Introduction to

Acts

The Unity of Luke-Acts

There is almost universal agreement that the same author wrote both the third Gospel (Luke) and the book of Acts because: (1) They both address the same individual, Theophilus (1:1; Luke 1:3). (2) Acts refers to the “former book” the author wrote (1:1). (3) The two books share common style and vocabulary. (4) They share common theological themes and emphases.

Not only did the same author write both books, but he probably intended them to be a single two-volume work. When Luke wrote his Gospel, he already had the book of Acts in mind. Evidence for this are key themes that he introduces in the Gospel that do not come to fulfillment until Acts. For example, in Luke 1:32–33, the angel Gabriel announces that Jesus will one day assume the throne of David. While Luke’s Gospel presents Jesus’ resurrection as vindication that he is the Messiah, it is Peter in Acts 2:30–36 who identifies Jesus’ ascension as a Davidic enthronement (and so fulfills Luke 1:32–33). Similarly, in Luke’s birth narrative, Simeon announces that Jesus will be a “light for revelation to the Gentiles” (Luke 2:32; alluding to Isa 42:6; 49:6), a prophecy that is not fulfilled until Acts 13:47, where Paul turns to the Gentiles and cites the same OT passages (Isa 42:6; 49:6). Already while writing his Gospel, the author has an eye on events that will be recorded in Acts. Scholars commonly refer to the two-volume work as “Luke-Acts.”

Author

An unbroken tradition of witnesses for Luke’s authorship of the third Gospel and Acts can be traced back to the middle of the second century, and there are no statements in the surviving literature of the early church that point to any other author. Considering Luke’s relative obscurity in the NT, it is unlikely that a Gospel would have been attributed to him had he not written it.

To this external evidence we can add internal evidence. At certain points in Acts the author speaks in the first person plural (“we”). These “we” sections confirm that the author joined Paul briefly on his second missionary journey from Troas to Philippi (16:10–17) and then rejoined him at Philippi on Paul’s return from his third journey (20:5—21:18). He was with Paul at Caesarea after Paul’s arrest and accompanied him to Rome (27:1—28:16). Though Paul, of course, had other associates (Barnabas, Mark, Silas, Timothy, Titus, Aristarchus, Demas, Epaphras, etc.), when we place this internal evidence beside the strong and unanimous external testimony, there seems no reason to doubt Luke’s authorship.

Luke was a physician (Col 4:14) and a part-time missionary associate of the apostle Paul. Paul refers to him as a “dear friend” (Col 4:14) and co-worker (Phlm 24). In addition to the journeys described above, Luke was with Paul during Paul’s second Roman imprisonment and the last days before his martyrdom (2 Tim 4:11). Luke was likely a Gentile since Paul names him in a separate list from his Jewish associates (Col 4:11, 14). This helps to explain Luke’s intense interest in the gospel’s movement from its Jewish roots outward to the Gentile world (see Themes and Theology).

Luke also claims to be a reliable historian, having interviewed eyewitnesses and investigated these events carefully in order to write an orderly account (Luke 1:2–3). The historical details in Acts confirm his skills as a historian: he repeatedly identifies place-names and titles of local and provincial government officials correctly. For example, he refers to Sergius Paulus as anthypatos (“proconsul”) of Cyprus (13:7) and Publius as the prōtos (“the chief official”) of Melita/Malta (28:7). City officials are stratēgoi (“magistrates”) in Philippi (16:20), politarchai (“city officials”) in Thessalonica (17:6), and asiarchai (“officials”) in Ephesus (19:31)—all historically accurate designations. Since such names and titles changed frequently, getting them right is impressive evidence for Luke’s skills as a historian.

Date

Scholars debate the date of the composition of Acts, which is closely tied to the date of the third Gospel. There are two main options: the early AD 60s and post-AD 70 (perhaps as late as the 80s or 90s).

In favor of the early 60s, the book ends with Paul still alive in prison in Rome (ca. AD 62; see 28:30–31) and provides no account of his martyrdom (between 64 and 67). The relatively positive attitude toward Roman governmental officials throughout the book also suggests that the severe persecutions under the emperor Nero (AD 64) had not yet begun.

