Abel, John
Acetylcholine: accepted as neurotransmitter; accumulating evidence of secretion; action on muscle or nerve; activation of skeletal muscles; Barger’s extraction of, from ergot; as brain neurotransmitter; Dale’s failure to speculate on; Dale’s reawakened interest in; Dale’s work with; doubt of presence in Dixon’s experiments; duration of diminution; evanescence, rapid degradation; excitation of Renshaw cells; Feldberg’s work on; Gaskell’s study of leeches; inhibition by physostigmine and ergotamine; inhibition of heart rate; investigations by Hunt; little early interest in; as Loewi’s “Vagusstoff”; mimicking effects of muscarine and nicotine; as naturally occurring, Dale’s rejection of idea; neurophysiologists disputing role of; proof as natural substance; proof of secretion at sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia synapses; proof of secretion by spinal nerves; proof of secretion by vagus nerve; reproducing parasympathetic responses; role of leeches in detection of; Vogt’s work on
Acetylcholine active sites
Adrenal gland
Adrenaline: action on beta receptors; blocking effects with extracts of ergot; Cannon’s emergency “fight or flight” theory; Cannon’s suspicion of mediating substance; Cannon’s use of denervated heart to detect; Cannon’s work on; cocaine-enhanced response to; early experiments with adrenal extracts; early synthesis efforts; effects comparable to stimulation of sympathetic nerve; Elliott and sympathetic nerves; Elliott hypothesizing secretion of; Elliott on storage of; Hoskins’ work on; Langley’s work with; Loewi’s hesitation in assuming role for; mimicking responses of nerves; observed effects; Vogt’s work on
Adrenal medulla; secretions of two substances
Adrenergic receptors
Adrenochrome
Ahlquist, Raymond
Allergic reactions, anaphylactic shock, and histamine
Amino acids
Animals in research and antivivisectionists
Anti-anxiety drugs
Antibody formation
Anti-psychotic drugs
Antivivisectionists
Asher, Leon
Atomic bomb
Atropa belladonna
Atropine
Autonomic nerve fibers
Autonomic nervous system: cholinergic or adrenergic synapses; description of; Gaskell’s contributions; origin of term; parasympathetic division; sympathetic division
Autoreceptors
Axlerod, Julius
Axons
Bacq, Zénon: attempt to dissuade Cannon from two-sympathin theory; Cannon’s obituary; on lack of techniques for investigating brain neurotransmitters; on meeting Loewi; on neurophysiologists’ opposition to chemical synaptic transmission; photo of; on physiologists versus pharmacologists; work with sympathin
Bain, W. A.
Baking soda
Bard, Philip
Barger, George
Bayliss, William
Bernard, Claude
Bismuth subnitrate
Blaming the Brain; The Truth About Drugs and Mental Health (Elliot Valenstein)
Blood clotting time
Blood pressure: and histamine; increase; and wound shock
Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage (Walter Cannon)
Bowditch, Henry Pickering
Brain tissue implantation proposal
Brodie, Bernard “Steve”
Bronk, Detlev
Brooks, Chandler McC.
Brown, George Lindor
Brücke, Ernst von
Bülbring, Edith
Bungarotoxin
Burroughs Wellcome and Company
Butler, Edward
Calcium
Cannon, Colbert
Cannon, Cornelia James
Cannon, Walter Bradford, personal biographical information: active and productive beyond retirement age; as affectionate father; attempt to help Loewi in Nazi custody; chairing committee on use of animals in research; death in 1945 at; description of Brahmin classmates; family background and education; friend of Elliott; helping Pavlov; instructorship in physiology; interest in people of different nationalities and customs; interest in social issues; interest in “voodoo death”; involvement in social causes; marriage; obituaries by Dale and Bacq; photos of; popularity of public lectures; promotion to department chairman and professorship in physiology; as Republican; resignation from congregational church; respect for working class people; on science and free interchange of students and ideas; service on National Research Committee; on social stability; on Soviet Union; support of Republicans in Spain; teaching technique, inspiring, unpretentious manner; teaching technique, proposal for case method of; use of home for children’s school; visits to China, Japan, Siberia, and Soviet Union; work on community projects; writings in later years
