A
Adibuddha:
A concept in Mahayana Buddhism of an eternal Buddha with no beginning and with no end. He is self-created and originally revealed himself in the form of a blue flame coming out of a lotus. Over time this symbol became the symbol of the Adibuddha.
Amida Butsu:
In Japanese, the term by which devotees call the Amitabha Buddha. They usually say “Praise to the Buddha Amitabha,” i.e., “Namu Amida Butsa,” which can be shortened to “Nembutsu.”
Amitabha:
Amitabha is one of the incarnations of the Buddha, a divine manifestation whose characteristics are enumerated in Mahayana Buddhism. “Buddha Amitabha” translates directly as “Fully Conscious Infinite Light.” In the East Asian “Pure Land” sect, Amitabha is the dominant deity, a god who earned his countless divine qualities by performing many good deeds in his past lives as a bodhisattva named Dharmakara.
Amitabha is similiar to Shakyamuni: both figures are blessed with a Buddha’s attributes, but neither has any particularly defining details. One way to recognise Amitabha is by his mudra. Some statues of the Amitabha Buddha place him in the meditation position, seated with his thumbs and fingers together, like the Buddha at Kamakura; occasionally a lotus is in his hands.
Standing depictions of the deity show each hand with the thumb touching the forefinger, one hand raised and one lowered, in a gesture communicating wisdom for all beings. (The “earth-touching” mudra, a seated position with one hand reaching downward towards the ground, is particular to sculptures of the Shakyamuni Buddha.)
Sometimes Amitabha is shown with Avalokiteshvara, “Guanyin,” to his right, and Mahasthamaprapta, “Dà Shì Zhì,” to his left.
The associations surrounding Amitabha are manifold. The Buddha is painted red for love, compassion, and emotional energy in Tibet; he is revered as the setting sun, and therefore associated with the west. Often seen as the most popular of all Buddha representations, he personifies power and the energy of nature that is available to all. Amitabha is frequently depicted with a lotus, his symbol, and the traits of this exotic flower are attributed to him: gentleness, sincerity and purity.
Ananda:
One of the Shakyamuni Buddha’s Ten Great Disciples, and the Buddha’s cousin. He was the first to hear the Buddha’s words. As he had excellent memory, he memorised the Buddha’s sermons, which were later recorded as sutras.
Anatman/anatta:
The Buddhist notion that there is no eternal soul, unlike in Hinduism. Instead, each living person is an association of five skandas, which fly apart at death. Linguistically, “atta” is Pali for “atman” while “an” is the negative. The term literally means “no soul.”
Anatta (Sanskrit: anatman):
No-self. One of the Three Characteristics.
Anicca (Sanskrit: anitya):
Impermanence. One of the Three Characteristics.
Arhat/arhant/arahat/arahant:
A term used primarily in Theravada Buddhism to signify a person who has fulfilled the ultimate goal, the attainment of nirvana. Upon death, the arhat will become extinguished. This can be compared to Mahayana Buddhism, in which the ultimate goal is to become a bodhisattva – someone who uses the power they gain from enlightenment to help others.
Ashoka:
Also called Asoka: A Buddhist monarch of 300 BCE, he was the third emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty; he unified most of India under his rule and fostered the dissemination of Buddhism. It is said that the Third Council was held during his reign. Ashoka set the model for many other rulers who sought to govern in accordance with Buddhist philosophy.
Asura:
This term is often translated as “ogre” or “titan.” It is one of the six states of existence that are in samsara. Asura is usually seen as positive, resulting from good karma. In this interpretation, the asuras dwell in the lower heavens. Other views treat the asuras as resulting from bad karma; they are seen as the enemies of the gods. Some types of Buddhism ignore the category altogether and classify only five states of existence.
Avalokiteshvara:
Popularly known as the Bodhisattva of Compassion. He has been reincarnated in this world numerous times (in both male and female forms) and therefore plays many roles depending on which strand of Buddhism one follows. First, in Mahayana Buddhism, he is considered -to be the manifestation of Amitabha Buddha, the founder of the Pure Land school of Buddhism, and is often represented at Amitabha’s right hand. As such he is available to help all in dire need. Second, in China, Avalokiteshvara appears as Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Compassion. In folk belief, she keeps people safe from natural catastrophe. Third, in Tibet, Avalokiteshvara appears in several forms. The most important of these are as Chenrezig (the male partner of the couple who gave birth to the Tibetan people), the Goddess Tara, and as the Dalai Lama.
