Chapter 15
Daggers Drawn – The Fall of the Republic
In This Chapter
The rivalry of Caesar and Pompey
How Caesar became master of Rome
What happened on the Ides of March
Why Octavian and Mark Antony fell out
How an Egyptian queen nearly destroyed the Roman world
The Roman Republic – based on the ideal of rule by the people – had been falling apart for years, but finally ground to an end in 43 BC. Within 15 years the Roman Empire, ruled by an emperor, came into being. Or did it? At the time, many pretended that the Roman Empire was the old Republic reinvented. What couldn’t be ignored though, was that one man, the ‘general’, held a lot more power than anyone else.
At first, believe it or not, no such thing as a Roman emperor officially existed. A Roman emperor actually called himself imperator, which means ‘general’. Only later did the title ‘general’, commander of the Roman army, come to mean what we mean by the word ‘emperor’ – that is, a supreme ruler like a monarch.
During the Republic, different men of high rank did various jobs: consul, quaestor, praetor, tribune, censor, and so on (see Chapter 3 for descriptions of these positions). The same set-up carried on into the Roman Empire – but with a difference, the ‘general’ now held more and more of the jobs.
This chapter follows explains how the Republic collapsed and how one man, Octavian (known as Augustus), refashioned the rule of the Republic in such a way that he held absolute power.
Civil War
The seeds of the Civil War were sown with the creation of the First Triumvirate. Three men – Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar – backed by their own armies, individually forced the Senate to do what they wanted (refer to Chapter 14). Their personal struggle for power became the most important force in the Roman world.
Crassus, the third member of the Triumvirate, was dead by 53 BC, and Caesar and Pompey were left in opposition to one another. Caesar and Pompey weren’t enemies (yet), but they were rivals. By the late 50s BC, both men had imperium: the authority to command an army. The crucial issue of the day was whether Caesar or Pompey, or both, could be made to give up their commands. No-one, not Caesar or Pompey or their supporters, was prepared to back down.
Deadly deals
The crunch came in 50 BC when the consul Gaius Marcellus demanded Caesar’s recall from Gaul. A bankrupt tribune called Scribonius Curio, whose support Caesar had bought at vast expense, vetoed Caesar’s recall. Marcellus begged Pompey to save the Republic by using his army to bring pressure on Caesar to give up his command. Caesar offered a compromise: that both he and Pompey would give up their commands. The Senate rejected Caesar’s offer because they thought Pompey needed his army to bring Caesar to heel. The Senate appointed new governors to the Gallic provinces. The Tribune Mark Antony tried to veto the new appointments but was threatened with his life and had to flee.
Even Cicero, who opposed the Triumvirate and was Caesar’s enemy (refer to Chapter 14), tried to negotiate a deal, in which Caesar would go to Illyricum and Pompey to Spain. But the deal fell apart when the Senate granted Pompey the Senatus Consultum Ultimum, which gave Pompey the power to declare Caesar an enemy of the state and then get rid of him.
Crossing the Rubicon (50 BC)
The Rubicon is a river (now the Rigone) on the border between the Gallic provinces and Umbria in northern Italy. Caesar had been presented by the Senate with the option of giving himself up as an enemy of the state or of being taken by his enemies in Gaul. Caesar spent hours thinking about it and decided that he had nothing to lose. If he gave himself up to the Senate, he would have to stand trial in Rome and be condemned by a regime that had become corrupt.
.jpg)
Nowadays, the phrase ‘crossing the Rubicon’ is used to mean there’s no going back, whatever the situation.
Cutting off Pompey at the head (48 BC)
If Caesar had had his own way, he would have preferred to negotiate power sharing with Pompey. Pompey, who tended to be indecisive, gave in to his advisors and turned down Caesar’s offer of a compromise. Pompey made a bad decision amounting to a declaration of war, but Pompey’s army wasn’t anywhere ready. Caesar, however, was more than ready for war and hurtled down through Italy in barely two months. Pompey fell back with his soldiers, got away to the port of Brundisium (Brindisi), and shipped his army across the Adriatic to the safety of Greece.
