In April 1866, the Fenians mustered along the Maine border. Intelligence reports indicated that their numbers could reach between two to three thousand men, some armed with modern repeating Spencer rifles, and supported by artillery. Lieutenant-Governor Gordon recognized that the small volunteer force that he had organized to protect New Brunswick would be inadequate to repel a Fenian attack of such magnitude. He therefore turned to Great Britain for assistance. The insult to the British flag by the Fenian raiders at the Indian Island Customs House gave impetus to the British response.
The Royal Navy was first to react. The 21-gun HM Steam Corvette Pylades had been in Saint John since February 8, providing protection to the harbour. On April 9, Pylades hoisted anchor and sailed for St. Andrews. There, Captain Hood conferred with Colonel Anderson, and then on April 11, the Pylades took station off Welshpool on Campobello Island. The day Pylades left, HM Steam Sloop Rosario arrived in St. Andrews. The 673-ton Rosario had a crew of 160 and was armed with eleven guns. For the next two weeks, she operated on the St. Croix River, taking station off either Robbinston or Navy Island to secure the seaward approaches to St. Andrews. The presence of these two British warships made a Fenian invasion of either Campobello Island or St. Andrews a gamble.
Halifax was the summer and fall base for the North American and West Indies Squadron of the Royal Navy, which normally consisted of some thirty ships. For the last two years, the commander of the squadron had been Vice Admiral Sir James Hope. He had played a key role in the unsuccessful joint French and British expedition against China in the Second Opium War. In the fierce fighting along the Peiho River, he had been seriously wounded, losing part of his hip and a leg, but that had not hindered his career as a naval officer. During the winter of 1865-66, Hope and his squadron had been involved in suppressing an insurrection in Jamaica. On Sunday, April 8, Hope sailed into Halifax onboard his flagship HMS Duncan, where he was quickly apprised of the situation on the Maine border. Gordon telegraphed Hope saying, “I consider the presence of another war steamer if possible with Marines on board urgently required in Passamaquoddy Bay.” Hope did much better than requested. The 1,072-ton HM Steam Corvette Niger, with a crew of 160 and thirteen guns, was ordered to Saint John and arrived on April 13. On April 19, the 571-ton HM Steam Sloop Cordelia with a crew of 130 men and eleven guns arrived in the Bay of Fundy. The 751-ton HM Steam Sloop Fawn with 160 men and seventeen guns reached Saint John on April 20 and five days later was in St. Andrews. Meanwhile, Admiral Hope sailed from Halifax on HMS Duncan and arrived at St. Andrews on April 17. The three-deck Duncan was the largest and last wooden British warship to be built, the culmination of two hundred years of warship design. Launched in 1859, she weighed 5,720 tons, was 252 feet long, had a draught of 25 feet 8 inches and was equipped with 800-horsepower engines. Her crew consisted of 49 officers, 701 seamen and 150 marines. She was armed with eighty-one cannons, with modern Armstrong guns on her upper deck, including a 110-pounder. By the third week of April 1866, the Royal Navy had an overwhelming presence in the Bay of Fundy.
During this period, about ten thousand regular British soldiers were stationed throughout British North America, of which 3,500 served in the Maritime provinces under the commander of the British Forces in the Lower Provinces, General Doyle, whose headquarters was located in Halifax. The Halifax garrison consisted of Royal Artillery and Royal Engineer units employed in manning the fortifications, plus two battalions of infantry and elements of a third. Another battalion of infantry and two artillery batteries located in New Brunswick as well as two companies of infantry in Charlottetown, P.E.I., were also under Doyle’s command. Having been in North America for five years, the 15th Regiment stationed in New Brunswick had orders to rotate to Bermuda in the third week of April; it would be replaced by the 1st Battalion, 22nd Regiment coming from Malta. The imminent departure of the 15th Regiment was regretted; as the Saint John Morning News recorded, “We shall regret the absence of this Regiment which has earned golden opinion while stationed here. Colonels Cole and Grierson have been most popular officers, and have spared no exertions to make their stay here pleasant to our citizens … wherever the 15th Regt is stationed, it will always be most kindly remembered by the citizens of St. John.”