Cannon, Walter Bradford, work-related biographical information: bogged down in controversy; comparison to Loewi’s and Dale’s experimental techniques; conclusion of secretion by liver; defense of chemical mediation; favoring broad, integrating concepts; grant from Rockefeller Foundation; near miss at proof of neurohumoral secretions; Nobel Prize, continued nominations for; Nobel Prize eludes; overlooking evidence of chemical mediation; practicing integrative physiology; prolific generation of ideas for research; rejection of neurohumoral secretions for smooth muscles; two-sympathin theory; use of denervated heart to detect adrenaline; work on emotional stimulation of adrenal secretions; work on head trauma; work on mechanical factors in digestion, peristalsis; work on stress, adrenal activity, and pathology; work on thyroid gland; WWI work on shock
Carbon monoxide
Cardiac nerve
Carlsson, Arvid
Cell theory
Chagos, Carlos
Champlain, Jacques de
Chemical synaptic transmission (neurohumoral secretions): acceptance by Eccles; Cannon’s defense of; Cannon’s near miss at proof; Cannon’s rejection for smooth muscles; Dale’s Principle, Dale’s Law; difficulties of observation; doubts of speed of transmission; Elliott and question of credit for first suggestion of; evidence dependent on techniques and instruments; existing outside autonomic nervous system; identifying chemical nature of; ignored in physiological psychology textbook; influencing at greater distances than electrical; Kahn’s apparatus and Bain’s modification; lack of general acceptance of theory; Langley’s near miss at correct guess; Loewi’s dream of experiment; opposition and disputes over Loewi’s data and conclusions; opposition and vigorous disputation for years; opposition by neurophysiologists; Parker’s theory of; from persistent skepticism to general acceptance; problem of origination; proof of secretion at synapses between neurons; slow emergence of theory; use of frogs in detection of; Vogt’s work on; von Euler’s proof of; see also History of discovery of chemical transmission; Neurotransmitters in the brain; War of the Soups and the Sparks
Chlorpromazine
Choline
Cholinesterase
Chromatophores
Clark, Alfred
Cocaine
Codeine
Cohen, Jonathan
Compound microscope
Curare
Cushing, Harvey
Dale, Henry Hallett, personal biographical information: consideration for others; death in 1968 at; on development of atomic and hydrogen bombs; as director, trustee, chairman, and president of various prestigious institutions; family background and education; friendship with Feldberg; heading Wellcome Laboratories; heading Wellcome Trust Fund; helping German scientists escape Nazis; helping Loewi in Nazi custody; helping others in need; on Henry Wellcome; honorary membership in Physiological Society; invitation to Feldsberg to leave Germany; lecture and offer from Johns Hopkins; marriage; meets Loewi; as mentor; need for financial support in school; obituary for Cannon; photos of; as prolific writer; reply to Cannon’s congratulations on Nobel Prize; retiring from laboratory and experimental work; softened critique of Rosenblueth
Dale, Henry Hallett, work-related biographical information: articles accepted for Journal of Physiology; on Cannon’s contributions; collaborative work environment fostered by; comments on noradrenaline (norepinephrine); as conservative empiricist, hesitant to speculate beyond facts; criticism of two-sympathin theory of Cannon and Rosenblueth; decision against university appointment; on Dixon’s contribution; on Eccles’ work; on Elliott; failure to make theoretical leap to nerve secretion; fortunate career choice of research in pharmacology; foundational discoveries; on free and open science; heading committee on drug standardization; joining Wellcome lab; move to Institute for Medical Research; Nobel Prize, nominating Loewi for; Nobel Prize with Loewi; praise of Eccles; reason for leaving Wellcome; reawakened interest in acetylcholine; studies of secretin and insulin; work on ergot fungus; work on international standardization of drugs; work with acetylcholine; WWI work on secondary wound shock and histamine
Dale’s Principle, Dale’s Law
Darwin, Charles
Davenport, Horace
Demethylation
Dendrites
Denervation supersensitivity
Depression
Dixon, Walter E.: antivivisectionists; doubt of acetylcholine’s presence in experiments; fear of criticism; on liberation of endogenous substances; praise and skepticism from Dale; studies of addiction and addictive drugs; theorizing on chemical substances in drug interactions; work on chemical mediation between vagus nerve and heart; work on humoral factor secreted by vagus nerve; work with mescal and hallucinogens
