CHAPTER 1
1. The Oprah Winfrey Show, “Violent Young Children: Could You Be Their Next Victim?” Part 1, Harpo Productions, Inc., June 28, 1995.
2. Interview with Hill Walker, Institute for Violence and Destructive Behavior, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon, February 8, 1996.
3. Butts, “Violent Crime Rates Continue to Fall Among Juveniles and Young Adults.”
4. Death Penalty Information Center, “Murder Rates Nationally and by State.”
5. “U.S. Crime Rate at Lowest Point in Decades. Why America Is Safer Now,” Christian Science Monitor, January 9, 2012, available at www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2012/0109/US-crime-rate-at-lowest-point-in-decades.-Why-America-is-safer-now (accessed March 25, 2013).
6. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Preliminary Semiannual Uniform Crime Report, January–June 2012.”
7. Walmsley, “World Prison Population List.”
8. Pew Center on the States, “One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008.”
9. National Institute of Justice, “U.S. Incarceration Rates by Age and Sex, 2008.”
10. Gopnik, “The Caging of America: Why Do We Lock Up So Many People?”
11. Henrichson and Delaney, The Price of Prisons.
12. Jaschik, “Prisons vs. Colleges.”
13. Lanny A. Breuer, Office of the Assistant Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, letter to United States Sentencing Commission Chair, Patti Saris, September 2, 2011, available at www.deepdyve.com/lp/university-of-california-press/letter-to-the-u-s-s-c-chair-from-lanny-breuer-and-jonathan-wroblewski-ltPkGjSrgM (accessed March 26, 2013).
14. Pew Charitable Trusts, “U.S. Prison Count Continues to Drop.”
15. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, “Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends.”
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Youth Violence: Facts at a Glance 2012.”
17. Fight Crime: Invest in Kids New York, “Getting Juvenile Justice Right in New York.”
18. Juvenile Detention Alternatives Initiative, Annie E. Casey Foundation, “Sites and Contacts.”
19. Butterfield, “More Blacks in Their 20’s Have Trouble with the Law.”
20. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime; Mednick, Gabrielli, Jr., and Hutching, “Genetic Influences in Criminal Convictions.”
21. Kotulak, “The Roots of Violence.” Some experts also believe that the gene altered by a male’s consumption of alcohol may be passed on to his male children. This altered gene may impair the recipient offspring’s ability to produce the neurochemical serotonin, a condition that predisposes that individual to violent crime, especially if the recipient of the altered gene himself drinks alcohol.
22. Lewis, “Neuropsychiatric and Experiential Correlates of Violent Juvenile Delinquency.”
23. Taken from videotape in the possession of Dr. Bruce Perry of a speech he gave in Houston.
24. Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children Handbook, 2012.
25. Premeditated violent behavior, also known as sociopathy or psychopathy, is discussed most fully in chapter 7.
26. Head injury may in rare cases directly result in violent behavior, hence the use of “rarely.”
CHAPTER 2
1. The story of Chelsea was originally presented on Prime Time Live by Diane Sawyer, “Your Child’s Brain,” aired January 25, 1996 (Kate Harrington, producer).
2. Kotulak, “The Roots of Violence.”
3. Dawson and Fischer, Human Behavior and the Developing Brain, pp. 22–23.
4. “High-risk children” are defined in Dr. Ramey’s studies by the social attributes of the family and the biological condition of the children.
5. Telephone interview with Dr. Craig Ramey, November 4, 1995.
6. Kotulak, “Unlocking the Mind.”
8. Diane Sawyer, “Your Child’s Brain” January 25, 1996.
9. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
10. Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, p. 16.
11. For more in-depth information on Dr. Perry’s concept of “traits to states,” see chapter 7.
12. The information from Dr. Allan Schore is drawn from his written work cited in the bibliography and from both phone and personal interviews.
13. Interview with Dr. Allan Schore, March 7, 1997.
15. LeDoux, “Emotional Memory Systems in the Brain.”
16. Engel, Ruschman, and Harnay, Parental Influences.
17. Goldberg, “Babies Are Smarter than You Think.”
18. Chamberlain, “The Cognitive Newborn,” p. 62.
19. This story and the information on the research are drawn from Ron Kotulak’s article “How Brain’s Chemistry Unleashes Aggression,” published in the special series “The Roots of Violence.”
21. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
23. Kotulak, “The Roots of Violence.”
CHAPTER 3
1. Restak, The Infant Mind, p. 56.
2. The descriptions of sensual development are in part adapted from Share, If Someone Speaks It Gets Lighter, pp. 108–11.