The 81-gun HMS Duncan the flagship of Vice Admiral Sir James Hope, at Halifax in 1865. Courtesy of the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic MP67.24.1
With the growing Fenian threat to New Brunswick, General Doyle visited Saint John to assess the situation for himself. He inspected all the military installations in the city, reviewed separately the Saint John Volunteer Battalion and the British regulars. The regulars in Saint John consisted of only three companies of the 15th Regiment with a strength of 150 men and two artillery batteries of two hundred men. One of the artillery units was a field battery equipped with modern 12-pounder Armstrong guns, but the battery responsible for harbour defence was armed with outdated weapons. To Doyle’s chagrin, only ten artillery rounds were available per gun. In addition, an outbreak of Asiatic cholera in Saint John threatened the health of the soldiers in the garrison and raised concerns about their accommodation and the sanitation arrangments.
A company of the 15th Regiment of Foot (East Yorkshire Regiment), circa 1861. The regiment arrived in New Brunswick in 1861 and served in the province during the Fenian crisis. NBM 14802
Doyle was quick to take corrective action. Within ten days, the Schooner Juliet, towed by HMS Rosario, arrived in Saint John loaded with heavy artillery guns, ammunition and four hundred barrels of gunpowder. With the concurrence of the authorities in Britain, the order to rotate the 15th Regiment was rescinded. By the time the 22nd Regiment arrived in Saint John onboard HMS Simoon on April 17, arrangements had been made to concentrate the 15th Regiment in Saint John and send the 22nd Regiment to Fredericton. The two companies of the 15th Regiment in Charlottetown were replaced by two companies from Halifax. The 16th Regiment in Halifax, which had been scheduled to rotate to Barbados in early April, was also detained. The 2nd Battalion, 4th Regiment, arrived in Halifax on April 20, followed by the 6th Regiment. Thanks to Doyle’s initiative, by the third week of April, the strength of British regular infantry in New Brunswick and Halifax had doubled.
Concurrent with the increase in British military and naval strength, the provincial militia along the border continued to improve its effectiveness. Based on the intelligence he received, Colonel Anderson strengthened the guards and patrols in St. Andrews, and by mid-April he had sixty men under arms every night. After dark one evening, he loaded the cannon in Market Square with cannister “without exciting much notice,” and then he trained two detachments in its use. The St. Andrews Standard reported that the Gordon Rifles “were exercised in street protection and fighting, and made quite an imposing appearance, acquitting themselves with credit.” To ensure a prompt and effective response, Anderson produced detailed instructions on what action was to be taken when an alert was sounded.
Early in April, Colonels Anderson and Inches consulted on the defence plans for St. Stephen. They agreed that it was not yet necessary to embody the St. Stephen Rifles, but a demanding routine of drills and parades was established. In order to increase the number under arms, additional weapons and ammunition were forwarded from Fredericton. Anderson considered Inches as “probably the most likeable man on the Frontier,” and on his recommendation, Gordon appointed Inches commandant of St. Stephen and placed him on full lieutenant colonel’s pay. In this capacity, Inches was given wide discretionary powers to act in an emergency. The Saint Croix Courier reported on April 14 “Col. Inches has received a telegram from Col. Anderson giving him unlimited powers to act as he sees fit for the defence of this section. This is practical endorsement of the Lieut Colonel’s course thus far, and on evidence that his military superiors have every confidence in his judgement and executive capacity.”
On the evening of April 8, Anderson sent an urgent message to Colonel Baird to prepare fifty men to send on a moment’s notice to St. Andrews. Bugles sounded in the night to assemble the company, creating great excitement among the citizens of Woodstock. By dawn every man in the Woodstock Rifle Company was fully equipped and ready to move. A train on the St. Andrews Railway was detained at the station and prepared to transport the troops. At this inopportune moment, the telegraph lines went down, setting rumours abounding that “St. Andrews had fallen a prey to the invader” and the wires had been deliberately cut to prevent communications with headquarters. When the lines were restored at noon, the volunteers were stood down. However, “scarce had the Rifles assumed their civic attire, when once more the bugle sounded to arms.” This time the volunteers remained under arms for twenty-four hours. Being so close to the border, the citizens of Woodstock expressed concern about the safety of their town should the volunteer rifle company be dispatched to defend distant St. Andrews.