Avijja (Skt: avidya):
Ignorance.
Awakening:
A Zen term for enlightenment.
B
Bhaisajyaguru:
Bhaisajyaguru is the Buddha of healing; he is formally called Bhaisajyaguruvaiduryaprabharaja, and also known as the Master of Healing or the Medicine Buddha. His full name means “Medicine Master Lapis Lazuli Light.” According to Mahayana Buddhism, Bhaisajyaguru is the personification of the healing quality of the historical Buddha. This healing aspect is described in many Buddhist scriptures, using the analogy of suffering as an illness that the Buddha, the doctor, can cure using the medicine of his teachings.
Statues of Bhaisajyaguru typically show him seated, wearing three robes like a Buddhist monk. In his left hand he often holds a lapis-coloured jar of medicinal nectar, and in his right hand, which rests on his right knee, he holds the stem of the Aruna plant between his forefinger and thumb. He is described in Mahayana Buddhist scriptures as an incarnation with an aura of lapis lazuli-coloured light.
Bhikkhu, bikkhuni:
A Buddhist monk, a Buddhist nun.
Bodhi tree:
Sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa), under which the Buddha attained enlightenment.
Bodhisattva:
In Mahayana Buddhism, a person who has achieved enlightenment but has chosen to remain in this world to help those who are suffering, instead of going on to nirvana. This is the highest ideal of Mahayana. The idea of the bodhisattva should be contrasted to the arhat of Theravada Buddhism.
Buddha:
The founder of Buddhism. He was the first to attain enlightenment, and then taught others how to attain it. His first name was Siddhartha, his family name was Gautama. He was a member of the Shakya clan, and hence is called Shakyamuni, “the wise one of the Shakyas.” He is also known as Tathagata, “the Enlightened One.” Mahayana Buddhism holds that there are five Buddhas who have/will manifest themselves in the earthly realm. The fifth Buddha, who will come in the future, is known as Maitreya. In Mahayana, a Buddha is anyone who has attained enlightenment.
Buddha-fields:
The Buddha-fields are the infinite number of paradises which are populated by uncountable Buddhas and bodhisattvas. The Buddha-fields are beyond the realm of samsara. Those within them have reached enlightenment, but have not yet attained nirvana; this is where Amitabha has his Pure Land.
C
Chan Buddhism:
The Chinese name for Zen Buddhism.
Chogye (alt. Jogye):
The largest Buddhist sect in Korea.
D
Dalai Lama:
The bodhisattva who is the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, a.k.a. Chenrezig, the bodhisattva of Compassion. He is a single being who has been reincarnated 14 times as the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama has always been a combination of chief spiritual leader and chief political leader of Tibet.
The present Dalai Lama lives in exile in India; he remains spiritual leader of his people, even under their oppression by the Chinese government.
Deva:
Literally, “shining one.” An inhabitant of the heavenly realms.
Devadatta:
Buddha’s cousin.
Dharma/ Dhamma:
The teachings of the Buddha.
Dharmakaya:
Literally, body of the law. In Mahayana thought, one aspect of ultimate reality.
Dhyani Buddhas:
The Five Dhyani Buddhas (also called the Five Wisdom Buddhas or Five Jinas) are the representations of the Buddha’s eminent qualities. Worshiped in Vajrayana Buddhism, they are featured on mandalas or geometric charts of the universe.
The Five Dhyani Buddhas are manifestations of the different aspects of enlightenment, variations on the two original embodiments of the Buddha (Akshobhya and Amitabha). Buddhist tradition eventually made further distinctions between the figure of power and activity, Amoghasiddhi, and Ratnasambhava, the figure of beauty and spiritual wealth. Vairocana, the embodiment of Buddha’s abstract nature, is at the centre of the five figures and appears alone in illustrations or sculptures of the Vajrayana Buddhist tradition.
Philosophies about the knowledge of the Enlightened One and the “three-body” theory (Trikaya) identifying three spiritual bodies of the Buddha later led to the development of the Five Wisdom Buddhas.
Dipankara:
Dipankara, a past Buddha, allegedly lived on Earth for a hundred thousand years and attained enlightenment millennia before the historical Shakyamuni Buddha. In the Buddhist traditional chronology, Dipankara is one of many previous Buddhas, Shakyamuni was the most recent Buddha, and Maitreya will be the next Buddha to appear.