Others who consider that Mark’s Gospel was one of Luke’s primary sources hold the later date, post-AD 70. If Mark were written in the late 60s on the eve of the Jewish war, as many believe (see Mark 13:14), then Luke must be later—in the 70s, 80s or even 90s. Luke describes the destruction of Jerusalem (AD 70) with greater detail than Mark (Luke 19:43–44; 21:20–24; 23:28–31), possible evidence that he is writing after the fact. In this case, Luke would have had theological reasons for ending his story with Paul still alive in Rome: to demonstrate that the gospel was indeed advancing to “the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Of course Mark’s Gospel could have been written earlier, as early as the mid-50s, which would allow Luke to use Mark as a source and still write in the early 60s.

Recipients, Place of Writing, Destination

Luke addresses both his Gospel and Acts to a certain “Theophilus” (1:1; Luke 1:3). The name means “one who loves God,” and some claim that it refers to those seeking God in general or perhaps all believers. More likely it is an individual since Greek literature attests to the proper name and since Luke refers to him as “most excellent” (Luke 1:3), a title typical for an individual of high social status. There are various suggestions concerning his identity: (1) a questioning unbeliever, (2) a new believer in need of catechism, (3) a government official, perhaps in charge of Paul’s trial, or (4) the patron who sponsored the production and circulation of Luke’s Gospel. Though these are not all mutually exclusive, the last is the most likely. In the ancient world, the time and expense necessary for producing volumes like Luke and Acts were enormous, and authors commonly dedicated their works to their sponsors.

Although addressed to Theophilus, Luke-Acts clearly addresses a wider audience. This audience is almost certainly believers rather than unbelievers since Luke’s purpose seems to be to provide confirmation and assurance for those who already have faith in Jesus (see Occasion and Purpose). It is also likely that the audience is predominantly Gentile, with a minority of Jews, since this was the makeup of most churches Paul started. This would also help explain Luke’s strong emphasis on the legitimacy of the Gentile mission and the church’s expansion from its Jewish roots into the Gentile world.

No consensus has been reached on the place of composition of Luke-Acts. Various suggestions include Rome, Antioch in Syria, Achaia, Caesarea, Corinth, and Ephesus. The two most likely places of composition are Antioch and Rome. In the fourth century AD, the early church historian Eusebius claimed that Luke came from Antioch in Syria, and the author of Acts shows special interest in the church’s establishment and growth there. Antioch was the first truly mixed Gentile-Jewish church and became the key sending church for Paul and his missionary companions (13:1–3; 15:35, 40; 18:22–23). Some have even suggested that Luke is the same as Lucius, one of the prophets and teachers at Antioch (13:1). Some scholars have suggested Rome as the place of writing because so much of Acts focuses on Rome as Paul’s destination. Paul’s long incarceration there would have provided the time necessary for Luke to complete his account, and the well-established church at Rome would have been an appropriate audience for defending Christianity in general and the Gentile mission in particular. In the end, however, both Antioch and Rome remain educated guesses.

Occasion and Purpose

Though the specific destination and audience of Acts is uncertain, Luke’s general purpose is clear. He is writing at a time of increasing animosity between the early Christians and their Jewish opponents. Both Jews and Christians are claiming to be the true people of God, and both assert that the Hebrew Scriptures (the OT) relate to them. A look at the major themes of Luke-Acts suggests that these questions are challenging the church: How can Jesus be the Messiah if he suffered and died as a common criminal? Why did the kingdom of God arrive on earth in an unexpected way? How can the church be the people of God if most Jews, God’s chosen people, have rejected Jesus and the church is rapidly becoming a Gentile entity? Is the apostle Paul a renegade Jew who has betrayed his Jewish heritage by welcoming “unclean” Gentiles into the people of God without circumcision or keeping the law? Worse yet, is Paul teaching other Jews not to circumcise their children and to reject the traditions of his ancestors?

