Notes

1: Explorations in Plain Marxism

1.C. Wright Mills, The Marxists (New York: New York: Dell Publishing, 1962), 34, 35.

2.Ibid., 96.

3.Ibid., 99.

4.Charles Post, The American Road to Capitalism: Studies in Class Structure, Economic Development and Political Conflict, 1620–1877 (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2011), 40; David Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 18. Terminological differences aside, I consider each of these to be extremely valuable contributions to the understanding of US capitalism.

5.For Marx and Engels on US capitalism, including in relation to the Civil War, see Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Marx and Engels on the United States, Nelly Rumyantseva, ed. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1979); August H. Nimtz Jr., Marx, Tocqueville, and Race in America: The “Absolute Democracy” or “Defiled Republic” (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003); Robin Blackburn, An Unfinished Revolution: Karl Marx and Abraham Lincoln (London: Verso, 2011). On social composition of the International Workingmen’s Association and the Paris Commune, see E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (New York: New American Library, 1979), 184; Stewart Edwards, ed., The Communards of Paris, 1871 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1973), 28–29. On the nineteenth-century European working class, see Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002); Ira Katznelson and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986). On the political orientation of Marx and Engels, see David Riazanov, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: An Introduction to Their Lives and Work (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1973); August H. Nimtz Jr., Marx and Engels: Their Contribution to the Democratic Breakthrough (Albany: State University Press of New York, 2000).

6.For a history of the US working class written from this standpoint, see Paul Le Blanc, A Short History of the U.S. Working Class: From Colonial Times to the Twenty-First Century (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1999). For an application of Trotsky’s theory to European history, see Paul Le Blanc, “Uneven and Combined Development and the Sweep of History: Focus on Europe,” International Viewpoint, September 21, 2006, www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1125.

7.Kim Moody, Workers in a Lean World: Unions in the International Economy (London: Verso, 1997), 178. Also see Paul Mason, Live Working, Die Fighting: How the Working Class Went Global (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2010).

8.Hal Draper, Karl Marx’s Theory of Revolution, vol. 2, The Politics of Social Classes (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1978), 34–38; Nicos Poulantzas, “On Social Classes,” in The Poulantzas Reader: Marxism, Law, and the State, James Martin, ed. (London: Verso, 2008), 186–219; Erik Olin Wright, Class, Crisis and the State (London: Verso, 1979), 30–110. “Petty bourgeoisie” has traditionally meant small capitalists—owners of small businesses, independent artisans and professionals selling products and services, and independent small farmers. For some it has been common to include government employees, many or most “white collar” employees, etc. Sometimes it has also been conflated with the incredibly fuzzy term “middle class.”

9.Phil Gasper, ed., The Communist Manifesto: A Roadmap to History’s Most Important Political Document (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 39.

10.Francis G. Couvares, The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877–1919 (Albany: State University of New York, 1984). On the Paris Commune, see note 5 above.

11.This discussion draws substantially from my essay “Class and Identity,” in Immanuel Ness et al., eds., The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest, vol. 2 (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing/John Wiley and Sons, 2009), 776–83 (reproduced in the present volume). Weber’s theorizations that correspond to aspects of identity conceptualizations can be found in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 180–95.

12.This point is made in Roger Lancaster’s brilliant anthropological study, Life is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 282.

13.David Roediger, “The Crisis in Labor History: Race, Gender and the Replotting of the Working Class Past in the United States,” in Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London: Verso, 1994), 76. Also see Sharon Smith, “Black Feminism and Intersectionality,” International Socialist Review, 91 (Winter 2013): 6–24. This way of understanding the working class also owes much to Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 3–78; Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, Ira Berlin, ed. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), 380–94.

14.See Jorge Larrain, “Ideology” in Tom Bottomore et al., eds., A Dictionary of Marxist Thought, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1991), 242–52.

15.This draws from Paul Le Blanc, “Spider and Fly: The Leninist Philosophy of Georg Lukács,” Historical Materialism 21, no. 2 (2013): 47–75. More on class consciousness can be found in Paul Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, new edition (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2015), 22–24, 27–33, 38–42, 52–61.