Images of Dipankara usually show him seated, forming a protective position with his hands (called the abhaya mudra). In China, Nepal and Thailand, statues or paintings of Dipankara standing are relatively common. One of the Bamyan Buddhas in Afghanistan was known as a depiction of this previous Buddha, and there are representations of him in China’s Longmen and Yungang Grottoes.
Occasionally, Dipankara will be portrayed with two other figures, most commonly bodhisattvas like Manjusri, Vajrapani or Avalokiteshvara, or the future Buddhas, Gautama and Maitreya.
Dukkha:
The Buddhist understanding of the nature of life, especially human life. It is suffering, pain, misery, and death.
E
Eightfold Path:
The Noble Eightfold path consists of the eight steps by which a person can achieve Nirvana. This is the path by which one ceases to desire and thereby ceases to suffer. This path leads to a form of meditation which, similar to Raja Yoga in Hinduism, enables a person to reach enlightenment. The eight stages are:
1) Right views.
2) Right intent.
3) Right speech.
4) Right conduct.
5) Right livelihood.
6) Right effort.
7) Right mindfulness.
8) Right concentration.
Emptiness:
Emptiness is usually the description of Enlightenment. To the western mind, this description is often difficult to comprehend, leading to the idea that it is “nothing,” and therefore seems quite unattractive. Two points will help correct this view. First, “emptiness” can be understood as the Buddhist way of saying that Ultimate Reality is incapable of being described, much the way that many Christian theologians view the Christian God as beyond human attempts of description. Second, the “emptiness” should not be thought of as another place. Instead, it is identical to the world or universe humans experience in this life. In this way, it is much like the Hindu notion that this world is simply maya (illusion), which prevents humans from seeing the true unity of the cosmos (which in Hinduism means the identity of Atman and Brahman). Thus emptiness and the phenomena of this world are the same, or as the Heart Sutra says, “Form is emptiness, emptiness is form.”
Enlightenment:
This is the usual English translation of the Sanskrit word “bodhi,” which literally means “awakening.” It is achieved by following the Eightfold path, and therefore constitutes freedom from all desires.
Enlightenment gives the person who achieves it the wisdom of perceiving the ultimate reality, which entails the power and the ability to work to change that reality in certain ways – especially to help people in need. For example, Amitabha created the western land – the Pure Land – as a heaven for his followers. Enlightenment is often described as emptiness, which is the final step before nirvana. Gaining Enlightenment can be likened to breaking through a wall. At first, only a small hole may be created, through which one can briefly see a small part of the other side. Ultimately, the whole wall may be destroyed and all will be visible.
F
Factors of Conditioned Rising:
There are twelve factors of conditioned arising: death, birth, craving, ignorance, consciousness, becoming, contact, sensation, the six senses, grasping, the power of formation, and mind and body.
Five Precepts:
The minimum set of moral rules for Buddhism, practised by both the lay people and the monks of the sangha. They forbid theft, improper sexual practises (adultery for lay people, sexual activity of any kind for monks), killing, lying and deceiving, and drinking alcoholic drinks.
Four Noble Truths:
The most basic statement of Buddhist belief:
(1) All is suffering (dukkha).
(2) Suffering is caused by desire.
(3) If one can eliminate desire, they can eliminate suffering.
(4) The Noble Eightfold Path can eliminate desire.
G
Gautama:
The Buddha’s family name, or last name. His first name was Siddhartha.
Guru:
A teacher or guide for a novice. This is an important aspect of Vajrayana Buddhism.
H
Heart Sutra:
One of the central sutras in Mahayana Buddhism. It is particularly important in Zen because of its teaching about emptiness.
Hinayana:
Literally means “lesser vehicle.” According to some, this term was originally coined by Mahayana polemicists to distinguish their path (seen as a “greater vehicle” with room for all) from the path of the Sarvastivadins (seen as a “lesser vehicle” with room for only one at a time). Over time, it came to be applied to the only surviving member of the original “eighteen schools” of Southern Buddhism, Theravada. Many Buddhists prefer the term Theravada, because “Hinayana” is perceived to have negative connotations.
I
Impermanence:
(Sanskrit: anitya, Pali: anicca) This term refers to the Buddhist notion that all things of samsara are impermanent. Once created, they decay and pass away. Although this is particularly true for human illness and death, the idea refers to the nature of all things. It is one of the reasons for suffering and is considered one of the three marks of existence.
J
Jataka Tales:
Stories or legends about Buddha’s birth or previous forms of existence.