Luke writes to respond to these and similar charges by confirming the gospel message and the gospel messengers. He seeks to establish the continuity between God’s promises to Israel in the OT and their fulfillment in Christ and the church. He writes to show that God’s great plan of salvation, prophesied in the OT, has come to fulfillment in the events of Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and ascension, and it continues to unfold in the growth and expansion of the early church. The church, made up of the righteous remnant of Israel and the Gentiles, represents the people of God in the new age of salvation. The miraculous progress of the gospel confirms that this is indeed the work of God.

Luke’s overall purpose, then, is to assure his readers of the truth of Christianity and legitimize and defend the church as the authentic people of God. Or as he writes to Theophilus, “so that you may know the certainty of the things you have been taught” (Luke 1:4). Besides this overarching purpose, Luke likely has a variety of subsidiary purposes, including encouraging harmony between Jews and Gentiles in the church and evangelizing unbelievers.

Themes and Theology

This central purpose of Luke-Acts (confirming the gospel) plays out in the key themes in Acts:

1. The mission and the messengers. If the Gospel of Luke is about “all that Jesus began to do and to teach” (Acts 1:1), Acts is about what Jesus continues to do through his disciples in the power of the Spirit. The role of the disciples is to be Jesus’ “witnesses” (1:8), his representatives. Acts 1:8 represents both the central theme of the book (the unstoppable progress of the gospel) and its general outline: beginning in Jerusalem and moving outward in concentric circles through Judea, Samaria, and to the ends of the earth. The traditional title of the book, “the Acts of the Apostles,” fails to reflect accurately the book’s contents, since the 12 apostles play a relatively minor role. The main human characters, like Peter, Barnabas, Stephen, Philip, and Paul, play a central role not because of their status as apostles but because of their function in breaking down barriers to the advance of the gospel. Acts is fundamentally about the mission of the church and the progress of salvation from its Jewish roots to the Gentile world.

2. God’s sovereign purpose in salvation history. Throughout Acts, Luke seeks to show that all that happened—Jesus’ coming and the early church’s growth and expansion—is part of God’s purpose and plan. At the beginning of Acts, Jesus tells the disciples to wait in Jerusalem until they receive “the gift my Father promised”—the Holy Spirit (1:4). A few days later, the Spirit is poured out, and the church is born. In the chapters that follow, God guides and orchestrates everything that happens. Though wicked people put Jesus to death, God raised him from the dead (2:24; 3:15, 26; 4:10; 10:40; 13:30, 34, 37). Acts 5 illustrates this theme: members of the Sanhedrin threaten to kill the apostles for continuing to preach about Jesus. The Pharisee Gamaliel stands up and cautions restraint. If this movement is not from God, he says, it will come to nothing. “But if it is from God, you will not be able to stop these men; you will only find yourselves fighting against God” (5:39). His words prove prophetic. Throughout the rest of Acts, the gospel faces incredible odds and constant obstacles yet continues to roll forward. It is unstoppable because nothing can thwart God’s sovereign purpose.

3. Jesus the Messiah and Lord now vindicated and exalted to the right hand of God. The purpose of God is being fulfilled through Jesus the Messiah, whose life, death, and resurrection fulfill OT promises. Jesus is the culmination of God’s plan and the center point of human history. Healing and forgiveness of sins are now available to those who repent and believe in him. The signs and wonders that God did through Jesus confirm that he is the Messiah (2:22). Jesus suffered and died not as a criminal but as the innocent and “Righteous One,” the servant of the Lord predicted in the Scriptures (3:14; 7:52; 13:28; Luke 23:4, 14–15, 22, 41, 47). His death was no tragedy since all along the Scriptures prophesied that the Messiah would suffer and rise again and that through that resurrection, repentance and forgiveness of sins would be preached to all nations (3:18; 17:3; 26:23; Luke 24:26, 46–47). Jesus’ life, death, resurrection, and ascension to the right hand of God has inaugurated the kingdom of God. The Messianic reign has begun (2:34–35).