Caesar takes Rome
Caesar had time on his side. Having planned his attack, he then seized Rome. Most of the senators had fled out of blind terror, but thanks to Caesar’s rigid discipline over his troops, no looting, destruction, or murdering of opponents took place. Caesar kept his reputation for fair play intact. Caesar’s other goodwill gestures included cancelling debts, bringing Italians into the Senate, and allowing back to Rome men who had been exiled by Sulla and Pompey. Caesar even recruited Pompey’s soldiers who had been left behind in Rome.
African setback
Caesar’s first setback came in Africa. A rebellion by the governor Attius Varus, a supporter of Pompey, was met by an army sent out by Caesar under the command of the ex-tribune Scribonius Curio. Curio had no serious military experience, and even worse, a large part of the army he’d been given was made up of Pompey’s former soldiers. Curio was totally defeated. Caesar himself went to Pompey’s province of Spain to fight Pompey’s two deputies and defeated them in little over a month.
Pompey’s plan
Meanwhile Pompey was busying himself building up a colossal army in Greece. He took Roman soldiers from frontier garrisons and ended up with a force that vastly outnumbered Caesar’s. Pompey’s plan was to reinvade Italy, but like most military schemes, it didn’t work out. Caesar took his army over the Adriatic to Greece in 48 BC. The campaign started out badly for Caesar when he had to abandon the siege of Pompey’s Adriatic base at Dyrrachium.
The Battle of Pharsalus 48 BC
Pompey could have invaded Italy without any trouble but decided instead that his real target was Caesar and chased him into Greece. Urged on by the Optimates (refer to Chapter 14) to end the conflict as fast as possible, Pompey drew up battle lines at Pharsalus in the heart of northern Greece. Caesar had 22,000 men, but Pompey had nearly 40,000.
Pharsalus was a disaster for Pompey. Caesar’s infantry stood firm against Pompey’s cavalry and stopped them in their tracks. Next, Caesar threw in his reserves and overwhelmed Pompey’s army. Pompey fled to Egypt, and Caesar captured most of his army, having told his troops to ‘spare your fellow citizens’. True to his honourable reputation, Caesar burned Pompey’s papers without reading them.
The death of Pompey
Pompey’s end was ignominious. He might have preferred the honourable option of suicide. He was murdered in Egypt by Pothinus and Achillas, two members of the Egyptian court of the pro-Caesar boy-King Ptolemy XIII. Caesar turned up in Egypt in hot pursuit of Pompey and was proudly shown Pompey’s severed head. Ptolemy rather hoped that Caesar would support him in the dispute with his sister Cleopatra VII. He was wrong.
Caesar gets a girlfriend
Caesar was disgusted at Pompey’s humiliating end and had Pothinus executed. Caesar placed Cleopatra VII on the Egyptian throne by giving the crown to her other brother Ptolemy XIV, whom she married (brother-sister marriages were normal for Egyptian rulers). Cleopatra was known to be intelligent, politically astute, and manipulative. But Caesar’s action involved him in an Egyptian civil war. Fortunately for Caesar, Ptolemy was killed in an attempt to attack the tiny Roman force Caesar had brought with him. For good measure Cleopatra became Caesar’s mistress and had a son by him.
Wiping out the remaining opposition
In 46 BC Caesar defeated an army loyal to Pompey in Africa, the campaign ending in the bloody Battle of Thapsus. After the battle, one of Caesar’s most die-hard enemies, Marcus Porcius Cato, who had been in charge of the garrison at Utica in Africa, committed suicide.