Intelligence continued to indicate that a Fenian attack was imminent. The Saint John garrison was placed on high alert, and, after a Fenian schooner was reported moving up the St. Croix River, 120 men were mustered at St. Stephen. At three o’clock in the afternoon of April 10, Gordon ordered Major Simond of the Victoria Rifles in Fredericton to reinforce the St. Andrews garrison with fifty men without delay. An entry in Charles Moffitt’s diary for that day reads “Simond came to the shop about 4 p.m. looking for Volunteers to go to St. Andrews to repel an attack of Fenians … Tom Fowle & Dal Fowle & Jim Rodger responded to the call.” The Fredericton Headquarters reported, “There was some little excitement in town … when it became known that the Governor had made a call for fifty men, to proceed to St. Andrews. We hear that volunteers from the two City companies — chiefly from Major Simond’s Company … stepped forth readily.” Within four hours the volunteers had assembled in the Masonic Hall where Gordon addressed them. By ten o’clock, the main body under Simond’s command was on the road in open wagons, and the next morning thirteen more men followed. The weather was cold and the road was bad. At Dunbarton, the volunteers boarded the train for St. Andrews. Twenty-eight hours after receiving the call, two officers and twenty-eight men arrived in St. Andrews; Ensign Carter’s detachment arrived the next day. Assembling this force on such short notice was an amazing feat, considering the distance and the conditions.
Believed to be the York County Militia parading in front of the Court House in Fredericton prior to the departure of Major Edward Simond and the Victoria Rifles for the frontier at St. Andrews on April 9, 1866. PANB P5-151
Throughout the province there was a spirited call to arms in response to the Fenian threat. The Yeomanry Cavalry of King’s County, under command of Captains Otty and Darling, was ready for service and anxiously awaiting the call. On Deer Island, a volunteer rifle company with a strength of fifty-three men formed under the command of Captain James Grew. A volunteer battery of artillery was established in Woodstock. Caught up in the excitement, Alexander “Boss” Gibson, from Marysville just outside Fredericton, offered to raise one hundred men, from the “good strong fellows such as he has constantly in his own employment.” His “excellent spirit” received glowing praise in the Headquarters.
Although armed men roamed Maine border towns, the presence of the American military was limited. Fort Sullivan had been constructed in 1808 on Clark’s Hill, and its cannon dominated the harbour at Eastport. In 1866, however, its garrison consisted of only sixty-nine men of Company I of the 3rd Artillery Regiment. Sixty-six men of Company M of the same regiment were stationed on Treat’s Island off Lubec. The fortifications on Treat’s Island had been built during the Civil War as coastal defence against Confederate raiders. To meet the Fenian menace, Company M moved to Eastport on April 27 and was quartered in the French and Sons storehouse. Local newspapers reported that the vacated accommodation on Treat’s Island was immediately occupied by frightened refugees from Campobello Island. The only other occupied American military post on the Maine border was Hancock Barracks outside Houlton.
Having received his instructions in Philadelphia from the Secretary of War, General Meade travelled by train to Portland, Maine, where he transferred to the steamer Regular for Eastport. Meade brought along sixty-three men from the 1st Heavy Artillery Regiment as reinforcements. Henry J. Murray, the British Consul in Portland, having learned of his schedule, arranged an opportunity to meet with the general as he passed through town. Meade confirmed that his task was to prevent any violation of American neutrality, and he felt confident that he could handle the situation with the military force at his disposal.