3. Verny and Kelly, The Secret Life of the Unborn Child.
4. Chamberlain, “The Cognitive Newborn.”
5. Interview with Dr. T. Berry Brazelton, February 2, 1997.
6. Verny and Kelly, The Secret Life of the Unborn Child.
7. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us About Violence.”
8. Verny and Kelly, Secret Life of the Unborn Child.
9. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us About Violence.”
10. Share, If Someone Speaks It Gets Lighter, p. 110.
11. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us.”
12. Chamberlain, “The Cognitive Newborn.”
13. Restak, The Infant Mind, p. 37.
14. Frishman, “The Lost Boys,” p. 76.
15. Norton, “Toxic Responses.”
16. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Birth Defects: Data & Statistics.”
17. Restak, The Infant Mind, p. 51.
18. Ackerman, Riggins, and Black, “A Review of the Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure Among School-Aged Children.”
19. Day and Richardson, “Comparative Teratogenicity,” p. 42.
21. Rich and Dean, “A Previously Unexamined Source of Delinquency.”
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs).”
23. Jacobson and Jacobson, “Prenatal Alcohol Exposure.”
24. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Alcohol Alert #13, p. 2.
25. Coles, “Critical Periods for Prenatal Alcohol Exposure.”
27. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health of Human Services, “Results from the 2010 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings.”
28. Interview with Dr. Mary Schneider, October 16, 1996.
29. Dorozyaski, “Grapes of Wrath.”
30. Phelps, “Psycho-Educational Outcomes of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.” Much of the data in this section is drawn from this review of the literature on the long-term impact of FAS.
31. Cicero, “Effects of Paternal Alcohol.”
33. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs).”
34. Streissguth, “A Long-Term Perspective of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.”
36. Dorris, The Broken Cord, pp. 74–75.
39. National Institutes of Health, “Respiratory Health Effects of Passive Smoking.”
40. Day and Richardson, “Comparative Teratogenicity.”
41. All data from Day and Richardson, “Comparative Teratogenicity,” p. 42.
45. Olds, D.L., Henderson, C.R., and Tatelbaum, R. (1994), “Intellectual Impairment in Children of Women Who Smoke Cigarettes During Pregnancy,” Pediatrics, vol. 93, pp. 221–27.
46. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Reproductive Health: Tobacco Use and Pregnancy.”
47. Bud Wand of the Environmental Health Center for the National Safety Council, Washington, D.C., quoted in the Oregonian, October 20, 1996.
48. Coles et al., “Effects of Cocaine and Alcohol Use in Pregnancy.”
49. Chassnoff, “Cocaine: Effects in Pregnancy and the Neonate.”
50. Mayes et al., “Impaired Regulation of Arousal.”
52. Interview with Dr. Linda Mayes, January 31, 1997.
53. For more detailed information on the impact of drug abuse on parenting, see chapter 8.
54. Interview with Dr. Linda Mayes, January 31, 1997.
56. Day and Richardson, “Comparative Teratogenicity.”
57. Ornay, Michailevskaya, and Lukashov, “The Developmental Outcome.”
60. Mayes, “Substance Abuse and Parenting.”
61. Brackbill, McManus, and Woodward, “Medication in Maternity.”
62. Jacobson et al., “Opiate Addiction.”
63. Barrett and Frank, The Effects of Undernutrition, p. 117.
64. Levine, Carey, and Crocker, Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, chapter 29.
65. Dodge, “Social Cognition and Children’s Aggressive Behavior”; Scerbo and Raine, “Neurotransmitters and Antisocial Behavior.”
66. Barrett and Frank, The Effects of Undernutrition.
68. Levine, Carey, and Crocker, Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, p. 179.
69. Barrett and Frank, The Effects of Undernutrition, p. 175.
70. Focus on Children: The Beat of the Future, Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism Conference on Children in the News, p. 78.
71. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime.
72. Clarke et al., “Evidence for Heritability.”
75. For further information on this point see chapter 2.
76. McGue, Bacon, and Lykken, “Personality Stability and Change.”
77. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime, pp. 198–200.
79. Saad, “One in Five U.S. Adults Smoke, Tied for All-Time Low.”
80. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Policy Impact: Prescription Painkiller Overdoses.”
CHAPTER 4
1. Restak, The Infant Mind. p. 181.
2. The account of Dr. Watson and the quotation are taken from Hardyment, Dream Babies.
3. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us.”
5. Raine, Brennan, and Mednick, “Birth Complications.”
6. Kandel and Mednick, “Perinatal Complications.”
7. For an in-depth discussion of attachment and the effects of disruption to this process, see chapter 8.
8. Bowlby, Forty-Four Juvenile Thieves; Rutter, Maternal Deprivation Reassessed.
9. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us.”