16.Charles Post, “Exploring Working-Class Consciousness: A Critique of the Theory of the ‘Labour-Aristocracy,’” Historical Materialism 18, no. 4 (2010): 6, 25. See also the exposition in one of Post’s targets, Max Elbaum and Robert Seltzer, The Labour Aristocracy: The Material Basis for Opportunism in the Labour Movement (Chippendale, NSW, Australia: Resistance Books, 2004). A criticism similar to that expressed here can be found in Alan Shandro, Lenin and the Logic of Hegemony: Political Practice and Theory in the Class Struggle (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2014), 265.

17.This is drawn from Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, 32, 262.

18.Ibid., 262. On the “pure and simple” ideology and practice that became dominant in the American Federation of Labor, see Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 2, From the Founding of the American Federation of Labor to the Emergence of American Imperialism (New York: International Publishers, 1955); History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 3, The Policies and Practices of the American Federation of Labor, 1900–1909 (New York: International Publishers, 1964); History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 5, The AFL in the Progressive Era, 1910–1915 (New York: International Publishers, 1980). Also see Paul Le Blanc, Work and Struggle: Voices from U.S. Labor Radicalism (New York: Routledge, 2011).

19.V. I. Lenin, “What Is to Be Done?” (1902), in Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings, Paul Le Blanc, ed. (London: Pluto Press, 2008), 143.

20.Lenin, “The Revolutionary Proletariat and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination” (1915), in Le Blanc, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 233–34. For discussion of “cutting-edge” aspects of Lenin’s approach, also see Shandro (cited in note 17 above); Kevin Anderson, Lenin, Hegel, and Western Marxism: A Critical Study (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995).

3: Radical Labor Subculture

1.My thanks to Michael Yates and Anthony Arnove for helpful feedback on earlier drafts of this paper. The paper was first presented at Historical Materialism conference, New York City, January 14–16, 2010. The present essay draws substantially from Paul Le Blanc, “Culture, Consciousness, and Class Struggle: Further Notes on the Relevance of Leninism,” Bulletin in Defense of Marxism, no. 115, April 1994. Aspects of the analysis can also be found in Paul Le Blanc, “A Comment on Mary Scully’s Polemic,” Bulletin in Defense of Marxism, no. 113, February 1994; Paul Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1993), 354–60; Paul Le Blanc, “Notes on Building a Revolutionary Party in the United States,” Bulletin in Defense of Marxism, no. 107, June 1993, and no. 109, July–August 1993; Paul Le Blanc, “Leninism in the United States and the Decline of the Socialist Workers Party,” in George Breitman, Paul Le Blanc, and Alan Wald, Trotskyism in the United States: Historical Essays and Reconsiderations, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), 195–279; Paul Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience: Studies of Communism and Radicalism in the Age of Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2006), 148–51; Paul Le Blanc, “Introduction: Ten Reasons for Not Reading Lenin,” in V. I. Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings, Paul Le Blanc, ed. (London: Pluto Press, 2008), 62–65.

2.Raymond Williams, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 87–93.

3.Clyde Kluckhohn and W. H. Kelly, “The Concept of Culture” (1945), cited in A. L. Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (New York: Vintage Books, n.d.), 82, 83, 84, 112, 141.

4.Eleanor Leacock, “Marxism and Anthropology,” in Bertell Ollman and Edward Vernoff, eds., The Left Academy: Marxist Scholarship on American Campuses (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992), 267–68.

5.V. I. Lenin, “Critical Remarks on the National Question,” in Collected Works, vol. 20 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972), 23–24.

6.Leon Trotsky, Problems of Everyday Life, and Other Writings on Culture and Science (New York: Monad/Pathfinder Press, 1973), 19; Phil Gasper, ed., The Communist Manifesto: A Roadmap to History’s Most Important Political Document (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 58–59.

7.Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Works, vol. 1 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1973), 398.

8.E. P. Thompson, Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture (New York: The New Press, 1993), 12, 13, 16; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 9–10, 11.

