Chapter 17
Ten Ancient Egyptian Achievements
In This Chapter
Considering scientific successes
Praising practical advances
Enthusing over economic accomplishments
Celebrating amazing longevity
The ancient Egyptians were a very civilised nation and had many achievements to their name, including monumental buildings and extensive trade networks. They were a very busy society – constantly improving and progressing in their lifestyle and technology.
Scientific Method
As very practical people, the ancient Egyptians liked to solve problems with the least amount of fuss and general theorising. Therefore science as a discipline and as a word did not exist, because the ancient Egyptians no doubt believed they were only ever doing the necessary to continue with their work. Research for the sake of research did not seem to be carried out.
However, the Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus and the Ebers Papyrus show that the Egyptians conducted themselves according to scientific rules – they were willing to experiment within the frame of their daily work.
For example, when examining a medical patient (see Chapter 8 for details), scientific method was strictly used and included
An interview with the patient
Examination of bodily discharges
Study of reflexes
A diagnosis of the illness
Doctors then went about curing the ailment and recorded the results for future reference.
A similar scientific method was applied to building monuments, with many mathematical calculations (see the following section, ‘Mathematics’) being taken into account before work commenced. Sadly, little of this process has survived, but from the evidence available, the Egyptians clearly relied on multiple disciplines – such as mathematics, astronomy, geography, and surveying – when designing and planning the pyramids, temples, and tombs.
Mathematics
A few mathematical papyri have been discovered that give some indication of the advanced mathematical knowledge the Egyptians possessed.
While the Greeks are well known for their mathematical formulae, the Egyptians didn’t really see the point. Instead they had a more practical collection of small calculations that produced the same answers.
This practical use of mathematical calculations can be identified in Egyptian building works – the pyramids in particular. Archaeologist William Matthew Finders Petrie (see Chapter 15) was the first to record and measure the pyramids systematically. The work of Petrie and others clearly shows that these structures were very well planned mathematically.
The Egyptians were among the first to consistently and correctly combine and utilise these techniques:
The use of fractions (1/2, 1/4, 1/3, and so on)
Calculating the area of a rectangle by multiplying the length by the width
Calculating the area of a triangle by turning it into a rectangle and then halving that area
Calculating the area of a circle using the length of the diameter and an approximation of pi (3.16)
Finding the volume of cylinders and pyramids based on knowledge of areas
Astronomy
The Egyptians were very knowledgeable about the stars and constellations. From the Middle Kingdom, constellations were often depicted on coffins as star clocks, showing the length of time stars were visible or invisible. From the New Kingdom, ceilings of tombs and temples often displayed the constellation of stars. These constellations were the same as the ones we see today, but represented differently. For example:
Orion was represented as a man turning his head.
Ursa Major was represented as a bull’s foreleg.
Like mathematics (see the preceding section), astronomy was used by the Egyptians for many different practical uses including
Scheduling temple-building ceremonies, which relied on the visibility of the constellations we refer to now as the Great Bear and Orion
Setting the cardinal points for the orientation of the pyramids by observing the North Star
Setting the New Year always to coincide with the rising of Sirius in mid-July and the annual flooding of the Nile
From the Middle Kingdom, the Egyptians were able to recognise five planets, known as stars that know no rest, which were often associated with Horus, the Egyptian god of the sky:
Jupiter, known as Horus who limits the two lands
Mars, known as Horus the red
Mercury, known as Sebegu (a god associated with Seth)
Saturn, known as Horus, bull of the sky
Venus, known as god of the morning
The stars were not used to predict the fate of humans in Egypt until the Ptolemaic period when the Greeks introduced astrology. The most famous zodiac in Egypt is on the ceiling at Denderah and dates to the first century AD. This zodiac displays all the familiar zodiac signs, including Leo, Aries, and Taurus.
Understanding of the Human Body
The ancient Egyptians had a remarkable understanding of the human body, primarily gained through their observations during mummification. They probably didn’t perform live internal surgery, but their greatest anatomical achievement was the near-discovery of circulation.
The Greeks were credited with discovering circulation in the fifth century BC, the but the Egyptians clearly understood a lot more about the workings of the human body than they’re often given credit for.
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‘It is there that the heart speaks.’