Dopamine
Drugs: action on cell membrane; additive, Dixon’s work with; anti-anxiety and anti-psychotic; Dale’s work on international standardization; “magic bullet” concept; proofs of effectiveness; psychotropic; sympathomimetic and parasympathomimetic
Drug studies
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil
Eccles, John: conversion to chemical synaptic transmission; election to Royal Society, knighthood, and Nobel Prize; as leading neurophysiologist; as leading opponent of chemical synaptic transmission; move to U.S. and retirement to Switzerland; opposition due to heart’s short latency response; opposition to cholinergic transmission; photo of; praised by Dale; work in England, Australia, and New Zealand
Ehrlich, Paul
Electrical synaptic transmission: found to exist as exception; vigorous disputation for years; see also War of the Soups and the Sparks
Electric fish Torpedo marmorata
Electron microscope
Electrophoresis
Electrophysiology
Elion, Gertrude Bell
Eliot, Charles William
Elliott, Thomas Renton: clinical work and teaching; Dale’s praise of; friend of Cannon; hypothesizing secretion of adrenaline; Loewi’s meeting with; question of credit for first suggestion of chemical synaptic transmission; on storage of adrenaline; work on treatment of war-related injuries; work with adrenaline and sympathetic nerves; work with Langley
Emergency “fight or flight” theory of Cannon
Emotions: Cannon’s interest in; James-Lange theory of; thalamic theory of
Engelhart, Erich
Enkephalins
Epinephrine
Ergotamine
Ergot fungus
Ergotoxine
Eserine (physostigmine): alkaloid from Calabar bean; blocker of cholinesterase; enhancing parasympathetic nerve response; enhancing skeletal muscle responses; evidence of acetylcholine as chemical transmitter; in leech muscle preparation; Loewi’s use of
Evolution, theory of
Excessive eating (hyperphagia)
Feldberg, Wilhelm: contribution to Dale’s prize-winning work; death in 1993 at; family background and education; favoring chemical transmission in brain; friendship with Dale; leech muscle technique; persecution by Nazis; photo of; positions in England, Australia; work on acetylcholine; work on histamine
Fessard, Albert
“Fight or flight” theory of Cannon
Finger, Stanley
Flexner, Simon
Fluorescent staining technique
Forel, August-Henri
Froelich, Alfred
Froelich Syndrome
Fulton, John
Furchgott, Robert
GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid)
Gaddum, John
Ganglia
Gas chromatography
Gaskell, Walter Holbrook
Gerard, Ralph
Glutamate
Glycine
Golgi, Camillo
Golgi-cell hypothesis of inhibition
Golgi stain
Gorgas, William
Greengard, Paul
Hamilton, William D.
Head trauma
Heart rate: excitation; inhibition by acetylcholine; inhibition by muscarine; inhibition, Loewi’s work on
Histamine: as brain neurotransmitters; causing decrease in blood pressure; Dale’s work on, during WWI; extraction by Barger; Feldberg’s work on; proof of existence in body, origin of term
History: approaches to problems versus specific lessons; knowledge as stimulant; qualified uses of
History of discovery of chemical transmission: differences in personality affecting; general unfamiliarity with; origins and development; as science and biography; see also War of the Soups and the Sparks
Hitchings, George H.
Hökfelt, Tomas
Homeostasis
Hormones
Hoskins, Roy
Hughes, John
Hunt, Reid
Hutchinson, Alfred
Hydrogen bomb
Hyman, Albert
Hyperphagia (excessive eating)
Hyperthyroidism
Immunology
“Inclusive fitness” theory
Inhibition, hypothesis of
Interneurons
Ion channels, transmitter-gated
James, Cornelia
James-Lange theory of emotions
James, William
Jennings, Herbert Spencer
Johns Hopkins
Kahn, R. H.
Kandel, Eric
Katz, Bernard
Kety, Seymour
Kosterlitz, Hans
Krayer, Otto
Kuffler, Stephen
Kymograph drums
Labor (childbirth), inducement with ergot
Laidlaw, Peter
Langley, John Newport: attracting outstanding students; at Cambridge; collaboration with Elliott; description of receptor substances; editor of Journal of Physiology; as exacting, hypercritical instructor; impatience with speculation; praise of Gaskell; remembered for physiological studies; study of nicotine; work on autonomic nervous system; work with adrenaline; work with Elliott; work with nicotine
Learning and memory formation
Leeches, role in detection of acetylcholine
Leeman, Susan E.