Marcus Porcius Cato
Marcus Porcius Cato (95–46 BC) was a direct descendant of Cato, the renowned veteran of the Second Punic War and champion of traditional Roman virtues, who a century before had insisted that Carthage must be destroyed (refer to Chapter 4 for information on Cato’s works and Chapter 12 for details on the Second Punic War). Like his famous ancestor, Marcus Porcius Cato was a dedicated Stoic and was committed to personal integrity and intolerance of weaknesses in others. He was also a wholehearted supporter of the Optimates and their thinking (explained in Chapter 14) and therefore totally opposed Caesar.
Caesar: Leader of the Roman World
.jpg)
Caesar’s new order
Caesar’s reconstruction of the Republic was a model of restraint and foresight. He brought in practical solutions to restore stability in the Roman world, such as extending the Romanisation of the provinces by bringing provincials into the heart of the Roman system. Caesar’s reforms included:
Forgiving Pompey’s supporters, even Caesar’s arch-enemy Cicero, if they agreed to come over to Caesar.
More than halving the number of Romans who depended on the free corn dole in order to cut the numbers of idle troublemakers. Those who were disqualified were transported to colonies overseas.
Settling Caesar’s veterans in overseas colonies.
Setting up new colonies, such as Arles in France and Seville in Spain, and giving them Roman or Latin status.
Awarding Roman citizenship to worthy provincial individuals, and cities and soldiers Caesar had recruited overseas.
Admitting Italians, and even some Gauls, to the Senate, thus broadening the Senate’s understanding of issues outside Rome.
Improving road links to the port at Ostia.
Giving Latin status to Transpadane Gaul.
Cutting taxes and reforming collection in some provinces.
Caesar raised vast sums of money by taking land off supporters of Pompey who hadn’t surrendered quickly enough, fining provincial cities that had supported Pompey, and selling privileges to eastern cities and kingdoms. The income allowed Caesar to provide handouts for his soldiers, put in place a programme of public building, and fund free public entertainments.
Hey, we didn’t want a king! (44 BC)
Caesar was widely admired – not surprising really – for his reforms. Caesar had done more than anyone else to bring stability to the Roman world. The Senate believed Caesar was still going to operate within the Republican system.
But Caesar had other ideas, and with the army behind him, he could do as he pleased. He took over the job of Consul several times and the powers of a tribune. Caesar’s actions went down badly with traditionalists, who thought he was trampling on the Republican system. Caesar’s biggest mistake was to remind Romans of the city’s ancient past. He packed the Senate with his own men and, because of this, did more or less whatever he wanted, saying his word was law.
The Julian calendar
One of Caesar’s most enduring reforms was the calendar, which was named after him. The Julian calendar is still the basis of the one used today. The Roman year lasted 355 days with an odd month inserted after February to make it fit the sun’s year. However, thanks to various extra days put in by priests, the whole thing became hopelessly unworkable. Caesar’s solution was to make the year 365 days long and add an extra day every fourth year. His new calendar, which included a month named after him (July), lasted for centuries, until it was found that the calendar didn’t quite match the earth’s orbit round the sun. By 1582, the Julian calendar was ten days out. The new calendar devised by Pope Gregory XIII modified Caesar’s leap year allowances to correct the error but wasn’t introduced in Britain until 1752. It’s the one we use now.
But Caesar let his achievements go to his head. He allowed a statue of himself to be carried with those of gods at the beginning of games and another statue of himself to be placed with those of the kings, and he issued coins with his portrait on them. Even his reform of the calendar only made some men resent his power more. In 44 BC, Caesar was made Dictator Perpetuus (Dictator for Life), and to make sure everyone knew this, he accepted the offer of a gilt throne in the Senate house, a triumphal robe, and laurel crown. When he was once hailed as King he said, ‘I am Caesar and not King’, but the mud stuck.
Caesar’s talents and weaknesses
Caesar had an exceptional reputation for energy, vigour, and multitasking. He could read and write, or listen and dictate, at the same time. It was said that Caesar was able to dictate four letters at once if they were important, and seven if they weren’t. He had reputedly fought 50 battles, a record, but was considered the most merciful of men – though it’s unlikely the Gauls would have agreed with that. Apart from vanity and a weakness for women, Caesar also suffered from epilepsy. He had a fit during the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC. Several Roman historians refer to his condition, which probably got worse in later life.
