The Roman client kingdoms adjacent to the northwestern border of the Parthian Empire were once forces to be reckoned with in their own right, and their rich and bloody stories could fill several historical volumes. But by the time ‘Lord of War’– around 26BC – they were shadows of their former selves.
Pontus, first formed as a kingdom in the aftermath of the breakup of the empire of Alexander the Great, was first ruled by Mithridates, the son of a Persian satrap servicing one of Alexander’s former generals (Antigonus), between 302BC and 296BC. At first, Pontus had friendly relations with Rome, but this all changed with the accession to power of Mithridates VI. He came to power in 120BC and ruled for nearly 60 years, during which he methodically conquered neighbouring kingdoms in a rapid war of aggression. He cut a swathe of destruction in the area that resembles modern-day Turkey, slaughtering up to 80,000 Roman citizens in the process. Such atrocities could not go unpunished, though Rome’s retribution was slow in coming due to wars in Africa, Germany and internal political disorder. Eventually, however, in 63BC, following the military victory of Pompey and the death of Mithridates, Pontus was annexed as a Roman province.
King Polemon, who featured in ‘Sons of the Citadel’ and features in ‘Lord of War’, earned the gratitude of Mark Antony when he accompanied the triumvir during his ill-fated invasion of Parthia in 36BC. Polemon was captured by the Parthians and ransomed. No doubt chastened by the experience, he was careful not to fully commit himself and his kingdom to Antony’s war with Octavian. After Actium (31BC), the new undisputed Roman ruler curtailed Polemon’s power, though he was allowed to remain in control of Pontus. He worked hard to prove his allegiance to Octavian, which reaped rewards as by 26BC he was recognised as a friend and ally of Augustus.
The kingdom of Galatia was something of an anomaly in ancient Asia, being occupied by Gauls in the 3rd century BC, hence the name Galatia, or ‘Gallia of the East’. The Gauls had migrated east from their homeland in the 4th century BC, eventually settling in modern-day central Turkey. There were three tribes – the Tectosages, the Tolistbobolii and the Trocmi – the kingdom they founded being originally ruled by a national council, but later united under a king. By the time of ‘Lord of War’ that king was Amyntas, who like his predecessors was largely pro-Roman. Galatia was organized as a Roman client kingdom by Pompey in 64BC, recognizing Deiotarus as the official Galatian King.
Amyntas, a chief of the Trocmi tribe, was the son of King Brogitarix, King of Galatia. He was obviously a man of dubious morals as he deserted Brutus and Cassius on the eve of the Battle of Philipp (42BC) to join Mark Antony. This won him the favour of Cleopatra’s lover, who made him King of Cappadocia in 37BC. Gratitude seemed to be in short supply, however, when Amyntas deserted Mark Antony on the eve of Actium, which ensured he remained King of Galatia after Antony’s defeat.
Cappadocia derives from the Persian word Katpatuka, meaning ‘land of the well-bred horses’, and that land was under Persian rule for 200 years, thereafter becoming part of the empire of Alexander the Great. Following the Macedonian’s death it fell to the dynasty of Ariarathes in 323BC, whose family would rule Cappadocia until 93BC, fomenting friendly relations with Rome. However, during the period of civil strife in Rome at the end of the republic, Cappadocia, like many kingdoms in modern-day Turkey, changed allegiances with alarming regularity. For example, the kingdom supported Pompey against Caesar, switching sides following Caesar’s victory at Pharsalus (48BC). In the civil war between Mark Antony and Octavian and Caesar’s assassins, Cappadocia initially supported Cassius and Brutus, before changing sides to pledge allegiance to Antony following the defeat and deaths of the assassins. His defeat at Actium left Cappadocia no choice but to swear fealty to the new master of the Roman world: Octavian, who was happy to leave the realm as an independent kingdom in return for its continuing loyalty.
The King of Cappadocia in ‘Lord of War’ is Archelaus, who was installed as ruler by Mark Antony around 36BC. He was one of the few eastern kings who actually stuck by Antony, fighting beside him at the Battle of Actium. Surprisingly, this seems to have had little effect on his position as King of Cappadocia, Augustus allegedly happy for him to continue as ruler of the kingdom, probably due to his pro-Roman and anti-Parthian views. As such, he was a valuable ally on the eastern frontier.