Shortly after arriving in Eastport on April 19, Meade ordered the arms and ammunition that had been seized onboard the Ocean Spray secured in Fort Sullivan. He estimated that there were three hundred Fenians in town, and he made it clear to their leadership that American neutrality would be enforced in full. Vice Consul Ker had several interviews with Meade during which he outlined British concerns and provided the general with the latest information on the Fenians. Meade telegraphed his headquarters and reported on the Ocean Spray seizure. The general then sailed to Calais on the Regular for a public meeting in the St. Croix Hall. He thanked the townspeople for their warm reception saying, “he should do his duty here as at Gettysburg.” The artillery detachment that Meade had brought with him remained in Calais. General Meade’s commanding presence and firm action were reassuring and signalled that peace and order would prevail on the Maine side of the border.
Early April saw a continuous flow of intelligence, all indicating a substantial increase in the number of Fenians along the border and an imminent attack on New Brunswick. The local military and naval commanders agreed that some form of reinforcement by British regulars was required. Colonel Willis in a letter to Gordon wrote “I am decidedly of opinion that a large infantry force and some artillery will be required at St. Andrews or St. Stephen in a very short time.” As early as April 10, Gordon had requested that General Doyle forward a company or two to the frontier. Doyle was reluctant to “penny package” his force. He was particularly concerned about desertion by British regulars positioned so close to the American border. On April 14, a very anxious Gordon sent a telegram to Doyle asking, “Does not the emergency justify immediate reinforcement of St. Andrews and St. Stephen with Regulars?” Another telegram followed the next day stating that “war Ships cannot protect St. Stephen” and that British regular soldiers were urgently required on the frontier. Upon receipt of this plea, Doyle acquiesced and responded by saying that he would send not less than a regiment and, if weather permitted, they would embark the next afternoon. Doyle later explained that the force he sent was bigger than Gordon had requested because he felt that “if Troops were sent at all, they must be in such strength, as either to overawe attack, or to repel attack if made, with some degree of certainty.” The reinforcements, dubbed the Halifax Field Force, with Doyle in command, embarked on HMS Duncan as promised on April 16, arrived the next evening off St. Andrews, and disembarked at Joe’s Point on the morning of April 19. The Halifax Field Force consisted of twenty-four officers and 551 men of the 2nd Battalion, 17th Regiment, five officers and sixty-two men of the Royal Artillery, four officers and seventy men of the Royal Engineers and three members of the commissary. As recorded by the Standard, the 17th Regiment marched into St. Andrews “preceded by the brilliant band of the 17th, playing soul-stirring strains.” As the regiment passed the public square, “the Volunteer Battalion commanded by Major Simond was drawn up in line and presented arms.” This impressive show of military might was clearly seen from both sides of the St. Croix River.
Major General George Meade, the senior American military officer on the Maine border during the Fenian crisis. Courtesy of United States National Archives and Records Administration
Within three weeks, the military situation along the Maine and New Brunswick border had changed dramatically. The provincial militia had established an effective defence line along the border, the Royal Navy dominated Passamaquoddy Bay and the British Army had a substantial field force positioned on the frontier. On the Maine side of the border, Meade was in control, neutrality was being enforced and a large stock of Fenian arms and ammunition had been seized. Killian and his staff faced some hard decisions, but many of their followers had no problem in making a choice. When the steamer New Brunswick returned to Portland on April 27, two hundred Fenians were onboard. Murray, the British Consul, reported that after disembarking they headed to the railroad depot and “took almost forcible possession of the train & after a delay of 20 minutes went on to Boston. They were mostly armed with revolvers & fears were entertained of some unpleasant collision occurring on the road. The authorities here were glad to get rid of them in anyway, the police not being powerful enough to control them, & the troops being all away at Eastport.” William Grace, one of Killian’s lieutenants, on his way home through Portland claimed “the expedition would have been a success had Killian been sustained. He considers O’Mahony an imbecile and a fraud on the public.” The recriminations had begun. The Fredericton Headquarters summed it up differently: “The Military authorities here and in Halifax, have acted with great promptitude and energy, and have fairly frightened the Fenians from their purpose of invading this province.”
St. Croix River with bridge linking St. Stephen N.B. on left with Calais, Maine on right, pre 1894. PANB P364-46