The fatal blow (44 BC)
Most of the Roman population only wanted stability and leadership; they probably didn’t care how Caesar went about it. Caesar’s reforms were practical solutions to years of chaos. But many senators were angry and didn’t want change – they wanted the Republic restored to the original way of working. Cicero called Caesar a tyrant, and the idea spread rapidly. Caesar was now so convinced of his invincibility that he felt he had no need of a bodyguard. He was planning a war against Parthia, and his supporters even put it about that there was a prophecy that only a Roman king could defeat Parthia.
In Rome, on the Ides of March 44 BC (15 March), Caesar arrived at a Senate meeting at a hall just next door to the great stone theatre built by Pompey – a classic twist of fate. The conspirators pounced on Caesar and stabbed him 23 times.
Omens of Caesar’s death
The Romans loved the idea of bad and good omens and especially liked to watch out for clues that bad things were coming. Caesar is said to have sacrificed an animal that turned out to have no heart, but much more ominously a soothsayer warned that some great danger would come to him not later than the Ides of March. The night before the Ides of March, Caesar had a dream he was in heaven, and on the morning of 15 March, he hesitated to go out. But he did and was even handed a note warning him of an impending disaster. Caesar didn’t read the note and was brutally assassinated. Just after Caesar’s death, Caesar’s great-nephew, the emperor Augustus, saw a comet during the games he was holding to honour Venus. Augustus later built a temple in the comet’s honour.
A hideous mistake and the rise of Mark Antony
Caesar’s murderers thought that they had liberated the people from a tyrant and would be welcomed as the saviours of the Republic. The murderers made the mistake of assuming that the clock could be turned back and the Republic could once again operate in the way it was set up back in 509 BC. They thought wrong. Brutus planned to give a speech justifying Caesar’s assassination, but the senators had all cleared off. Instead of cheering crowds, the conspirators found the Forum deserted. The conspirators marched through the streets brandishing their weapons and, protected by a band of gladiators, hid out on the Capitol.
Caesar’s colleague in the consulship, Mark Antony, took charge, much to Cicero’s regret (Cicero thought Antony should have been killed, too). Cicero hated the way Caesar had been behaving and was utterly delighted at the news of the assassination, but thought it was a wasted opportunity because Antony took over instead.
To please those who had supported Caesar, Antony persuaded the Senate to pass any outstanding legislation of Caesar’s and to approve an amnesty for the conspirators, suggested by Cicero. Antony also asked the Senate to vote for a public funeral for Caesar.
Caesar’s funeral turned into a public frenzy. The crowd went crazy at the sight of Caesar’s body and ransacked the Forum for anything that could be set alight. The crowd then lynched someone they thought was a conspirator (an act of mistaken identity), and some of the crowd raced to where Brutus and Cassius lived and tried to kill them. Brutus and Cassius fled Rome.
Et tu Brute?
The story goes that Caesar said Et tu Brute? (‘And you, Brutus?) when faced with his murderers. The original source of the story is in Suetonius’s Life of Julius Caesar. Caesar spoke in Greek, using the words Kai su teknon, which means ‘You also, my child?’ William Shakespeare changed the phrase to Et tu Brute for his play Julius Caesar (Act III, Scene I).
But whether you hear the words in Latin or Greek, the meaning is the same: Brutus was Caesar’s old friend, but now one of his assassins. So what exactly was the relationship between Caesar and Brutus? When Pompey’s troops, including Brutus, were defeated at Pharsalus, Caesar ordered his troops not to kill Brutus because of Caesar’s fondness for Brutus’s mother Servilia, with whom he had had an affair. Caesar was uneasy about where Brutus’s loyalties lay, but he made him a friend and supported his career, making Brutus Praetor in 44 BC.