‘It is there that every physician and every priest of Sekhmet places his fingers . . . he feels something from the heart.’
Additionally, this papyrus indicates that the Egyptians knew that the blood supply ran from the heart to all organs:
‘There are vessels in him for every part of the body.’
‘It speaks forth in the vessels of every body part.’
Even the creation story of the ram-headed god, Khnum, who fashioned humans on a potter’s wheel, reads a little like an anatomical record. For example, Khnum:
Oriented the bloodstream to flow over the bones and attached the skin to the skeletal frame
Installed a respiratory system, vertebrae to support it, and the digestive system
Designed sexual organs for comfort and ease of use during intercourse
Organised conception in the womb and the stages of labour
Not only did Khnum create Egyptians this way, his creation extended to foreigners, as well as animals, birds, fish, and reptiles. He was truly a universal creator – and a very talented potter!
Irrigation
Egypt is situated in the desert with the Nile as the only source of water. Using a complicated system of irrigation canals and water dykes, the Egyptians were able to make the most of the water available. Canals were directed to dry areas and were deep enough that they were still full when the flood waters receded.
Evidence suggests that in the Middle Kingdom the natural lake in the Faiyum was used as a reservoir. Water filled the lake during the annual inundation (flood) and was stored to be used in the drier times of the year. In addition to this lake was a canal leading directly from the Nile, which would provide a constant supply of water to the area.
In order to irrigate the land artificially, channels needed to be dug during the inundation to direct the water to areas of land in desperate need. To get water into the channels:
In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, water was transported by hand in large vessels and then physically poured into the irrigation channels.
In the New Kingdom, the shaduf was introduced. The shaduf is a wooden pole with a jar on one end and a weight on the other, which can easily lift and direct water.
During the Ptolemaic period, the sakkia was introduced. The sakkia is an animal-powered water wheel that moves more water – which meant more land could be irrigated, resulting in more agricultural land and ultimately more food production.
Artificial irrigation was a necessity, and it was a major achievement. Even today, with only one water source and still situated in the desert, the Egyptian people never have hosepipe bans and water shortages!
Stone Buildings
The third-dynasty King Djoser is credited with building the first stone building in the world. This was his pyramid complex at Saqqara, dominated by the step pyramid that still towers over the landscape.
The step pyramid started from much humbler origins, however – as a pit burial and mastaba tomb (see Chapter 13), which covered a total of eleven burial shafts. Djoser’s structure was gradually extended outwards and upwards until the step pyramid was created, standing 60 metres high and consisting of six steps.
Most impressively, the step pyramid was built of stone instead of the mud bricks normally used at this period. To maintain a traditional appearance, the stone blocks were of the same dimensions as the mud bricks. The outside was then completely encased in limestone blocks, giving the finished pyramid a smooth look.
The use of stone was a great achievement, particularly considering that other buildings were made of perishable materials. This pyramid complex was designed to last for eternity – and it looks like it is well on its way. After the third dynasty, buildings were built of stone more often. However, stone was only ever used for buildings that were intended to last for centuries, such as temples and tombs. All other buildings (houses, palaces, and even some shrines) were built using mud brick. We have to be thankful to Djoser – if he didn’t want such an impressive monument, we might not have the stone structures in such abundance today.
A Surviving Wonder
Egypt has the only surviving Wonder of the Ancient World – the Great Pyramid of Giza (see Chapter 14). King Khufu of the fourth dynasty built this pyramid. It stands proud on a natural rock plateau and towers 146 metres into the sky. Even with modern Cairo encroaching, the Great Pyramid is visible for miles around.
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The Great Pyramid has been visited for many years as a tourist attraction, with Cleopatra VII and Julius Caesar among the earliest celebrity visitors. Even Tutankhamun, Ramses II, and Ramses III almost certainly travelled to Giza to marvel at these monuments, which were ancient even then.
Glass Production
Glass was not introduced until the early New Kingdom, probably brought from Syria by Thutmosis III. The Egyptians gradually became proficient in
Glass making from raw materials (including silica, alkali, and lime)
Glass working from imported ready-made blocks of glass
Glass was used in clear or coloured form from the reign of Hatshepsut. Egyptians even fashioned vessels by making a core of clay in the required shape and then dipping it in molten glass. Removing the clay core was quite difficult, especially in vessels with narrow necks, so vessels crafted this way have an opaque quality.