10. Clarke and Schneider, “Prenatal Stress Has Long-Term Effects”; Clarke and Schneider, “Prenatal Stress Alters Social and Adaptive Behaviors in Adolescent Rhesus Monkeys.”
11. Dr. Bruce McEwen, presentation at National Institute of Mental Health, Advancing Research on Developmental Plasticity: Integrating the Behavioral Science and Neuroscience of Mental Health, Chantilly, Virginia, May 1996.
13. Ikeda, “Prenatal Stress Increases Adult Aggressive Behavior”; Schneider et al., “Timing of Prenatal Stress.”
14. Powell and Emory, “Birthweight and Gestational Age Outcomes.”
15. From personal interview with Drs. Kraemer, Clarke, and Schneider at University of Wisconsin, Madison, October 8, 1996.
16. Chamberlain, “What Babies Are Teaching Us.”
17. Janus, Echoes from the Womb, p. 102.
18. David et al., Born Unwanted.
19. Janus, Echoes from the Womb, p. 102.
20. Bustan and Coker, “Maternal Attitude toward Pregnancy.”
21. Janus, Echoes from the Womb.
22. Personal Interview, January 2013, Memphis.
CHAPTER 5
1. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, p. 175.
3. Loeber et al., “Which Boys Will Fare Worse,” p. 500.
6. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, pp. 93, 168.
7. Haapasalo and Tremblay, “Physically Aggressive Boys from Ages 6 to 12,” p. 1050.
8. Meyers et al., “Psychopathology, Biosocial Factors, Crime Characteristics,” p. 1485.
9. Loeber, “Antisocial Behavior,” pp. 499–509.
10. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, p. 63.
13. Satterfield et al., “Prediction of Antisocial Behavior.”
14. Interview with Breena Satterfield, September 13, 1996.
16. Loeber et al., “Developmental Sequences”; Loeber et al., “Developmental Pathways.”
17. Cicchetti and Toth, eds., “Internalizing and Externalizing Expressions of Dysfunction”; Loeber et al., “Which Boys Will Fare Worse”; Halperin et al., “Impulsivity.”
18. Rutter, Studies of Psychosocial Risk.
19. Loeber, “Antisocial Behavior.”
20. Zametkin, “An Overview of Clinical Issues in ADHD”; Barkley, The ADHD Report, p. 5.
21. Day and Richardson, “Comparative Teratogenicity,” p. 46.
22. Cicero, “Effects of Paternal Exposure to Alcohol.”
23. Hartsough and Lambert, “Medical Factors in Hyperactive and Normal Children.”
24. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, p. 105.
25. Benes, “Development of the Corticolimbic System”; Dawson, “Developing Brain Behavior Relations,” in Human Behavior and the Developing Brain, pp. 199–214 and 378.
26. Gianino and Tronick, “The Mutual Regulation Model.”
27. Field et al., “Infants of Depressed Mothers Show Depressed Behavior.”
28. Edelmen, Neural Darwinism.
29. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.” The impact of early abuse on brain development is explored in detail in chapter 7.
30. Haapasalo and Tremblay, “Physically Aggressive Boys from Ages 6 to 12”; Tremblay et al., “A Bimodal Preventive Intervention.”
31. Meyers et al., “Psychopathology, Biopsychosocial Factors, Crime Characteristics, and Classification.”
32. Dr. Jeffrey Rowe, “The Cutting Edge: Critical Issues in Child and Adolescent Mental Health,” presentation, Children’s Hospital and Health Center, San Diego, and Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, February 1997, in San Diego, California.
33. Tremblay et al., “A Bimodal Preventive Intervention.”
34. Haapasalo and Tremblay, “Physically Aggressive Boys”; Moffitt, “Adolescence-Limited and Life-Course Persistent Antisocial Behavior.”
36. Zoccolillo et al., “The Outcome of Childhood Conduct Disorder,” p. 982.
37. Barkley, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, p. 178.
38. Dr. Gerald Patterson’s comments were made in a letter sent to the authors, February 12, 1997, in response to his review of the chapter manuscript.
39. Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children Yearbook 1997, pp. 56, 68.
40. McDonough, “CDC Report: ADHD Diagnosis on the Rise in the United States”; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).”
41. Kraemer, “Studies: ADHD Diagnoses up to 9.5% of Kids.”
CHAPTER 6
1. Accounts of the history of the study of temperament theory are taken from Galen’s Prophecy by Dr. Jerome Kagan.
2. Interview with Dr. Stella Chess, October 14, 1995.
3. Chess and Thomas, “Dynamics of Individual Behavioral Development.”
4. Interview with Dr. Stella Chess, October 14, 1995.
7. For further information on the influence of caretaking on the development of temperament see chapter 8.
8. Summarized by Dr. Jerome Kagan in Galen’s Prophecy.
9. Gallagher, “How We Become What We Are,” reported on the research of Steven Suomi of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, p. 44.