And what of Brutus’s character? Was he the idealistic Republican of literature? Well, yes, but he was also ruthless. Case in point: Brutus got himself a special exemption from a cap on interest rates and then lent money at a ruinous 48 per cent to the people of Salamis. Brutus enforced repayments by murdering city councillors.
Picking Caesar’s heir: Mark Antony or Octavian?
Mark Antony managed to stabilise a potentially disastrous situation after Caesar’s murder. He deliberately allowed the conspirators to escape, found land for Caesar’s veterans to keep them away from Rome, and arranged for the abolition of the dictatorship. Antony made Brutus and Cassius Governors of provinces. Brutus and Cassius took exception to this treatment, but Antony threatened them and they fled to the East. However, Brutus and Cassius were awarded maius imperium (an enhanced form of the military command, imperium) by the Senate, giving them power over provincial governors. Brutus and Cassius helped themselves to all the resources Caesar had put in place for his campaign in Parthia, imposed ruthless taxation, and set about building themselves an army.
Not everything was going Antony’s way. In Rome, the Senate objected to the way Antony was spending money and selling privileges and immunities using forged documents, which he claimed were Caesar’s. And Caesar’s great-nephew, Gaius Octavius – and not Antony – was named as Caesar’s heir.
Octavian’s relationship to Julius Caesar is complicated but important. Julius Caesar’s sister Julia married Marcus Atius Balbus, a relative of Pompey’s. Julia and Marcus’s daughter Atia married Gaius Octavius, who died in 58 BC. Atia and Octavius had a son born in 63 BC, who was Caesar’s great-nephew: Gaius Octavius with the addition of the name Thurinus to commemorate Thurii where his family had come from. Gaius Octavius Thurinus became known as Octavianus, and we call him Octavian.
Caesar named Octavian as his heir in his will and Octavian was adopted as Caesar’s son. (Caesar had a son of his own by Cleopatra, called Caesarion. When Caesar died, Caesarion, who Octavian was to deal with later, was still alive in Egypt with Cleopatra.) The 18-year-old Octavian was in Epirus (north-west Greece) on military training when he heard he was Caesar’s heir, and promptly came to Rome to claim his inheritance.
Octavian and the End of the Republic (44–43 BC)
Octavian arrived in Rome and changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, knowing this was the best way to win over Caesar’s troops. Octavian was annoyed to discover that Mark Antony had been merrily spending Caesar’s private fortune, as well as any public funds he had been able to get his hands on. Octavian now had to raise the money that Caesar had left as a bequest to his troops. Octavian and Antony were instantly locked in a deadly feud.
The tense situation was made worse when Cicero interfered by issuing the First and Second Philippics, (a Philippic was a bitter critique, and comes from the Greek orator Demosthenes’s criticisms of Philip II of Macedon in the fourth century BC). Cicero slated Antony for being an opportunist who had all Caesar’s criminal ambitions, but none of Caesar’s skills and restraint. Cicero praised Antony for getting rid of the dictatorship, but cursed Antony for turning government into ‘monstrous marketing’, and for protecting himself with a band of thugs against honest men.
Meanwhile, Antony had himself made governor in Gaul and planned to move troops from Macedonia into Gaul. Antony accused Octavian of plotting to assassinate him, which led Octavian to call on Caesar’s old troops to come and join him.
Back in Rome, in 43 BC, Cicero continued to stir things up by unveiling his plans to undo Antony’s legislation, just when Antony was planning to attack Brutus at Mutina in northern Italy. Antony offered not to go to war if his laws were left alone, but Antony’s offer was rejected, and the Senate declared him a public enemy.
By now Octavian was approaching with his army, so Antony pulled back and joined forces with the governors of Gaul and Spain.
Octavian fell out with the Senate, who wanted him to become an ally of Brutus. The last thing Octavian was ever going to do was work with the murderers of Caesar. The Senate punished Octavian by holding back money for the troops. Octavian’s answer was to march into Rome, have himself elected Consul, and cancel the amnesty for Caesar’s killers.