9.Herbert Gutman, Work, Culture and Society in Industrializing America (New York: Vintage Books, 1977), 15, 18; Herbert Gutman, Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, Ira Berlin, ed. (New York: Pantheon Books, 1987), 381.

10.Eleanor Marx and Edward Aveling, The Working-Class Movement in America, Paul Le Blanc, ed. (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2000), 70–72, 76, 77, 78, 79, 143, 146, 151.

11.Quoted in Le Blanc, A Short History of the U.S. Working Class, 48.

12.V. I. Lenin, “Draft and Explanation for the Social Democratic Party” (1895), cited in Le Blanc, Lenin and the Revolutionary Party, 26.

13.There are ample materials demonstrating the historical phenomenon of this labor-radical subculture in the United States; for example, Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, 10 vols. (New York: International Publishers, 1947–94); Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, and Dan Georgakas, eds., Encyclopedia of the American Left, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); Nicholas Coles and Janet Zandy, eds., American Working-Class Literature: An Anthology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Laura Hapke, Labor’s Text: The Worker in American Fiction (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001); Edith Fowke and Joe Glazer, eds., Songs of Work and Freedom (New York: Dover, 1973); David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans, 1862–1872 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967); Franklin Rosemont and David Roediger, eds., The Haymarket Scrapbook (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1986); Joyce Kornbluh, ed., Rebel Voices: An IWW Anthology, rev. ed. (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr, 1988); John Graham, ed., “Yours for the Revolution”: The Appeal to Reason, 1895–1922 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1990); Oscar Ameringer, If You Don’t Weaken (New York: Henry Holt, 1940); James Weinstein, The Decline of Socialism in America, 1912–1925 (New York: Vintage Books, 1969); Bryan D. Palmer, James P. Cannon and the Origins of the American Revolutionary Left, 1890–1928 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2007); Michael Denning, The Cultural Front (London: Verso, 1998).

14.On the struggles of the decade (which actually spilled over into the first half of the following decade), see Art Preis, Labor’s Giant Step: Twenty Years of the CIO (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972), 3–283; these struggles are connected to the labor-radical subculture in Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience, 153–98.

15.On the labor-radical subculture of the German working class, see Evelyn Anderson, Hammer or Anvil: The Story of the German Working-Class Movement (Alameda, CA: Center for Socialist History, 2007); Vernon L. Lidtke, The Alternative Culture: Socialist Labor in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Eric D. Weitz, Creating German Communism, 1890–1990 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997). Also see Pierre Broué, The German Revolution, 1917–1923 (Leiden, The Netherlands/Boston, MA: Brill, 2005), 14–16, 627–46.

16.Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, eds. (New York: International Publishers, 1973), 16, 199, 204–5, 232–33, 340.

17.Leon Trotsky, “The United Front for Defense” (February 23, 1933), in Leon Trotsky, The Struggle against Fascism in Germany, George Breitman and Merry Maisel, eds. (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1971), 367.

18.Antonio Gramsci, “On Fascism 1921” and “Democracy and Fascism,” in David Beetham, ed., Marxists in the Face of Fascism (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1983), 83, 84, 85, 121.

19.Frank Lovell, “The Socialist Purpose: To Educate the Working Class,” in Paul Le Blanc and Thomas Barrett, eds., Revolutionary Labor Socialist: The Life, Ideas, and Comrades of Frank Lovell (Union City, NJ: Smyrna Press, 2000), 133; Ernest Mandel, The Meaning of the Second World War (London: Verso, 1986), 45, 159–68, 169.

20.Frank Lovell, “The Cataclysm: World War II and the History of American Trotskyism,” in Le Blanc and Barrett, Revolutionary Labor Socialist, 135; Michael D. Yates, In and Out of the Working Class (Winnipeg, MB: Arbeiter Ring Publishing, 2009), 45.

21.Steve Nelson, with James R. Barrett and Robert Ruck, Steve Nelson, American Radical (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 284–85.