10. Rothbart, “Measurement of Temperament in Infancy.”
11. An “inborn” characteristic may or may not be heritable. Temperament characteristics may be inherited, or they may be created by experiences in the environment of the womb or by conditions such as prematurity or birth trauma (for example, lack of oxygen).
12. Van den Boom, “The Influence of Temperament and Mothering.”
14. Dawson and Fischer, Human Behavior and the Developing Brain, p. 360.
15. Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, p. 227. For additional information, see chapter 7.
18. Kochanska, “Socialization and Temperament.”
19. Scerbo and Kolko, “Child Physical Abuse and Aggression.”
20. Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy, p. 149.
21. The implication of the temperament information is not that all is lost by negative early caregiving patterns resulting in internalizing or externalizing behaviors. The key in the preschool years (ages two to four) is to begin to teach children how to put strong negative feelings into words and to learn rudimentary problem solving. For example, Johnny snatches the red truck that Billy is playing with. Billy howls and tries to pull it back. This leads to a series of blows. An adult intervenes to help both boys name their feelings and come up with a fair solution. “I know you are mad at Johnny, Billy, and you want the truck back. But hitting hurts Johnny, and when he hits you back, you hurt, too. Let’s sit down and talk about it. Johnny, when you wanted the red truck, what else could you have done? . . .” Regardless of the temperament of the child or an existing diagnosis of ADHD, this teaching is essential—and is an example of how constructive preschool experiences can be therapeutic interventions for high-risk children.
22. Tremblay et al., “A Preventive Intervention for Disruptive Kindergarten Boys.”
23. Brain chemistry is again accountable for wide differences in inhibited children. Children who are inhibited—but who also have high serotonin levels, and are sociable and reach out to other people—while cautious and sensitive, may not be shy.
24. Kagan, Galen’s Prophecy, p. 534. For a more detailed discussion of limbic activity, see chapter 2.
25. Dawson and Fischer, Human Behavior and the Developing Brain, p. 347.
26. Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, p. 221.
28. This research, combining behavior disorders and temperament dimensions, raises new questions about the assumption that the element of impulsivity is the underlying trait linking the three behavior disorders.
29. Halperin et al., “Impulsivity and the Initiation of Fighting.”
30. Farrington, “Are There Any Successful Men from Crimnogenetic Backgrounds?”
31. Rothbart et al., “Temperament and Social Behavior in Childhood.”
32. Kochanska, “Socialization and Temperament.”
33. Warner and Smith, Vulnerable, but Invincible.
34. Brennan et al., “Psychophysiological Protective Factors for Crime,” p. 5.
35. Smith and Prior, “Temperament and Stress Resilience,” p. 168.
CHAPTER 7
1. The story of the ordeal of the Chowchilla children was adapted from Dr. Lenore Terr’s account in Too Scared to Cry.
2. The story of Yummy is drawn from several sources: Pappajohn, G., “‘I Am Very Sick,’ Slain Boy Said: A Portrait of a Troubled Child,” Toronto Star, September 3, 1994; Caldwell, R., “A Killer at 11: How Society Has Failed Our Children,” San Diego Union-Tribune, September 11, 1994; “Close Escape Routes for Violent Children,” editorial, Chicago Sun Times, December 11, 1994; “Boy 11 Sought in Shootings Found Dead,” Oregonian, September 2, 1994.
3. Perry, Pollard, and Blakely, “Childhood Trauma.”
4. For further information, see chapter 2.
5. Perry, Pollard, and Blakely, “Childhood Trauma.”
6. This chapter on the links between early abuse and neglect and violence draws on the pioneering work of Dr. Bruce Perry, founder of the ChildTrauma Academy in Houston, including personal interviews, published articles, and unpublished materials. Dr. Perry’s theories are set forth in detail in his book Maltreated Children: Experience, Brain Development, and the Next Generation (Norton, 1999).
7. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
8. Perry et al., “Childhood Trauma.”
9. Loeber et al., “Developmental Pathways”; Lewis, Mallouh, and Webb, “Child Abuse, Delinquency, and Violent Criminality.”
10. Widom, “Does Violence Beget Violence?”
11. Lewis, “From Abuse to Violence.” In 1979, 79 percent of the violent children Lewis studied reported witnessing extreme violence between their parents compared with only 20 percent of nonviolent offending children.