Brutus and Cassius had their own armies so civil war was inevitable. Ever practical, Octavian could see that feuding with Antony wasn’t going to help. Octavian saw that the time had come to strike a deal with Antony.
The second Gang of Three: The Second Triumvirate (43 BC)
Blood, guts, and gods
The Second Triumvirate was bathed in blood from the start. Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus drew up a list of 300 senators and 2,000 equestrians who had been supporters of Caesar’s assassination and, apart from a few lucky ones, massacred them. The Triumvirate’s action wasn’t just about fear of their opponents. Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus had 43 legions between them, and by confiscating the estates of the massacred senators and equestrians they could pay the troops. The money wasn’t enough though, and the Triumvirate had to impose heavy taxes as well.
Cicero’s Second Philippic to Antony was Cicero writing his own death warrant. Octavian spent two days trying to persuade Antony to let Cicero live, but Antony refused to listen. Cicero toyed with the idea of escaping to Greece, but decided to accept his fate. Cicero was caught in his villa and murdered. His head and hands were carried to Rome and Antony displayed them in the Forum, declaring the punishment of Caesar’s supporters had now ended.
Octavian upstaged Antony and Lepidus by proclaiming his close relationship to the great god, Caesar. In 42 BC Julius Caesar had been created a god and a temple was built in his honour. As Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian was able to bask in Caesar’s fame – without any danger of being accused of thinking he, Octavian, was a god.
The Battle of Philippi
Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus split the Roman Empire between them. Octavian had Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa; Lepidus had Spain and part of Gaul; and Antony the rest of Gaul. All three shared Italy, and Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus joined together with the common purpose of recovering the East from Brutus and Cassius.
In 42 BC Antony and Octavian left Lepidus in charge of Italy and set out for Greece, determined to wipe out Brutus and Cassius. At the Battle of Philippi, Antony took command because Octavian wasn’t much of a general. In the first engagement Antony overcame Cassius’s troops and Cassius committed suicide. In the second engagement, three weeks later, Brutus also took his own life after being defeated by Antony.
The bust up starts
The Second Triumvirate was made up of three ambitious men so they were bound to fall out. Antony was the main player in the Triumvirate because he had done all the fighting at Philippi. Antony and Octavian packed Lepidus (whom they had previously left in charge of Italy) off to Africa, accused him of disloyalty, and helped themselves to his provinces. Octavian was left to take care of Italy while Antony headed east to build himself an empire. Octavian planned to settle his own veterans on lands he had confiscated in Italy. But Octavian’s plans were frustrated by Antony’s family, who promised the people whose lands Octavian had taken that Antony would soon be back to restore the Republic.
Antony returned to Italy in 40 BC. Refused entry by Octavian’s forces, he blockaded the port of Brundisium in retaliation. War almost broke out, but realising this wouldn’t help anyone, the three triumvirs decided to join forces once again. Octavian suppressed revolts in Gaul and even settled some of his soldiers there. In 38 BC Antony helped Octavian defeat Pompey’s son Sextus, who was leading a rebellion in Sicily. The Second Triumvirate was renewed for another five years, and then Octavian showed his true colours and had Lepidus driven out from the Triumvirate. Octavian followed this up by fighting his way into the East down through Illyricum.
As you can imagine, with Octavian and Antony left fighting for power the situation just got worse and worse.
Antony and Cleopatra
Antony’s big problem was recovering Rome’s eastern possessions. The Parthians had invaded Syria and most of Asia Minor. Although they were driven back, Antony also wanted to carry out the invasion of Parthia that Caesar had been planning just before his murder.
Antony met Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, while preparing to invade Parthia (refer to the section ‘Caesar gets a girlfriend’, earlier in the chapter). Antony demanded Cleopatra’s presence to explain why she had supported Cassius. Cleopatra arrived on a magnificent boat, dressed as Venus, and Antony was completely bowled over. Cleopatra had charm, intelligence, could speak numerous languages, and, of course, had plenty of sex appeal.