4. The Holy Spirit as guide, empowering agent, and sign of the new age. For Luke, the gift of the Holy Spirit marks the dawn of the new age of salvation that Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection inaugurate. The book has often been called the “Acts of the Holy Spirit” because the Spirit plays a leading role. During Jesus’ public ministry he alone is endowed with the Spirit and performs miracles and exorcisms in the power of the Holy Spirit. In Acts, by virtue of his death, resurrection, and exaltation to the right hand of God, Jesus pours out the Spirit, empowering his disciples for mission (2:1–24, 33; see Joel 2:28–32). Throughout the rest of Acts, the Spirit fills and empowers believers (2:4; 4:8, 31; 6:3, 5; 7:55; 9:17; 11:24) and guides and directs the progress of the gospel (8:29, 39; 10:19–20; 11:28; 13:2, 9–12; 16:6–7; 21:4). Receiving the Spirit marks entrance into the people of God (2:38; 8:15, 17–19; 10:44–48; 11:16–17; 15:8; 19:2–7). The new age of salvation is the age of the Spirit (2:16–21; see Joel 2:28–32).

5. The Jewish roots of the gospel and its rejection by many in Israel. Throughout both Luke and Acts, the author stresses the strong continuity between the old covenant and the new. Salvation comes forth from Israel and goes first to Israel. Luke’s Gospel, sometimes called a “Gentile Gospel,” is a very Jewish Gospel, beginning and ending in the temple in Jerusalem (Luke 1:8–10; 24:53). The original apostles are all Jews, and they first proclaim the gospel to Israel (Acts 2–5). The early chapters of Acts point to the astonishing success of the church among the Jews. On the day of Pentecost, about 3,000 come to faith in Jesus the Messiah (2:41) and by 4:4 there are more than 5,000 believers. Statements of numerical growth punctuate the narrative that follows (2:47; 5:14; 6:1, 7; 9:31; 21:20). Luke’s point is that the church and its expansion fulfills God’s promises to Israel.

At the same time, the church faces strong opposition from its Jewish opponents, first from the priestly leadership in Jerusalem (4:1–22; 5:17–42; 6:8–15) and then from Jews throughout the empire (9:23; 13:45, 50; 14:2, 4–5; 17:5, 13; 18:12; 20:19; 21:11, 27; 22:30; 23:12; 24:9; 25:2, 7, 15; 28:24–25). How does Luke explain this? His answer appears in Stephen’s speech before his execution. Israel’s rejection simply continues their rebellious history (7:51–53). The nation has always been rebellious and hard-hearted, rejecting God’s messengers (cf. Luke 4:24; 6:23; 11:47–50; 13:33–34). Yet a faithful remnant has been saved and—together with the Gentiles who believe—has become the foundation of the end-time people of God. From Luke’s perspective, God has not rejected Israel; a righteous remnant and an unrepentant majority have divided Israel.

6. The expansion of the gospel and the Gentile mission. Throughout Acts, when the Jews reject Paul, he turns to the Gentiles (13:46–47; 18:6; 22:21; 26:20; 28:28; cf. Rom 11:11). Although first for the Jews, God’s salvation is all along meant for all people everywhere. Luke spends a great deal of space defending the Gentile mission and its leading advocate, the apostle Paul. He seeks to show that Scripture predicts that the Gentiles would accept the gospel and that it is part of God’s purpose and plan (10:34–35; 13:47; 15:16–18; Luke 2:32). God himself instigated the Gentile mission (9:15; 10:9–16, 34; 11:15–18; 15:7–18; 22:21; 26:17). The major emphases on Paul—his conversion (chs. 9; 22; 26), missionary journeys (chs. 13–20), and arrest and trials (chs. 21–28)—demonstrate that he is not a renegade Jew but is faithful to his Jewish heritage and to the God of his ancestors. All along God intended to include the Gentiles in the end-time people of God.

7. The innocence of Christianity under Roman law. This theme is related to the church’s place in the larger society. In the midst of the growing suspicion of Christianity by the Roman and other local authorities, Luke seeks to show that God’s people can be good citizens and good Christians. Though crucified as a common criminal, Jesus was innocent of the charges against him (3:14; 13:28; Luke 23:4, 14–15, 22, 41, 47). Paul and the early Christians are not troublemakers but rather loyal and peace-loving citizens. The Roman authorities repeatedly find Paul to be innocent (23:29; 24:12–13, 20; 25:10, 25; 26:31). Christianity is not a new and illegal religion; it fulfills God’s promises made long ago.