12. The artificial separation of mind and body was set in Western thinking by the work of Descartes. The repudiation of this philosophical construct is the topic of an excellent book by Dr. Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error, which is listed in the bibliography.
13. Cannon, Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage.
14. Cicchetti, Toth, and Hennessey, “Research on the Consequences.”
15. Carlson et al., “Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Relationships,” p. 525.
16. Beeghly and Cicchetti, “Child Maltreatment, Attachment, and the Self System,” p. 6.
17. Cicchetti, Toth, and Hennessey, “Research on the Consequences,” p. 43.
18. Weiss et al., “Some Consequences of Early Harsh Discipline.”
19. Cole et al., “Predicting Early Adolescent Disorder.”
20. Perry, “The Vortex of Violence,” from Maltreated Children.
21. Interview with Dr. Bruce Perry, August 18, 1996.
23. Interview with Dr. Allan Schore, March 10, 1997.
24. Eth and Pynoos, “Developmental Perspective on Psychic Trauma in Childhood.”
25. Reported by Ron Kotulak on the work of Dr. Robert Cairns, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chicago Tribune, December 14, 1993.
26. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
27. Kotulak, “The Roots of Violence.”
28. Elliott, “Violence: The Neurologic Contribution.”
29. Lewis et al., “Psychiatric, Neurological, and Psycho-Educational Characteristics.”
30. Lewis et al., “Neuropsychiatric, Psycho-Education, and Family Characteristics.”
31. Rosenbaum and Hodge, “Head Injury and Marital Aggression,” reported that 52 percent of the wife batterers in the study had a history of head injury, compared to 22 percent of nonbatterers; Rosenbaum, “The Neuropsychology of Marital Aggression,” reported that 92 percent of battering males had a history of head injury that preceded domestic violence.
32. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime, p. 195.
33. Milner and McCanne, “Neuropsychological Correlates of Physical Child Abuse.”
34. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime, p. 195.
35. Golden et al., “Neuropsychological Correlates of Violence and Aggression,” p. 5.
37. Ibid., p. 7. This syndrome may also result from some forms of epilepsy, which may be subtle and difficult to detect. It may also be greatly exacerbated in certain individuals by consumption of alcohol and drugs.
39. In some cases of head injury, nurturing alone will not be enough to reduce the negative impact. Education and specialized skills may be essential to providing adequate support for seriously injured children.
CHAPTER 8
1. Drawn from stories published in the Oregonian, July 3 and July 4, 1996; June 13, 1997; August 10, 1997; and August 21, 1997. It is interesting to note that in a front-page story in the Oregonian published a year after the fire on August 10, 1997, reporters Holly Dansk and Alex Pulaski attributed Ray’s violent behavior to “critical events beginning in infancy.” This is the first newspaper story the authors found in more than five years of research to do so.
3. Lewis et al., “Biosocial Characteristics of Children Who Later Murder”; Meyers et al., “Psychopathology, Biopsychosocial Factors, Crime Characteristics and Classification”; Lewis et al., “Neuropsychiatric Psycho-Educational and Family Characteristics.”
4. Meyers et al., “Psychopathology, Biopsychosocial Factors, Crime Characteristics and Classification.”
5. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
6. Scerbo, “Aggression in Physically Abused Children”; Scerbo and Kolko, “Emotional Regulation as a Protective Factor in Childhood Aggression.”
7. Brennan et al., “Psychophysiological Protective Factors for Males.”
8. Scerbo and Kolko, “Emotion Regulation as a Protective Factor in Childhood Aggression”; Scerbo, “Aggression in Physically Abused Children.”
9. Brennan et al., “Psychophysiological Protective Factors for Males.”
11. Both a psychological and a brain-based biological template are, in fact, developing. The development of the biological template is described in the work of Dr. Allan Schore, UCLA Department of Medicine. See Schore, Affect Regulation and the Origin of the Self: The Neurobiology of Emotional Development.
12. In a follow-up news story on Tray and Kiana in March 1997, the Oregonian reported that Tray, then three, continued to take care of his little sister. Tray’s father told the reporter, “He’s learned to count, so he’s always making sure she has an equal amount.” At the time, Tray’s father was in college, studying to become a social worker. Both children attended group therapy for children who have lost a parent. Their father worked with the children, helping to keep their mother’s memory alive by visiting her favorite place at the beach, playing games she used to play with them, and talking about her often. Tray’s father told him his mother was in heaven. When Tray expressed frustration at not knowing how to get there, his father said, “You’ll go there when you get older. For now, just dream and think about her when you go to sleep and that way you can see her and keep a picture of her in your head.”