22.A variety of informative and stimulating works provide information and insights on what is described here: Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2003); Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Post-War America (New York: Vintage, 2003); Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream: Politics and Economy in the History of the U.S. Working Class, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000); David M. Gordon, Richard Edwards, and Michael Reich, Segmented Work, Divided Workers: The Historical Transformation of Labor in the United States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1882); George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Kim Moody, An Injury to All: The Decline of American Unionism (London: Verso, 1988).

23.James P. Cannon, “Trade Unionists and Revolutionists,” in Speeches to the Party (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1973), 57, 58.

24.John C. Leggett, Race, Class and Political Consciousness: Working-Class Consciousness in Detroit (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), 52, 53.

25.Stanley Aronowitz, False Promises: The Shaping of American Working-Class Consciousness, rev. ed. (Durham: Duke University Press, 1992), 95; James Boggs, American Revolution: Pages from a Negro Worker’s Notebook (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1963), 15, 16.

26.Sol Chick Chaikin, A Labor Viewpoint: Another Opinion (Monroe, NY: Library Research Associates, 1980), 220; Archie Robinson, George Meany and His Times: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), 294.

27.V. I. Lenin, Left-Wing Communism, an Infantile Disorder, in Lenin, Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 306.

28.Warren R. Van Tine, The Making of the Labor Bureaucrat: Union Leadership in the United States, 1870–1920 (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1973), 33, 56.

29.The triumphant, several decades-long campaign is beautifully described and documented in Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009). Its impact is capably analyzed in Patricia Cayo Sexton, The War on Labor and the Left: Understanding America’s Unique Conservatism (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991).

30.Kim Moody, U.S. Labor in Trouble and Transition: The Failure of Reform from Above, the Promise of Revival from Below (London: Verso, 2007), 11.

31.Ibid., 246–47; Michael D. Yates, Why Unions Matter, 2nd ed. (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2009), 205; Dan Clawson, The Next Upsurge: Labor and the New Social Movements (Ithaca, NY: ILR/Cornell University Press, 2003), 196; Bill Fletcher Jr. and Fernando Gapasin, Solidarity Divided: The Crisis in Organized Labor and a New Path Toward Social Justice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 198.

5: Democracy

1.See The People Speak, directed by Anthony Arnove, Chris Moore, and Howard Zinn (2009; New York: A&E Home Video, 2010); Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: HarperCollins, 2004).

2.C. L. R. James (with Raya Dunayevskaya and Grace Lee Boggs), “The Invading Socialist Society,” in Noel Ignatiev, ed., A New Notion: Two Works by C. L. R. James (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2010), 28. Also see David Forgacs, ed. An Antonio Gramsci Reader (New York: Schocken Books, 1988); Gregor Benton, ed., Chen Duxiu’s Last Articles and Letters, 1937–1942 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Michael Pearlman, ed., The Heroic and Creative Meaning of Socialism: Selected Essays of José Carlos Mariátegui (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1996).

3.James P. Cannon, “Socialism and Democracy,” in Speeches for Socialism (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1971), 356, 361. Also see Jean Tussey, ed., Eugene V. Debs Speaks (New York: Pathfinder Press, 197) and Paul Le Blanc, From Marx to Gramsci: A Reader in Revolutionary Marxist Politics (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 1996).

4.The controversial conception of bourgeois revolution is discussed and defended intelligently in Colin Mooers, The Making of Bourgeois Europe (London: Verso, 1991) and Henry Heller, The Bourgeois Revolution in France, 1789–1815 (New York: Berghahan Books, 2006).

5.See Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Vintage Books, 1998).

6.I had to look up the definitions of some of Morris’s words. Vernal means “springtime,” and “casting off one’s winter slough” is what snakes and other reptiles do—shedding their dead skin. For the quotes, see Gary B. Nash, The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America (New York: Penguin Books, 2005), 100, 203, 206, 278–79, 367; Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy, Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), 32.

7.Knox quoted in Diego Rivera and Bertram D. Wolfe, Portrait of America (New York: Covici Friede, 1934), 104; Wilentz, 27–28. Also see Edward Countryman, The American Revolution, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003).