Genre

Acts has parallels with a variety of Greek literary forms of its day, including Hellenistic biographies, histories, and even epic literature. Its closest parallels, however, are biblical—the OT and the Gospels.

In line with the biblical story, it is not the Greek idea of fate or destiny that guides events forward; it is the sovereign hand of God. Luke himself places his work in the same category as the Gospels by presenting Acts as the sequel to his own story of Jesus. While the third Gospel tells what Jesus began to do, Acts tells what he continues to do through his church (1:1).

There are also remarkable parallels between the actions of Jesus in Luke’s Gospel and those of his followers in Acts. At his martyrdom, Stephen commends his spirit to Jesus (7:59) in the same way Jesus commends his spirit to the Father (Luke 23:46). Both Peter and Paul heal lame men (3:1–8; 14:8–10) just as Jesus makes the lame walk (Luke 7:22). Paul’s raising Eutychus (20:9–12) parallels Peter’s raising Tabitha (9:40), and both recall similar miracles of Jesus (Luke 7:11–15; 8:49–56). Paul’s journey to Jerusalem, where dangers await him (20:22–25; 21:4, 11–14), parallels Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem in Luke’s Gospel (Luke 9–19), which repeatedly predicts his coming suffering (Luke 9:22, 44, 51; 13:33–34; 18:31–33; 22:22). During his arrest and trial, Paul is repeatedly declared to be innocent (23:9, 29; 24:12–13, 20; 25:10, 19–20, 25; 26:31) in the same way Jesus suffers innocently as the “Righteous One” (3:14; 7:52; see Luke 23:4, 14–15, 22, 41, 47). Continuity is the key for Luke: (1) between the old and new covenant people of God and (2) between the salvation that Jesus accomplished and that which his representatives now announce.

The Greek Text of Acts

There are four major “families” of NT manuscripts: Alexandrian, Caesarean, Western, and Byzantine. A “family” is a group of related manuscripts that appear to come from a common original. The book of Acts poses one of the most unusual textual issues in the NT since it has come down to us in two versions. The Western text significantly varies from both the Alexandrian and Byzantine text types.

Manuscript D, known as Codex Bezae, is almost one-tenth longer than the Alexandrian text. It is characterized by paraphrase, expansion, explanation, harmonization, and certain theological idiosyncrasies. Sometimes these changes represent incidental details. For example, at 12:10, D adds that Peter and the angel “went down seven steps” from the prison where he had been kept to the street. Other times there are explanatory additions. In 19:9, it notes that Paul preached daily “from eleven o’clock to four” in the lecture hall of Tyrannus. This is a period when Tyrannus would not normally have been holding sessions.

While some of these additions and alterations may represent authentic tradition, the majority appear to be tendentious. A few scholars have argued for the priority of the Western text, but most consider it to be inferior, the result of later expansion by copyists.