13. Eisenberg, The Caring Child.
14. Alper, “Is Empathy Innate?”
15. Kochanska, “Socialization and Temperament.”
16. Bowlby was the first to recognize the impact of early maternal separation on infant development. After World War II, in a report to the World Health Organization, he warned of the risks of separating children from their mothers, even neglectful mothers. He warned that separated children were at increased risk of mental illness and delinquency.
17. Weiss et al., “Some Consequences of Early Harsh Discipline.”
18. These type D babies as assessed in the strange situation are also likely to be rated by their parents on a temperament questionnaire as having “difficult” temperaments. They also typically score higher on instruments rating risk factors.
19. Interview with Dr. Allan Schore, March 10, 1997. Schore’s reference to a “good enough mother” alludes to a phrase coined by D. W. Winnicutt. The term expresses the idea that no mother can or should be perfect. Even with the best of mothers, there is a natural struggle between the meeting of her own needs and those of her infant.
20. Schore, “The Experience-Dependent Maturation of a Regulatory System,” p. 73.
21. Damasio, Descartes’ Error.
22. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
23. Interview with Dr. Allan Schore, January 24, 1997.
24. Scerbo and Kolko, “Emotional Regulation as a Protective Factor in Childhood Aggression.”
25. Emde, Robinson, and Nikkari, “Reactions to Restraint and Anger.”
26. Olds et al., “The Potential for Reducing Antisocial Behavior.”
27. Tremblay et al., “A Bimodal Preventive Intervention.”
28. For more information on this subject see chapter 5.
29. Eisenberg and Mussen, The Role of Prosocial Behavior in Children.
30. Brennan et al., “Psychophysiological Protective Factors for Males.”
31. Kraemer, “Social Attachment, Brain Function, Aggression and Violence.”
33. Cicchetti, Toth, and Hennessey, “Research on the Consequences.”
34. Greenspan and Cunningham, “Where Do Violent Kids Come From?”
35. Meyers et al., “Psychopathology, Biopsychosocial Factors, Crime Characteristics and Classification.”
36. Zero to Three, Heart Start.
37. Erickson and Pianta, “New Lunchbox, Old Feelings,” p. 37.
39. Turning Point, ABC, January 1997. The film footage of the Romanian children provokes our shock and sympathy when we see the tragic faces of so many children severely neglected from conception. We wonder what kind of country would allow 100,000 or more of their babies to live in such appalling circumstances. But many children in our own country are also gestating in despair and fear and are being born into circumstances of chronic neglect and abuse in numbers that are steadily increasing. In 1995 alone, 3,111,000 American children were reported abused or neglected. While our nation’s maltreatment of so many babies may not be as clearly visible or as acutely inhumane as Romania’s, it is nonetheless devastating to millions of American children.
41. Dixon and Stein, Encounters with Children, pp. 247–57.
42. Tamis-LaMonda and Bornstein, “Is There a ‘Sensitive Period’ in Human Development?”
45. Low socioeconomic status tends to compound the impact of anxious attachment.
46. Erickson and Pianta, “New Lunchbox, Old Feelings,” p. 40.
52. Hofer, “Hidden Regulators.”
53. Dr. James McKenna of the University of Notre Dame asserts that in our culture, where babies typically sleep in isolation from their mothers, it is the interruption of this symbiotic system that results in sudden infant death.
54. Hofer, “Hidden Regulators,” p. 221.
57. Kraemer, “Social Attachment, Brain Function, Aggression, and Violence.”
59. Interview with Dr. Gary Kraemer, October 7, 1996.
60. Dawson, Hessel, and Frey, “Social Influences.”
61. Carlson et al., “Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Relationships,” p. 529.
62. Dawson, Hessel, and Frey, “Social Influences.”
63. Interview with Dr. Geraldine Dawson, January 19, 1996.
64. Dawson, “Development of Emotional Expression and Emotional Regulation in Infancy.”
65. Field, “Infants of Depressed Mothers.”
66. Tronick and Gianino, “The Transmission of Maternal Disturbance.”
67. Field, “Infants of Depressed Mothers.”
68. Interview with Dr. Geraldine Dawson, January 19, 1996.
69. Dawson, Hessel, and Frey, “Social Influences,” pp. 760–61.
71. This is very similar to the “inhibited/uninhibited” and “bold/timid” characterizations studied by the temperament theorists.
72. Dawson, Hessel, and Frey, “Social Influences,” p. 763.
73. Dawson, “Development and Psychopathology,” p. 769.
78. Field, “Infants of Depressed Mothers,” pp. 1–13.
82. Kochanska, “Socialization and Temperament.”
83. Advertisement in the New York Times for Newsweek, special edition on birth to age three, April 22, 1997.
84. “World of Grief and Doubt After an Adoptee’s Death,” New York Times, August 31, 2013 (www.nytimes.com/2013/09/01/us/widening-ripples-of-grief-in-adoptees-death.html).