Jhana/dhyana:
A jhana is one of the highest levels of awareness that can be reached by the practise of samadhi. There are four jhanas, which together essentially are enlightenment. This is where the monk attains supernormal powers, sees his past lives, and gains wisdom of the true character of reality.
K
Kagyu:
The order of Tibetan Buddhism founded in the eleventh century by Marpa, Milarepa, Gampopa, and their followers.
Kapilavatsu:
The capital of the Sakya kingdom. The king of Kapilavatsu was Suddhodana, who was the father of Shakyamuni. The present-day Kapilavatsu is in Nepal.
Karma/Kamma:
For Buddhism, as in Hinduism, this is the moral law of cause and effect. People build up karma (both good and bad) as a result of their actions. This then determines the state of existence to which one is reborn after death.
In Buddhism, one can be reborn in one of several heavens or hells, or as a being – human or animal – in this world.
Kassapa (Skt: Kasyapa):
Main disciple of the Buddha.
Kaundinya:
A disciple of Buddha, the earliest convert to his teachings.
Koan:
A riddle-like puzzle used for teaching in Zen Buddhism. It cannot be solved by reason, but instead forces the student to solve it through a flash of insight. A well-known example is the question, “What is the sound of one hand clapping?”
Kuan Yin:
The Chinese manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. Although originally depicted as male, he gradually became represented as female. She appears to all who need her help, especially those threatened by water, demons, swords or fire. Childless women often turn to her for help.
L
Laity:
An English word used to refer to the general members of a religion (in Buddhism, Christianity, etc.) as opposed to religious specialists such as monks or priests. In Buddhism, the opposite of laity is the sangha.
Lama:
In Vajrayana, the term for teacher or guru. He is usually the head of a monastery or perhaps several monasteries. Some important lamas are considered to be bodhisattvas, such as the Dalai Lama.
Law of Causal Condition:
The fundamental doctrine of Buddhism that all phenomena in the universe are produced by causation. Since all phenomena result from complicated causes and effects, all existing things in the universe are inter-dependent. Moreover, all phenomena and things are impermanent (i.e. changing constantly). It was to this law that Shakyamuni was awakened when he attained enlightenment.
Law of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada):
It states that all phenomena arise depending upon a number of causal factors. In other words, one thing exists only if other things exist; it has in condition that others have; it extinguishes in condition that others extinguish; it has not in condition that others have not.
Lotus Sutra:
The Lotus Sutra is probably the most important text of Mahayana Buddhism. It gives the account of a lecture given by the Buddha. He discusses all the things that differentiate Mahayana Buddhism from Theravada, such as the idea of a bodhisattva, in particular the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, the merit of the people who venerate the Lotus Sutra, and the key to nirvana and Buddhahood.
Lumbini Park:
The birthplace of Shakyamuni Buddha, which lay between the state of the Shakyas and the Koliyas.
M
Mahamaya:
The mother of Shakyamuni. She was the Koliyan Princess and married to Suddhodana. She died seven days after giving birth to Shakyamuni.
Mahayana Buddhism:
Mahayana means “The Great Raft” or “The Great Vehicle.” It is the largest and most influential of the three main forms of Buddhism (the other two being Theravada and Vajrayana). It is practised in China, Japan and Korea. Mahayana emphasises the idea of the bodhisattva over that of the arhat. The goal of an individual is therefore not to pass out of this world into nirvana, but to attain enlightenment – with the wisdom, understanding and power that goes with it – and then to show compassion by returning to this world to help those in need. Amitabha Buddha did this to establish Pure Land Buddhism. In comparison to Theravada, Mahayana Buddhism emphasises the help that gods and bodhisattvas can give to people to help them escape samsara. It has elaborate descriptions of how this works and emphasises prayers and rituals that enable people to seek this help. Zen is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism.
Maitreya or Metteyya:
Maitreya (the Sanskrit name) or Metteyya (in Pali) is a future Buddha—a bodhisattva who has not yet reached enlightenment, but who is revered almost at the level of a Buddha, for he will be the next teacher of the dharma.
Buddhist scriptures say that Maitreya will succeed the historic Shakyamuni Buddha. The Maitreya prophecy appears in the theological texts of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism: most Buddhists accept the prophecy as a prediction of an actual event in the distant future.
Statues of Maitreya show him seated, with both feet on the ground; this position indicates that he has not yet ascended to the throne. Most commonly dressed as a monk or as Indian royalty, the figure always wears a traditional ceremonial scarf around his waist. In the art of Gandhara, whose Greco-Buddhist style stood out in India in the first centuries CE, Maitreya appeared as a nobleman from northern India.