8.M. I. Finley, Democracy Ancient and Modern, rev. ed. (Rutgers, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1985), 13; Ellen Meiksins Wood, “Demos Versus ‘We the People’: Freedom and Democracy Ancient and Modern,” in Dēmokratia: A Conversation on Democracies, Ancient and Modern, Josiah Ober and Charles Hedrick, eds. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 122–23, 132; Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, Clinton Rossiter, ed. (New York: New American Library, 1961), 214, 215.

9.Federalist Papers, 79, 81, 322–25.

10.Dietrich Rueschemeyer, Evelyne Huber Stephens, and John D. Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 40, 44, 122–32.

11.Ibid., 141, 140. Also see Göran Therborn, “The Rule of Capital and the Rise of Democracy,” New Left Review 103 (1977): 3–41; and Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

12.August H. Nimtz Jr., Marx and Engels: Their Contribution to the Democratic Breakthrough (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2000), vii; also see my review of the book, “Marx and Engels: Democratic Revolutionaries,” International Viewpoint, September 2002, www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article381.

13.Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The Communist Manifesto: A Road Map to History’s Most Important Documents, Phil Gasper, ed. (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 42–43, 53, 56, 59, 69. On “true democracy” being the same as communism, see Richard N. Hunt, The Political Ideas of Marx and Engels, vol. 1 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1974), 74–75; Michael Löwy, The Theory of Revolution in the Young Marx (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2005), 41–43.

14.Karl Marx, “The Civil War in France,” in The First International and After: Political Writings, vol. 3, David Fernbach, ed. (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1974), 210; Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Selected Correspondence, rev. ed, S. Ryzanskaya, ed. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 452.

15.“Practical Politics,” Alarm, October 11, 1884, 1 (microfilm).

16.Albert Einstein, “Why Socialism?,” Monthly Review, May 1949, www.monthlyreview.org/598einstein.php.

17.Sheldon Wolin, “Transgression, Equality, and Voice,” in Dēmokratia, Ober and Hedrick, eds., 87.

18.Paul Goodman, “Getting Into Power,” in Seeds of Liberation, Paul Goodman, ed. (New York: George Braziller, 1964), 433.

19.On the profoundly democratic nature of the 1917 revolution, and on the horrors of its aftermath see Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); William Henry Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, 1917–1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987). On the faulty theoretical justifications, see Hal Draper, The “Dictatorship of the Proletariat” from Marx to Lenin (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987). On the Stalinist dictatorship, see Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1937); Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).

20.V. I. Lenin, “The Revolutionary Proletariat and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination,” in Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings, Paul Le Blanc, ed. (London: Pluto Press, 2006), 233–34.

21.Trotsky, “The United Front for Defense,” 367–68.

6: Making Sense of Postrevolutionary Russia

1.Kunal Chattopadhyay, The Marxism of Leon Trotsky (Kolkata: Progress Publishers, 2006).

2.See Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky (London: Verso, 2015); Pierre Broué, Trotsky (Paris: Fayard, 1988); Tony Cliff, Trotsky, 4 vols. (London: Bookmarks, 1989–94).

3.See Ernest Mandel, Trotsky as Alternative (London: Verso, 1995); Michael Löwy, The Politics of Combined and Uneven Development: Trotsky’s Theory of Permanent Revolution (London: Verso, 1981); Duncan Hallas, Trotsky’s Marxism and Other Essays (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2003); and John Molyneux, Leon Trotsky’s Theory of Revolution (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1981).

4.Baruch Knei-Paz, The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978).

5.Chattopadhyay, The Marxism of Leon Trotsky, 359.

6.Ibid., 398.

7.Ibid., 537.

8.Ibid., 515.

9.Ibid., 436.

10.Ibid., 440.

11.Ibid., 447.

12.For an impressive challenge to the gist of Trotsky’s 1904 criticism of Lenin and thus of Chattopadhyay’s characterization, see Lars Lih’s splendid Lenin Rediscovered (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2008).

13.Chattopadhyay, The Marxism of Leon Trotsky, 220.