Outline

I. The Spirit Empowers the Church for Witness (1:1—2:47)

A. Jesus Taken Up Into Heaven (1:1–11)

B. Matthias Chosen to Replace Judas (1:12–26)

C. The Events on the Day of Pentecost (2:1–47)

1. The Holy Spirit Comes at Pentecost (2:1–13)

2. Peter Addresses the Crowd (2:14–41)

3. The Fellowship of the Believers (2:42–47)

II. The Apostolic Witness in Jerusalem (3:1—5:42)

A. Healing and Preaching in Jerusalem (3:1—4:31)

1. Peter Heals a Lame Beggar (3:1–10)

2. Peter Speaks to the Onlookers (3:11–26)

3. Peter and John Before the Sanhedrin (4:1–22)

4. The Believers Pray (4:23–31)

B. Community Life in Jerusalem (4:32—5:16)

1. The Believers Share Their Possessions (4:32–37)

2. Ananias and Sapphira (5:1–11)

3. The Apostles Heal Many (5:12–16)

C. The Apostles Persecuted (5:17–42)

III. The Witness Beyond Jerusalem (6:1—12:24)

A. The Choosing of the Seven (6:1–7)

B. Stephen’s Arrest and Martyrdom (6:8—7:60)

1. Stephen Seized (6:8–15)

2. Stephen’s Speech to the Sanhedrin (7:1–53)

3. The Stoning of Stephen (7:54—8:1a)

C. The Church Persecuted and Scattered (8:1b–3)

D. Philip’s Ministry (8:4–40)

1. Philip in Samaria (8:4–8)

2. Simon the Sorcerer and the Jerusalem Delegation to Samaria (8:9–25)

3. Philip and the Ethiopian (8:26–40)

E. Saul’s Conversion and Early Witness (9:1–31)

1. Saul’s Conversion (9:1–19a)

2. Saul in Damascus and Jerusalem (9:19b–31)

F. Aeneas and Dorcas (9:32–43)

G. Peter’s Ministry to Cornelius and His Household (10:1—11:18)

1. Cornelius Calls for Peter (10:1–8)

2. Peter’s Vision (10:9–23a)

3. Peter at Cornelius’s House (10:23b–48)

4. Peter Explains His Actions (11:1–18)

H. The Church in Antioch (11:19–30)

I. Peter’s Miraculous Escape From Prison (12:1–19a)

J. Herod’s Death (12:19b–24)

IV. The Witness to the Ends of the Earth (12:25—28:31)

A. Paul’s First Missionary Journey (12:25—14:28)

1. Barnabas and Saul Sent Off (12:25—13:3)

2. On Cyprus (13:4–12)

3. In Pisidian Antioch (13:13–52)

4. In Iconium (14:1–7)

5. In Lystra and Derbe (14:8–20)

6. The Return to Antioch in Syria (14:21–28)

B. The Decision of the Jerusalem Council (15:1–35)

1. The Council at Jerusalem (15:1–21)

2. The Council’s Letter to Gentile Believers (15:22–35)

C. Paul’s Second Missionary Journey (15:36—18:22)

1. Disagreement Between Paul and Barnabas (15:36–41)

2. Timothy Joins Paul and Silas (16:1–5)

3. Paul’s Vision of the Man of Macedonia (16:6–10)

4. Lydia’s Conversion in Philippi (16:11–15)

5. Paul and Silas in Prison (16:16–40)

6. In Thessalonica (17:1–9)

7. In Berea (17:10–15)

8. In Athens (17:16–34)

9. In Corinth (18:1–17)

10. Return to Antioch (18:18–22)

D. Paul’s Third Missionary Journey (18:23—21:16)

1. Priscilla, Aquila, and Apollos (18:23–28)

2. Paul in Ephesus (19:1–22)

3. The Riot in Ephesus (19:23–41)

4. Through Macedonia and Greece (20:1–6)

5. Eutychus Raised From the Dead at Troas (20:7–12)

6. Paul’s Farewell to the Ephesian Elders (20:13–38)

7. On to Jerusalem (21:1–16)

E. Paul’s Fourth Journey: Arrest and Journey to Rome (21:17—28:31)

1. Paul’s Arrival at Jerusalem (21:17–26)

2. Paul Arrested (21:27–36)

3. Paul Speaks to the Crowd (21:37—22:21)

4. Paul the Roman Citizen (22:22–29)

5. Paul Before the Sanhedrin (22:30—23:11)

6. The Plot to Kill Paul (23:12–22)

7. Paul Transferred to Caesarea (23:23–35)

8. Paul’s Trial Before Felix (24:1–27)

9. Paul’s Trial Before Festus (25:1–12)

10. Festus Consults King Agrippa (25:13–22)

11. Paul Before Agrippa (25:23—26:32)

12. Paul Sails for Rome (27:1–12)

13. The Storm and the Shipwreck (27:13–44)

14. Paul Ashore on Malta (28:1–10)

15. Paul’s Arrival at Rome (28:11–16)

16. Paul Preaches at Rome Under Guard (28:17–31)