According to tradition and Buddhist canonical literature, Maitreya will arrive when the original Buddha’s teachings are no longer followed or have been completely forgotten. This prophesied stage between the Buddha and Maitreya will be the “low point” of human existence, when people forget the philosophy and become spiritually bankrupt. Thanks to the many lives he will have lived before his ultimate incarnation, Maitreya will be prepared for enlightenment, and attain it in seven days (the minimum length of time). The prophecy foretells that the oceans will get smaller when he appears, so that he can cross them easily, and once he reveals the true dharma to mankind, a new world will begin.
Mandala:
In general, an art form based on the closed circle, which is the symbol of eternal continuity. In Tantric Buddhism (Vajrayana), it is a painting or tapestry based on concentric circles. Within the circles, the Buddha usually appears with other deities, bodhisattvas, and other symbolic images. For the monk, a mandala serves as a focus of meditation, and a symbolic representation of the reality of the identity of samsara and nirvana. In popular religion, the mandala is often the focus of worship – or, to put it another way, the Buddhas and deities depicted in a mandala become the object(s) of worship.
Manjusri:
The Bodhisattva of Wisdom (prajna), one of the two key Mahayana concepts; the other is compassion (represented by Avalokiteshvara). Manjusri’s two main symbols are the sword of knowledge and a book of the Prajna-Paramita Sutra. His wisdom casts away the darkness of ignorance.
Mantra:
A sound that is used as a focus for meditation or worship.
Marks of Existence:
There are three marks of existence: suffering (dukka), impermanence (anitya), and “no-soul” (anatman).
Meditation:
The process of becoming deeply acquainted with one’s own mind.
Merit (punya):
Merit is essentially “good Karma,” and it can be gained in a number of ways. Many of these involve interaction between the sangha and the laity. For example, when a lay person gives a monk food, they gain merit. Acting in a moral manner, teaching the proper belief, preaching, and chanting also gain an individual merit. Worship of the Buddha can also bring merit. The notion of merit plays the largest role in Theravada Buddhism.
Moon days:
Every lunar month has four moon days. The most important are the New Moon (which begins the month) and the Full Moon (which is the middle of the month). On these days the sangha gathers to read the rules of monk behaviour and each monk examines himself to see if he has violated any of the rules. The other two moon days are halfway in between these two; thus, there is a moon day every seven days. Members of the laity often gather at the monastery on these days for religious activity.
Mount Meru:
The centre of the universe according to Buddhist cosmology.
Mudra:
Symbolic hand gestures used in ritual or dance. The Buddha is often depicted with his hands in the meditation mudra or in the mudra symbolising teaching. In Vajrayana, the gestures enlarge to involve the entire body, and they enable the gesturer to interact with Tantric deities.
Muni:
A sage.
N
Naga:
A deity or class of entity or being, taking the form of a very large snake, found in Hinduism and Buddhism. Among the notable nagas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda (Muchalinda), protector of the Buddha.
Nirvana/nibbana:
It is the cessation of suffering, the liberation from karma, and therefore the passing over into another existence. The best way to think about nirvana is that it is the final goal of Buddhism, and that Enlightenment is the step immediately before it. Thus one becomes aware of the nature of Ultimate Reality in Enlightenment, and then one becomes unified with that reality in nirvana. The Buddha, when he died, passed into Nirvana, having previously attained Enlightenment during his life and sharing it with humanity. A bodhisattva is one who has attained Enlightenment, but rather than passing over into nirvana, chooses to come back to this world to use his power to help other people.
P
Pali and Pali Canon:
Pali is a dialect of Sanskrit and is thought to be the language spoken by the Buddha; it is also the language of Theravada Buddhism. The Pali Canon (of Theravada) is the collection of sacred Buddhist texts written in this dialect, the Tripitaka.
Paramita:
These are the six virtues, or “perfections,” that the bodhisattva perfects during his development. They are: generosity, discipline, patience, energy, meditation (jhana) and wisdom (prajna).
Parinirvana (Pali: parinibbana):
The end of the Buddha’s physical existence (i.e., his death).
Pitaka:
In Pali, literally means “basket.” The three Pitakas are the main divisions of the Pali Canon: the Sutta Pitaka or Sermons, the Vinaya Pitaka or Rules of the Order, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Prajna:
This term, meaning wisdom, is the supreme wisdom considered by Mahayana Buddhism to be outside human experience and incapable of being conveyed in the language of this world. The key experience of prajna is insight into Emptiness, the true nature of the cosmos.