14.Marcel van der Linden, Western Marxism and the Soviet Union (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2009). Hereafter, page numbers for this book are cited in parentheses.

15.Lenin, “The Party Crisis,” in Revolution, Democracy, Socialism, 336.

7: The Darker the Night the Brighter the Star

1.Tony Cliff, Trotsky: The Darker the Night the Brighter the Star 1927–1940, vol. 4 (London: Bookmarks, 1993). A more succinct account is offered in Paul Le Blanc, Leon Trotsky (London: Reaktion Books, 2015), from which some elements in this presentation are drawn. Also see an intimately knowledgeable account in Victor Serge and Natalia Sedova, The Life and Death of Leon Trotsky (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), and Isaac Deutscher’s massive classic, The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky (London: Verso, 2015).

2.Friedrich Schlotterbeck, The Darker the Night, the Brighter the Stars (London: Victor Gollancz, 1947). For more on this, see Allan Merson, Communist Resistance in Nazi Germany (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1986), and Donny Gluckstein, The Nazis, Capitalism, and the Working Class (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2012).

3.Leon Trotsky, “The Beginning of the End,” Writings of Leon Trotsky, 1936–37, Naomi Allen and George Breitman, eds. (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1978), 328–29.

4.Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989); Mikhail Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren: Recollections of a Trotskyist Who Survived the Stalin Terror (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1995).

5.Maria Joffe, One Long Night: A Tale of Truth (London: New Park, 1978), 162, 190.

6.Nadezhda Joffe, Back in Time: My Life, My Fate, My Epoch (Oak Park, MI: Mehring Books, 1995), 84.

7.George Saunders, ed., Samizdat: Voices of the Soviet Opposition (New York, 1974), 141.

8.Joseph Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation (London: Haverill, 1971), 94–95.

9.Saunders, ed., Samizdat, 206, 210–11.

10.Joffe, Back in Time, 40–41.

11.Berger, Shipwreck of a Generation, 96–98; Saunders, ed., Samizdat, 215, 216.

12.Joffe, Back in Time, 190; Moshe Lewin, The Soviet Century (London: Verso, 2005), 106–7; Vadim M. Rogovin, Stalin’s Terror of 1937–1938 (Oak Park, MI: Mehring Books, 2009), 446–47. Also see Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004).

13.Thomas M. Twiss, Trotsky and the Problem of Soviet Bureaucracy (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2015). Trotsky’s analysis is capably compared with others’ in Marcel van der Linden, Western Marxism and the Soviet Union (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2009).

14.Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1972), 56; Karl Marx, “The German Ideology,” in Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society, Loyd Easton and Kurt H. Guddat, eds. (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1967), 427. A more substantial summary of the revolutionary Marxist orientation can be found in Paul Le Blanc, From Marx to Gramsci (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), 3–145.

15.Leon Trotsky, The Permanent Revolution and Results and Prospects (London: Resistance Books, 2007); Michael Löwy, The Politics of Combined and Uneven Development: Trotsky’s Theory of Permanent Revolution (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2014).

16.Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 112.

17.E. H. Carr, The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin, 1917–1929 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Victor Serge, From Lenin to Stalin (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1973); Michal Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987). Reference to “skinflint reactionary utopia” is from Leon Trotsky, The Third International after Lenin (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970), 45–46.

18.Robert C. Tucker, Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1992).

19.See Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1975); Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975).

20.Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 120.

21.David Dallin, The Real Soviet Russia, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1947), 121. Naturally, those at the top of the bureaucratic pyramid lived a variant of the “good life” much closer to that of our own top 1 percent—see Ernest Mandel, Power and Money: A Marxist Theory of Bureaucracy (London: Verso, 1992), 72–74. A comparative analysis of ruling elites and inequality under capitalism and Stalinism is offered in Paul Le Blanc, Marx, Lenin, and the Revolutionary Experience: Studies of Communism and Radicalism in the Age of Globalization (New York: Routledge, 2006), 15–48.

22.Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed, 281–90.