To complicate matters Antony had married Octavia, Octavian’s sister, in 40 BC, as a way of settling the differences between Octavian and himself. The idea for the marriage came from Octavia herself. But Antony left Octavia and their children behind when he went back to the East. Antony met up with Cleopatra in Syria in 37 BC – Antony couldn’t resist Cleopatra; they fell deeply in love and had children together.
Antony went on to recover most of Rome’s eastern territories, but when Antony invaded Parthia in 36 BC he was trapped and had to beat a hasty retreat, losing 22,000 soldiers, although he was left with most of his army. With his forces depleted and his money disappearing, Antony became totally dependent on Cleopatra’s resources. In 35 BC, Antony divorced Octavia, which meant that he had cut himself off from Octavian as well.
Throwing down the gauntlet
In 34 BC, Antony held a triumph in Alexandria where he declared Caesarion, Cleopatra’s son by Caesar, to be the true heir of Julius Caesar. Sometime around 33 BC Antony had agreed to marry Cleopatra. Antony’s action was a blatant insult to Octavia, whom he did not divorce until the next year. Antony set about expanding Cleopatra’s kingdom by unilaterally dividing up Roman and other territory in the East amongst Cleopatra’s children, which threatened the strength of the Roman Empire.
In 32 BC, Antony and Cleopatra issued a coin with Antony’s portrait on one side and Cleopatra’s on the other. Cleopatra’s legend read ‘Queen of Kings, and of her sons who are Kings’, a clear statement of Antony and Cleopatra’s ambitions, and a direct challenge to Octavian.
The Battle of Actium (31 BC)
The Second Triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Octavian instantly abandoned his title and powers, and drove out the consuls and 300 senators who had planned to condemn him. The consuls and senators left to join Antony, but a rumour blew up that Antony was planning to make Cleopatra queen of Rome, and rule the Roman Empire from Egypt.
Octavian’s next step was to publish Antony’s will (there was no proof that it was genuine), which reaffirmed Cleopatra’s son Caesarion as Caesar’s true heir. Roman cities across the West promptly swore allegiance to Octavian, who took this as approval that he could go to war against Antony. In 31 BC Octavian was made Consul, and he got the Senate to declare war against Antony and Cleopatra, who were now in Greece.
Antony’s silver
Mark Antony issued vast numbers of silver coins in order to pay his troops. Each coin had a picture of a war galley on one side, and a legionary standard with a legion’s number on the other (coins were issued for each of Antony’s legions). To make Antony’s silver go further, the coins were debased with more copper than usual. The value of the coins was reduced, making the coins less useful for melting down or saving. Because the coins weren’t all that valuable, Antony’s coins were in circulation for hundreds of years after his death, and turned up all round the Roman Empire. Today, Antony’s coins are common and relatively cheap in the coin-collecting market.
Antony and Cleopatra defeated
Antony and Cleopatra were at Actium on the north-west coast of Greece with their fleet. Octavian’s admiral and friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, used the fleet to cut off Antony’s supplies. Octavian’s army wore Antony’s soldiers down. On 2 September 31 BC Antony tried to slip away with a force of 200 ships. Cleopatra escaped with 60 ships, and Antony followed her but with only a few more vessels. The rest of Antony’s fleet, and the remains of Antony’s army, quickly surrendered to Octavian.
Antony and Cleopatra made their way back to Egypt. But they knew the game was up and committed suicide.
The aftermath
Octavian spared Antony’s children by Cleopatra but had his own cousin Caesarion killed. Egypt now became a Roman province after being an independent state in the ancient world for 3,000 years, but a special one because it was Octavian’s personal property and was passed down to the emperors who succeeded him. As Octavian was now undisputed master of the Roman Empire, no-one was in a position to argue the toss.