Prajna-Paramita Sutra:
This term refers to a collection of 40 Mahayana sutras which all deal with prajna and its attainment. This was the focus of Nagarjuna’s writing and commentaries. The best known of the 40 is the Heart Sutra.
Puja:
An act of worship or devotion to a Buddha or a bodhisattva.
Punya:
Merit. An act that gains good karma.
Pure Land Buddhism:
This form of Buddhism focuses on the Buddha Amitabha and the “Pure Land” he created. Appearing in China in the 4th century CE and later in Japan, Korea and other nations, this form of Buddhism has the largest following of all the different types of Buddhism. Pure Land is aimed at the average person in its recognition that most people cannot achieve enlightenment and so are doomed forever to stay in samsara. Amitabha thus set up a “Pure Land” in the “west” – a paradise – to which people can go when they die. To gain entrance, people simply have to call on the power of Amitabha. This is done by uttering a phrase such as “Namu Amidha Butsu,” (the Nembutsu) which is Japanese for “Praise to Amitabha Buddha.”
R
Raga:
Greed; passion; uncontrolled lust of any kind.
Rahula:
He was one of the Ten Great Disciples of Shakyamuni. He was the first in esoteric practises and in desire for instruction in the Law. He was also the son of Shakyamuni Buddha.
Rain Retreat (vassa):
In the earliest centuries of Buddhism, monks were itinerant, wandering for nine months of the year. When the monsoons began in July, they gathered together for teaching, instruction, meditation and encouragement. Theravada Buddhism, which is prevalent in the area of the monsoons, still keeps the rain retreats, even though its monks have long ago ceased to wander.
Raja:
King; chief; ruler.
Rajagaha (Skt: Rajagriha):
The capital of the ancient kingdom of Magadha in India, which was the centre of culture at the time of Shakyamuni. The first monastery, called the Bamboo Grove Park, was built by the elder Kalanda and King Bimbisara of Magadha in Rajagaha.
Rebirth:
The corollary of karma. The doctrine that each individual is born into the world again and again to inherit the effects of his deeds. By action in this life the individual creates a fresh personality for himself so that the results of his actions may be fulfilled in a future life.
Renunciation:
The attitude of complete detachment from the experiences of samsara, seeing that there is no true pleasure or satisfaction to be found within it.
Rinpoche:
This is an honorific term applied to lamas in Vajrayana Buddhism. It literally means “greatly precious” and is given to masters who are highly valued for their spiritual knowledge. A Rinpoche is often believed to be the reincarnation of a lama, guru, or even a bodhisattva or a Buddha.
S
Sakya, Sakyamuni/Shakyamuni:
The Sakya is the clan into which the Buddha was born. “Sakyamuni” means “wise one of the Sakya,” which was a title given to the Buddha.
Samadhi:
A form of meditation widely practised in Theravada Buddhism in which the mind is concentrated on a single object and gradually calmed until only the object is known. The ultimate goal of this meditation is to enter the state of samadhi, when the distinction between the object and the meditator disappears, which is the realisation of non-dualism. This state is a prerequisite to entering the four levels of jhana and enlightenment.
Samantabhadra:
Samantabhadra is called the “Lord of the Truth” because he represents the practise and meditation of all Buddhas. Samantabhadra, Shakyamuni and Manjusri form what is called the “Shakyamuni trinity” in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition. In Buddhist scriptures, he is usually portrayed as a bodhisattva, but the Tibetan school, among others, considers him a primordial Buddha.
Samantabhadra’s name means “one whose bounty is omnipresent.” As the embodiment of idealised law and compassion, he is worshiped in the Nichiren, Tendai and Shingon sects in Japan. Some sects attribute the establishment of the Mahayana yoga tradition to Samantabhadra instead of Vairocana, considering him the deity of religious ecstasy. In some Japanese schools, he is at the centre of ecstatic meditation practises.
The figure of Manjusri is more popular and often pictured alone; Samantabhadra, on the other hand, usually appears in company with the other two members of the Shakyamuni trinity, riding on a white elephant. He also is featured in art from the schools founded on the Avatamsaka Sutra, who place Vairocana, not Shakyamuni, at the centre of their Buddhist trinity.