Other methods of manufacture include
Moulding: Molten glass is poured into moulds of clay.
Cold cutting: Pre-moulded glass is carved as if it were stone using stone, bronze, or copper tools.
Core moulding: A clay or sand core in the shape of the cavity in a vessel is dipped in molten glass and moved around until it is completely covered. Once cold, the core is scraped out.
Archaeologist William Matthew Finders Petrie (see Chapter 15) discovered a great deal of waste from glass production at Amarna, the city of Akhenaten. Other production sites were at the palace of Amenhotep III at Malkata in Luxor and the site of el-Lisht in the north of Egypt.
A more recent glass-related discovery was at the site of Pi-Rameses, the city of Ramses II in the Delta. In 2005, excavations uncovered a glass factory, showing that glass was produced in great quantity at this site. Enough of the equipment was unearthed to reconstruct the manufacturing process:
The raw materials were heated in used beer jars up to temperatures of 750 degrees Celsius and then again in crucibles to as high as 1,000 degrees Celsius.
The glass was coloured using natural pigments added to the raw ingredients. Sometimes a coil of coloured glass was draped around the completed vessel while soft and then blended to create waves, marble effects, garlands, and arches of feathered patterns.
Glass was a prestige item, under royal control, and was often given to foreign dignitaries as a diplomatic gift. This prestige is due to the extensive skills needed to produce quality items, and glass is used with some frequency in the artefacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb. It was such a sought-after commodity that those who couldn’t afford glass made replicas from wood or stone.
Female Leadership
The female pharaoh Hatshepsut is famous for many things, and many achievements punctuate her reign. The most spectacular achievement is that as a woman she took over the role of king, pushing Thutmosis III (her husband, step-son, and co-ruler) aside. This is the first time that a woman had ruled Egypt as a king rather than a queen or co-ruler. Check out Chapter 5 for more on the role of women.
Hatshepsut ruled in relative peace and spent her 20-odd years on the throne building monuments. Her funerary temple at Deir el Bahri records the transportation of two red granite obelisks – even showing the massive structures tied on Nile barges – and their erection at Karnak. These obelisks were completely covered in gold.
Other records on the walls of Deir el Bahri detail Hatshepsut’s expedition to Punt. No one really knows where Punt is, and Egyptologists have never agreed on this issue. Even Hatshepsut wasn’t sure, and she appealed to the oracle of Amun to give the direct route to this ‘god’s land’. It’s a pity she didn’t draw a map.
When Hatshepsut returned from Punt, she brought a number of incense trees carried in baskets on a carrying pole. She planted the trees along the approach to her temple and aspired to make incense a local product, thus eliminating the need for trade. The expedition also returned with incense bundles, animal hides, and exotic woods. These items boosted the Egyptian economy and made a number of exotic items available.
Although Hatshepsut did plant incense trees, historians do not know whether she was able to produce enough incense to prevent the need for trade. A self-contained Egyptian incense industry is unlikely; incense is often a prominent feature of later booty and trade lists.
Continuing Civilisation
The most spectacular achievement of the ancient Egyptians is the continuance of their civilisation for more than 3,000 years. The Roman Empire lasted just over 500 years and the ancient Greek civilisation was at its height for about 400 years. Ancient Egyptian society was fully developed in 3100 BC when King Narmer united Upper and Lower Egypt for the first time. From this time until the death of Cleopatra in 30 BC, the culture’s religion, practices, and lifestyle did not change a great deal, making Egypt a civilisation to be reckoned with.
Even after the death of Cleopatra, the Romans did not totally destroy Egyptian culture straight away. Indeed, the religious practices continued at the temple of Philae until the fourth century AD.
Problems occurred when the influx of foreigners was so great that Egyptian culture could not easily accommodate the new culture or cultures. This was why Egyptian culture died a slow death with the infiltration of the Greeks from the time that Alexander the Great entered Egypt, followed by the Romans in 30 BC.
These newcomers were unprepared to adopt Egyptian culture completely, and a Hellenistic society slowly formed. After Alexander the Great and the Romans, came the Christians and the Muslims, which eventually resulted in a total loss of ancient traditions – until archaeologists started to reconstruct a portrait of this great civilisation.