cost of Following Jesus (9:57–62)

3. Jesus Sends Out the Seventy-Two (10:1–24)

4. The Parable of the Good Samaritan (10:25–37)

5. At the Home of Martha and Mary (10:38–42)

6. Jesus’ Teaching on Prayer (11:1–13)

B. Call to Repentance in the Midst of Opposition (11:14—13:35)

1. Jesus and Beelzebul (11:14–28)

2. The Sign of Jonah (11:29–32)

3. The Lamp of the Body (11:33–36)

4. Woes on the Pharisees and the Experts in the Law (11:37–54)

5. Warnings and Encouragements (12:1–12)

6. The Parable of the Rich Fool (12:13–21)

7. Do Not Worry (12:22–34)

8. Watchfulness (12:35–48)

9. Not Peace but Division (12:49–53)

10. Interpreting the Times (12:54–59)

11. Repent or Perish (13:1–9)

12. Jesus Heals a Crippled Woman on the Sabbath (13:10–17)

13. The Parables of the Mustard Seed and the Yeast (13:18–21)

14. The Narrow Door (13:22–30)

15. Jesus’ Sorrow for Jerusalem (13:31–35)

C. Identity of God’s People (14:1—19:27)

1. Jesus at a Pharisee’s House (14:1–14)

2. The Parable of the Great Banquet (14:15–24)

3. The Cost of Being a Disciple (14:25–35)

4. The Parable of the Lost Sheep (15:1–7)

5. The Parable of the Lost Coin (15:8–10)

6. The Parable of the Lost Son (15:11–32)

7. The Parable of the Shrewd Manager (16:1–15)

8. Additional Teachings (16:16–18)

9. The Rich Man and Lazarus (16:19–31)

10. Sin, Faith, Duty (17:1–10)

11. Jesus Heals Ten Men With Leprosy (17:11–19)

12. The Coming of the Kingdom of God (17:20–37)

13. The Parable of the Persistent Widow (18:1–8)

14. The Parable of the Pharisee and the Tax Collector (18:9–14)

15. The Little Children and Jesus (18:15–17)

16. The Rich and the Kingdom of God (18:18–30)

17. Jesus Predicts His Death a Third Time (18:31–34)

18. A Blind Beggar Receives His Sight (18:35–43)

19. Zacchaeus the Tax Collector (19:1–10)

20. The Parable of the Ten Minas (19:11–27)

D. Jesus Comes to Jerusalem as King (19:28–44)

VI. Death and Vindication of Jesus (19:45—24:53)

A. Controversy With Jerusalem Leaders (19:45—21:38)

1. Jesus at the Temple (19:45–48)

2. The Authority of Jesus Questioned (20:1–8)

3. The Parable of the Tenants (20:9–19)

4. Paying Taxes to Caesar (20:20–26)

5. The Resurrection and Marriage (20:27–40)

6. Whose Son Is the Messiah? (20:41–44)

7. Warning Against the Teachers of the Law (20:45–47)

8. The Widow’s Offering (21:1–4)

9. The Destruction of the Temple and Signs of the End Times (21:5–38)

B. Betrayal and Death of Jesus (22:1—23:56)

1. Judas Agrees to Betray Jesus (22:1–6)

2. The Last Supper (22:7–38)

3. Jesus Prays on the Mount of Olives (22:39–46)

4. Jesus Arrested (22:47–53)

5. Peter Disowns Jesus (22:54–62)

6. The Guards Mock Jesus (22:63–65)

7. Jesus Before Pilate and Herod (22:66—23:25)

8. The Crucifixion of Jesus (23:26–43)

9. The Death of Jesus (23:44–49)

10. The Burial of Jesus (23:50–56)

C. Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus (24:1–53)

1. Jesus Has Risen (24:1–12)

2. On the Road to Emmaus (24:13–35)

3. Jesus Appears to the Disciples (24:36–49)

4. The Ascension of Jesus (24:50–53)