CHAPTER 9
1. Horn, “Come Home, Missing Fathers.”
3. Phares and Compas, “The Role of Fathers.”
8. For further information on this topic, see chapter 3.
9. Cicero, “Effects of Paternal Alcohol,” p. 37.
17. Kotulak, “The Roots of Violence.”
18. Phares and Compas, “The Role of Fathers,” p. 388.
19. National Fatherhood Initiative, “Facts on Father Absence.”
20. National Fatherhood Initiative, “The Father Factor.”
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “National Marriage and Divorce Rate Trends.”
22. Ohio State University, “Marital Separations an Alternative to Divorce for Poor Couples.”
23. Osborne and McLanahan, “Partnership Instability and Child Well-Being.”
24. “Single Moms: Pew Research Center Finds that Moms Are Breadwinners in 40 Percent of Households,” Huffington Post, May 29, 2013, available at www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/05/29/single-moms-pew-research-_n_3349525.html.
25. National Fatherhood Initiative, “The Father Factor.”
26. Interview with Dr. Penelope Leach, January 15, 1997.
27. Phares, “Where’s Poppa?” p. 656
28. Data provided by Wade Horn in written comments on the chapter manuscript, sent to authors on January 15, 1997.
29. Horn, “Come Home, Missing Fathers.”
30. Thomas, “A Father’s Role,” p. 5.
31. Minnerbrook, “Lives Without Fathers.”
32. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime, p. 256.
37. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, “Violent Families and Violent Youth.”
38. Raine, The Psychopathology of Crime, p. 254.
42. Interview with Dr. T. Berry Brazelton, March 16, 1995.
43. Sacks, “Children Need Both Mom and Dad to Thrive.”
44. Interview with Wade Horn, December 1996.
46. Yogman, Kindlon, and Earls, “Father Involvement,” p. 58.
47. Kromelow, Harding, and Touris, “The Role of the Father,” p. 521.
49. Yogman, Kindlon, and Earls, “Father Involvement,” p. 59.
54. Given similar styles of parenting between the parents, infants show very similar patterns of attachment to both mothers and fathers. Paternal warmth has positive effects on child development that are similar to those of maternal warmth such as success in achievement, psychosocial adjustment, and sex role development. (Phares, “Where’s Poppa?” p. 657.)
55. Kromelow, Harding, and Touris, “The Role of the Father.”
58. Heatherington and Parke, Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint.
59. Bennett, DiIulio, and Walters, Body Count, p. 196.
60. National Fatherhood Initiative, “The Father Factor.”
61. American Psychological Association, “The Changing Role of the Modern Day Father,” available at www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/changing-father.aspx.
CHAPTER 10
1. The story of James was reported by Nena Baker in the Oregonian, October 7, 1994.
2. From the television documentary Kids Behind Bars, A&E Investigative Reports, June 16, 1997, featuring Dr. Arthur Miller, Harvard Law School.
3. Personal interview with Dr. Ron David, June 9, 1995.
4. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, “Easy Access to FBI Arrest Statistics: 1994–2009.”
5. Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Violent Crime Rate Up 17 Percent, Property Crime Rate Up 11 Percent in 2011 According to the National Crime Victimization Survey.”
6. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Juvenile Arrests 2009.
7. White and Lauritsen, “Violent Crime Against Youth, 1994–2010.”
8. Brown, “Trends in Juvenile Justice State Legislation, 2001–2011.”
9. Hartney and Vuong, Created Equal.
11. White and Lauritsen, “Violent Crime Against Youth, 1994–2010.”
12. Federal Bureau of Investigation, “2011 National Gang Threat Assessment.”
13. National Criminal Justice Reference Service, “In the Spotlight: Women & Girls in the Criminal Justice System.”
15. Child Trends DataBank, “Bullying.”
16. Child Trends DataBank, “Children’s Exposure to Violence.”
17. Gottesman and Schwarz, “Juvenile Justice in the U.S.”
18. “Up to 93 Percent of Justice System Youth Experienced Trauma,” Crime In America.net, July 19, 2010, available at www.crimeinamerica.net/2010/07/19/up-to-93-percent-of-justice-system-youth-experienced-trauma-crime-in-america-net/ (accessed May 20, 2013).
19. Justice Policy Institute, “Healing Invisible Wounds.”
20. Hughes, “NYS Leads Nation in Violent Youth Crime.”
21. Purnick, “Youth Crime: Should Laws Be Tougher?”
22. Justice Policy Institute, “The Costs of Confinement.”
23. Lewis et al., “A Clinical Follow-up of Delinquent Males.”
24. New York State Office of Children and Families Services, “Recidivism Among Juvenile Delinquents and Offenders Released from Residential Care in 2008.”