Levi-Montalcini, Rita
Lewandowsky, Max
Lindquist, Margit
Lissák, Kálmán
Liver
Loewi, Otto, winning Nobel Prize with Dale
Loewi, Otto, personal biographical information: artistic, dramatic, risk-taking temperament and interest in arts; awards, honors, and (stolen) bronze bust; Dale nominating for Nobel Prize; death in 1961 at; family background and education; as German refugee; life in U.S.; marriage; meets Dale; meets Elliott; persecution by Nazis; photos of; separation from wife in 1938 Austria; visit to Starling’s laboratory
Loewi, Otto, work-related biographical information: dream idea for experiment on neurohumoral secretions; finding evidence of neurohumoral secretions; focused research catalyzed by criticism; hesitation in assuming role for adrenaline; limits to willingness to speculate; professorship in pharmacology; on psychology of creativity in science; risky initial claim of secretion detection, focused follow-through; skepticism of transmission in striated muscle; speculation on role of muscarine; speculative leap and Nobel Prize; as teacher; to University of Vienna; work as assistant doctor; work in pharmacology lab; work on drugs affecting vagus nerve; work on proteins and amino acids
Lovett, Robert
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
McLennan, Hugh
“Magic bullet” concept of drugs
Mass spectrometry
Mathematics
Mayo, William
Memory formation and learning
Messenger molecules
Meyer, Hans Horst
Microscope: compound; electron
Miller, Neal
Minz, Bruno
Morphine
Moser, Albert
Motor endplate
Muscarine
Muscarinic acetylcholine active sites
Muscle, striated, skeletal, and smooth
Naloxone
Nazi persecution of scientists: Brücke; Dale denouncing; Feldberg; German physician refugees in England; Hitler’s gift to Great Britain and U.S.; Loewi; Rockefeller Foundation help with relocation
Nervous system: denervation supersensitivity; early theories of; secretion of messenger molecules
Neurohumoral secretions. See Chemical synaptic transmission (neurohumoral secretions); Neurotransmitters
Neuromodulators
Neuron doctrine
Neuron gap
Neurons: postganglionic; preganglionic
Neurophysiologists: opposition to chemical synaptic transmission; resistance to concept of neurohumoral secretions
Neurotransmitters in the brain: acetylcholine and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) accepted as; activators of first and second messengers; amino acids as; anatomy of brain synapses; as cause of changes in ion channels; chemical transmission influencing at greater distances than electrical; comparison to neuromodulators; complexity of substance/receptor interaction; criteria for recognition; dopamine as; electron microscope; electrophoresis; enkephalins; estimates of numbers at; feedback loops and compensatory mechanisms; Feldberg’s work on; fluorescent staining technique; Gaddums’ work on; histamine as; including some gasses; as inducers of anatomical changes; in mammals; mapping of various substances; neurophysiologists rejecting theories of; new techniques providing evidence; proliferation of possibilities; psychotropic drugs as impetus to study; push-pull cannula; receptors for; resolution of speed question; reuptake mechanism; speculation on origination; unpredictability of outcomes of experimental or clinical interventions; see also Electrical synaptic transmission; History of discovery of chemical transmission; Neurophysiologists; Receptors
Newsom, Mary
Nicotine; Langley’s study of; Langley’s work with
Nicotinic acetylcholine active sites
Nictitating membrane
Nitric oxide
Nobel Prize, winners in “Physiology or Medicine” category: Cannon’s miss; Carlsson in 2001; continued nominations for Cannon; Dale and Loewi in 1936; Dale nominating Loewi for; Eccles, Hodgkin, and Huxley in 1963; Greengard in 2000; Loewi’s prize money to German (Nazi) government; refugees from Nazi regime; von Euler, Axelrod, and Katz in 1970
Noradrenaline (norepinephrine): accepted as neurotransmitter; action on beta receptors; adoption of term, replacing “sympathin”; confusing presence in adrenal gland extracts; Dale’s comments on lack on insight; Dale’s proof of potency; early suspicion of differences from adrenaline; Furchgott and Ignarro in 1998; Loewi’s work on; mapping as brain neurotransmitter; opioids blocking release; as possible neurotransmitters in the brain; potency in mimicking sympathetic responses; Vogt’s work on; von Euler’s proof of secretion by sympathetic nerves
Norepinephrine. See Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
Oliver, George
One-celled animals (protozoa)