In Chinese Buddhist depictions, Samantabhadra (called Puxian in China) occasionally has feminine characteristics resembling those of the goddess Guan Yin. He can be portrayed with a lotus leaf umbrella, seated on a twelve-tusked elephant. Monasteries near and on western China’s Mount Emei embrace this effeminate form of Samantabhadra as their patron deity.
Samsara:
The continual cycle of death and rebirth.
Sangha/samgha:
A general term that refers to the community of monks (Bhikkhus) as a whole.
Sanskrit:
The spoken language of ancient India, which belongs to the class of the Indo-European languages. It is used both in Hinduism and in some forms of Buddhism.
Sanzen:
This is the twice-daily meeting between the student and the master in Zen Buddhism to discuss the student’s progress in meditation. The main purpose is to determine whether the student has solved their koan. If not, the incorrect answer is rejected, and the master must then urge the student to find a correct solution.
Satori:
Zen Buddhism’s term for enlightenment.
Siddhartha:
The Buddha’s given name, or first name. His surname was Gautama.
Skandhas:
The five elements of a human which come together at birth and separate at death: body, feelings/senses, perceptions, habits/inclinations, and consciousness. This is linked to the notion of “no-soul.”
States of Existence:
There are six states of existence (gati). The highest three are the gods, the asuras, and human beings; they result from good karma. The lowest three are animals, hungry ghosts, and demons (hell-dwellers); they result from bad karma. Some forms of Buddhism view the asuras as stemming from bad karma and others ignore them completely, having only five states of existence.
Stupa:
A shrine in which relics of the Buddha are kept. The centre is a raised temple which is usually surrounded by a series of terraces.
Sutra/sutta:
A sacred text. The Sutra Pitaka is one of the three divisions of the tripitaka. It contains the words and teachings of Buddha himself. The Sutras are the foundational texts for Mahayana Buddhism, which differentiate Mahayana from Theravada Buddhism.
T
Tantrism:
Tantrism and tantric ideas begin with notions in line with all forms of Buddhism, namely, the idea that Ultimate Reality is a singular Unity. Tantrism, which is a key component of Vajrayana, then goes beyond these notions to their representation in the symbol of the sexual union between male and female. This union is a symbol of the identity of the multiple nature of this world (maya), represented by the male, with the unity and wisdom of cosmos, represented by the female. In some schools, the symbol of intercourse is re-enacted as part of meditation.
Tathagata:
A term for the Buddha (Siddhartha) which means “The Enlightened One.”
Ten Precepts:
This is the code of monastic discipline. It consists of the Five Precepts (no stealing, sexual activity, killing, lying, or alcohol) which apply to all Buddhists, and five further restrictions designed specifically for members of the sangha. These are:
(6) Not to take food from noon to the next morning.
(7) Not to adorn the body with anything other than the monk’s robe.
(8) Not to participate in or watch public entertainments.
(9) Not to use high or comfortable beds.
(10) Not to use money.
Theravada Buddhism:
Literally, “the path of the Elders.” Of the three major branches of Buddhism, this was the earliest to form. In contrast to Mahayana and Vajrayana, Theravada emphasises the individual over the group, holding that it is the individual who must reach nirvana on his own. Its central virtue is thus wisdom, which is to be achieved by the arhat who attains enlightenment in this life and nirvana upon death. It discourages speculation about the nature of the cosmos, enlightenment, and nirvana, instead focusing on meditation. The main social group is therefore the sangha, the gathered monks and nuns who support and teach each other as each one strives to achieve enlightenment.
The Three Refuges, also known as The Three Vows or The Three Jewels:
1) I take refuge in the Buddha.
2) I take refuge in the Dharma.
3) I take refuge in the Sangha.
Thunderbolt:
The English word often used to translate the Sanskrit word “vajra” (Tibetan: “dorje”), which is a key symbol for Vajrayana Buddhism. It means literally “Diamond Thunderbolt.” It symbolises the indestructible character of emptiness, the true nature of all things. Tibetan Buddhists use a crafted metal image of a thunderbolt in their rituals.
Tripitaka (tipitaka):
The three main sacred scriptures of Buddhism. A “pitaka” is a basket and so the term refers to the “three baskets.” The first basket is the teachings of the Buddha. The second is the discipline for the sangha. The third is that of special teachings.
U
Upasaka:
A Buddhist lay disciple. Feminine form: Upasika.
Upaya:
A means, device or method; a practical means to a spiritual end.
Uposatha:
“Observance Day,” a sacred day occurring every lunar fortnight. On this day, Buddhists reaffirm their Dhamma practise in terms of precepts and meditation.