25. Lewis et al., “A Clinical Follow-up of Delinquent Males.”
26. Treaster, “When Trouble Starts Young.”
28. Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, and Schulenberg, Monitoring the Future.
29. University of Cincinnati, “Attention, Parents.”
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Fact Sheets—Underage Drinking.”
34. Mirksy, “The Sanctuary Model.”
35. The Future of Children: Special Education for Children with Disabilities, vol. 6:1, spring 1996, David and Lucille Packard Foundation, Los Altos, California.
38. Scull and Winkler, “Shifting Trends in Special Education.”
39. Crossette, “Agency Sees Risk in Drug to Temper Child Behavior.”
40. Preidt, “One in 10 U.S. Kids Diagnosed with ADHD: Report.”
42. Hensley, “Kids Become Prime Growth Market for Prescription Drugs.”
43. Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children, 1996, p. xx.
44. Centers for Disease Control, “Youth Violence: Facts at a Glance.”
45. In spite of a slight reduction in juvenile arrests for violent crime, the overall rate of juvenile arrests has continued to increase, according to the 1996 data from the FBI.
46. Childhelp, “National Child Abuse Statistics.”
47. A series of articles on the Horton family ran in May 1996 in the Denver Post and the Rocky Mountain News.
48. Examples of such programs are Minnesota’s Parents as Teachers and Hawaii’s Healthy Start.
49. Pear, “Many States Fail to Meet Mandates on Child Welfare.”
50. The data on foster care were taken from Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children, 1996.
52. A list of program resources can be found in appendix E.
53. Congress hired a team of experts at the University of Maryland to determine the effectiveness of the $3 billion worth of expenditures made by the Department of Justice to help local law enforcement and community groups prevent crime.
54. Goleman, Emotional Intelligence, p. 256.
55. Hartney, “US Rates of Incarceration.”
58. Pew Center on the States, “One in 31 U.S. Adults Are Behind Bars, on Parole or Probation.”
59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Understanding School Violence.”
61. Child Trends DataBank, “Children’s Exposure to Violence.”
62. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Youth Violence: Facts at a Glance.”
63. Schwarz, “A.D.H.D. Seen in 11% of U.S. Children as Diagnoses Rise.”
64. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Youth Violence: Facts at a Glance.”
65. Truman and Smith, “Prevalence of Violent Crime among Households with Children, 1993–2010.”
66. Pearson, “U.S. Preterm Births Drop to Lowest Rate in a Decade.”
67. Children’s Defense Fund, The State of America’s Children Handbook, 2012.
68. Lynch, “Head Start: Background and Issues.”
69. Thirty to thirty-four nations, depending on the source.
70. Center for Family Policy and Research, “The Wellbeing of America’s Children: 2013.”
71. Adapted from Nurse-Family Partnership, “Research Trials and Outcomes”; Nurse-Family Partnership, “Benefits and Costs.”
72. Research summary provided by Kathryn Harding, Prevent Child Abuse America.
CHAPTER 11
1. Stevens, “Treating Violence as an Epidemic,” p. 23.
2. Interview with Dr. T. Berry Brazelton, January 8, 1997.
3. Interview with Dr. Penelope Leach, January 15, 1997.
4. Interview with Matthew Melmed, January 30, 1997.
5. Interview with Dr. Gerald Patterson, January 9, 1997.
6. Interview with Dr. Charles Golden, January 12, 1997.
7. Interview with Dr. Kathryn Barnard, January 9, 1997.
8. Interview with Dr. Craig Ramey, January 24, 1997.
10. Resource lists of effective program models and agencies that can provide further Information can be found in appendixes E and F.
11. Perry, “Incubated in Terror.”
12. Interview with Dr. Ed Tronick, October 20, 1996.
13. Conference of the American Psychological Association Division 39: “The Cutting Edge,” February 14, 1997, San Diego, California.
14. In its 1997 edition of The State of America’s Children, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that if American babies had the same mortality rate as Japanese babies, more than 15,000 U.S. babies would have survived in 1994 alone.
EPILOGUE
1. Media Violence Commission, “Report of the Media Violence Commission.”
2. “The Effects of Technology on the Brain,” Early Childhood Today, March 1999, available at www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/effects-technology-brain (accessed August 31, 2013).
APPENDIX E
1. Philliber, Kaye, Herrling, and West, “Preventing Pregnancy and Improving Health Care Access among Teenagers.”
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Teen Pregnancy Prevention 2010–2015.”