Opiate receptors
Opium
Ordeal bean
Oxytocin
Palade, George
Palay, Sanford
Paramecia and protozoa
Parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
Parasympathomimetic drugs
Parker, George
Pavlov, Ivan
Peptides
Peristalsis, Cannon’s study of
Personality, affecting discovery timeline of chemical transmission
Pharmaceutical industry
A Pharmacological Approach to the Brain (Wilhelm Feldberg)
Pharmacology
Phrenic nerve
Physicians, German refugees in England
Physostigmine. See Eserine (physostigmine)
Pilocarpine
Popper, Karl
Postganglionic neurons
Preganglionic neurons
Proteins, Loewi’s work on
Protozoa and paramecia
Psychomatic medicine
Psychotropic drugs
Push-pull cannula
Radioactive substance attachment to chemicals in brain (radiolabeling)
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago
Receptors: adrenergic; autoreceptors; for brain neurotransmitters; complexity of substance/receptor interaction; Erlich’s “magic bullet” concept; identification with radiolabeling techniques; importance of cell membrane; Langley’s description of “receptor substances”; as macromolecules; numbering in 100s; numbers and sensitivity increasing or decreasing; of opiates; supersensitivity
Renshaw, Birdsey
Renshaw cells
Reserpine
Reticular theory
Reuptake mechanisms of brain neurotransmitters
Roberts, Eugene
Rockefeller Foundation: grant to Cannon; help with relocation of German scientists
Rockefeller Institute, offer to Dale
Roentgen, Wilhelm
Rogoff, Julius
Röntgen X-rays
Rosenblueth, Arturo: gifted assistant to Cannon; losses in persisting in two-sympathin theory; photo of; two-sympathin theory
Rutherford, Ernest
St. Anthony’s Fire
Schäfer, Edward
Schildkraut, Joseph
Schizophrenia
Scientists: Dale on need for openness; German physician refugees in England; Loewi on psychology of creativity; pleasures of research; risks and benefits of career in biotechnology industry; risks and benefits of career in pharmaceutical industry; see also Nazi persecution of scientists
Secretin
Serotonin
Sherrington, Charles Scott
Shock: Cannon’s WWI work on; Dale’s WWI work on
Silver nitrate, staining of nerve cells
Smooth muscle
Snyder, Solomon
Sodium bicarbonate
Sodium carrier mechanism
Sodium pump mechanism
Soviet Union
Speculation: criticism having catalytic effect on research; Dale’s hesitancy to indulge in; Darwin’s influence despite error on inheritance of acquired characteristics; gains plus potential risks; as inspired insight or seductive trap; Langley’s impatience with; Loewi’s artistic, dramatic temperament; quashed by belief in well-established “fact”
Splanchnic nerve
Staining techniques
Starling, Ernest
Stewart, George
Straub Cannula
Straub, Walther
Striated muscle
Strychnine
Sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
Sympathin
Sympathomimetic and parasympathomimetic drugs
Synapses: anatomy of, in brain; cholinergic or adrenergic; tight or gap junctions; see also Chemical synaptic transmission
Synaptic vesicles
Synaptosomes
Takamine, Jokichi
Thalamic theory of emotions
Thyroid gland
Torpedo marmorata electric fish
Transmitter-gated ion channels
Two-sympathin theory of Cannon and Rosenblueth
Tyramine
Uterus: forced contractions of; relaxation of
Vagus nerve
Vane, John R.
Vasotonin
Vogt, Marthe
Von Euler, Ulf
Von Gudden, Bernard
Von Waldeyer, Wilhelm
“Voodoo death”
Vulpian, Alfred
Vulpian response
War of the Soups and the Sparks: Cannon’s defense of; constructive, friendly debates; continuation through 1940s and 1950s; disputes over existence of brain neurotransmitters; disputes over role of acetylcholine; disputes over speed of transmission; Eccles as leading opponent of chemical transmission; Eccles’ conversion; fueled by nonscientific reasons; in neurophysiologists’ resistance to concept of neurohumoral secretions; proposal and refutation of neural inhibition hypothesis and “eddy currents”; see also Chemical synaptic transmission; History of discovery of chemical transmission
The Way of an Investigator … (Walter Cannon)
Wellcome and Company
Wellcome, Henry Solomon
Wellcome Historical Medical Museum
Wellcome Physiological Research Laboratories
Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories
Wellcome Trust Fund
Whittaker, V. P.
Wiener, Norbert
The Wisdom of the Body (Walter Cannon)
World War I: Cannon’s work on shock; Dale’s work on secondary wound shock and histamine; Elliott’s work on treatment of war-related injuries; interrupting critical research; research redirected toward war effort
World War II: research redirected toward war effort; see also Nazi persecution of scientists
X-rays