V
Vairocana:
Vairocana is the personification of the historical Buddha’s abstract universal nature. According to Sino-Japanese Buddhists, Vairocana is also the embodiment of the Buddhist understanding of emptiness.
In Vajrayana Buddhism’s group of the Five Wisdom Buddhas, Vairocana is at the centre. Daibutsu, the enormous bronze statue of the Buddha in the Todai-ji temple in Nara, Japan, is one of the largest figures of its kind in the world. The Buddha carvings at Bamyan in Afghanistan were also Vairocana Buddha representations.
Vairocana’s teachings draw from the Mahavairocana Sutra, primarily, and the Vajrasekhara Sutra. As a manifestation of the Buddha, Vairocana figured prominently in Chinese Hua-Yen Buddhism and Japanese Shingon Buddhism, which embraced him as the central deity.
In spite of initial popularity in the Sino-Japanese school of Buddhist thought, Vairocana grew less popular as Pure Land Buddhism in Japan drew followers to the figure of the Amitabha Buddha. However, the Daibutsu in Todai-ji and the devotion of Shingon Buddhists maintain Vairocana’s place in Japan’s spiritual and artistic traditions.
Vajradhara:
Considered the greatest incarnation of the primordial Buddha (or Adi Buddha) in Tibetan Buddhism, Vajradhara replaced Samantabhadra in some Buddhist traditions. While depictions of the two figures demonstrate diverse features, Vajradhara and Samantabhadra are essentially manifestations of the same idea, the ultimate state of enlightenment. References to the “state of Vajradhara” suggest the deity’s intimate connection to the nirvana sought by all devout Buddhists.
While Samantabhadra appears in iconography as a simple and relatively unremarkable figure, sculptures and paintings of Vajradhara portray him as lavishly decorated, sitting in a lotus position with his hands crossed on his chest—a position not given to any other incarnation of the Buddha.
Vajrayana:
Since a “vajra” is a diamond, this term means “The Diamond Way.” It refers to the third form of Buddhism (after Theravada and Mahayana), which is practised largely in Tibet. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism. The main claim of Vajrayana is that it enables a person to reach nirvana in a single lifetime. It is able to do this by using all of a person’s powers (including those of the body) to achieve that goal.
Venerable:
An honorific title of respect for a Buddhist monk or nun.
Vesak:
In Buddhist tradition, it is the date not only of the Buddha’s birth, but also of his Enlightenment and death.
Vihara:
A dwelling-place for the Sangha. A retreat or monastery. A state of mind.
Vinaya:
The monastic discipline, whose rules and traditions comprise six volumes in printed text.
Vipassana:
This form of meditation is widely practised in Theravada Buddhism. Its goal is the realisation of the three marks of existence: suffering, impermanence, and “no-soul.” It leads to the realisation of the true character of Emptiness. Vipassana and Samadhi are considered prerequisites for attaining nirvana by Theravada Buddhism.
W
Wheel of Life:
In Tibetan Buddhism especially, the Wheel of Life is a symbol consisting of three concentric circles held by Yama, the God of the Underworld. It signifies samsara. The inner-most circle contains symbols of the three sources of suffering: the pig (ignorance), the snake (hate), and the cock (desire). The next circle is divided into six sections, each depicting one of the six states of being. The outside ring is divided into twelve sections, each representing a symbol of one of the twelve factors of conditioned arising (death, birth, craving, ignorance, consciousness, etc.).
Y
Yab-yum:
In Vajrayana Buddhism, this is the symbol of the male and female sexual union – usually a union of a god or a bodhisattva and his consort – which represents the completeness of the cosmos. The male represents action, usually that of compassion, in this finite world, and the female represents wisdom, the unity of the Infinite. The male is seen as passive and the female as active.
Yana:
Sanskrit for “vehicle.” The different vehicles correspond to different spiritual paths that differ according to the basic attitude of the practitioner and the means of making progress on the way. There are categories of one, two, three and five vehicles.
Yasodhara:
The wife of Siddhartha Gautama. She later became a nun.
Yidam:
A bodhisattva or other “deity” assigned to a Vajrayana monk by his guru as his personal guide and protector. Once established, this link will last the monk’s lifetime, and will help him work towards attaining enlightenment.
Z
Zazen:
In Zen Buddhism, the practise of extended periods of meditation, usually in a group in a meeting hall. The monks sit quietly for long periods of time in the cross-legged Lotus position. Different individuals will be meditating with different goals, often meditating to solve a koan.