8: Origins and Trajectory of the Cuban Revolution

1.Samuel Farber, The Origins of the Cuban Revolution Reconsidered (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).

2.Tom Gjelten, “Cuba’s Castro an Inspiration, Not a Role Model,” NPR, September 15, 2006, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083227.

3.Jorge Castañeda, Utopia Unarmed: The Latin American Left after the Cold War (New York: Vintage Books, 1994).

4.Farber, Origins of the Cuban Revolution, 49.

5.Ibid., 57, 58, 59.

6.Ibid., 61, 63.

7.Among the useful accounts of the revolution are Robert Taber, M-26: The Biography of a Revolution (New York: Lyle Stuart, 1961); Carlos Franqui, Diary of the Cuban Revolution (New York: Viking Press, 1980); K. S. Karol, Guerrillas in Power: The Course of the Cuban Revolution (New York: Hill and Wang, 1970); Marta Harnecker, Fidel Castro’s Political Strategy: From Moncada to Victory (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1987). A valuable general source can be found in Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr, and Pamela Maria Smorkaloff, eds., The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003).

8.Franqui, Diary of the Cuban Revolution, vi.

9.Farber, Origins, 133; emphasis added.

10.Ibid., 40, 178–179.

11.Ibid., 137, 179.

12.Ibid., 134, 135, 138.

13.Ibid., 63, 67, 127.

14.Ibid., 64–65.

15.Ibid., 39.

16.Harnecker, Fidel Castro’s Political Strategy, 102–3.

17.Farber, Origins, 49–50.

18.Ibid., 65.

19.Ibid., 4–5.

20.Carlos Franqui, Family Portrait with Fidel (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 23, 24, 58, 158–159; Farber, Origins, 60–61, 114, 125–26.

21.Farber, Origins, 63.

22.Ibid., 120, 133, 135, 136.

23.Ibid., 70.

24.Ibid., 70, 71, 76.

25.Ibid., 144,, 147, 152.

26.Ibid., 137.

27.Ibid., 5, 168.

28.Ibid., 68, 168.

29.Leo Huberman and Paul Sweezy, Socialism in Cuba (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1969), 204.

30.Janette Habel, Cuba: The Revolution in Peril (London: Verso, 1991); Frank T. Fitzgerald. The Cuban Revolution in Crisis: From Managing Socialism to Managing Survival (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1994).

31.Celia Hart, “Fidel and Trotsky,” International Viewpoint, May 2006, www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1052, and “‘Welcome’ … Trotsky,” International Viewpoint, November 2005, www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article898. Unfortunately, Celia Hart and her brother died in a car accident in 2008. Some of her writings can be found online at www.marxists.org/archive/celia-hart.

32.Hart, “‘Welcome’ … Trotsky.”

33.Farber, Origins, 172.

9: Nicaragua

1.Thomas W. Walker, Nicaragua, Land of Sandino, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), in expanded incarnations, has long served as a useful broad entry point to Nicaraguan history. A regional contextualization and explicitly Marxist analysis are provided in James Dunkerley, Power in the Isthmus: A Political History of Modern Central America (London: Verso, 1988).

2.Richard Millet, Guardians of the Dynasty: A History of the U.S. Created Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1977), and Walter LaFeber’s more broadly conceived Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1984) provide essential background on US policy in regard to Nicaragua.

3.Gregorio Selser, Sandino (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1981), 89, 93; Donald Clark Hodges, Intellectual Foundations of the Nicaraguan Revolution (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986), 9.

4.See Jaime Biderman, “The Development of Capitalism in Nicaragua: A Political Economic History,” Latin American Perspectives 10, no. 1 (1983): 7–32.

5.George Black, Triumph of the People: The Sandinista Revolution in Nicaragua (London: Zed Books, 1981), 174. Black’s informative account and that of Henri Weber, Nicaragua: The Sandinist Revolution (London: Verso, 1981), provide an early blend of eyewitness accounts, valuable background information, and sympathetic yet critical analysis by sophisticated radical journalists.

6.Bernard Diederich, Somoza and the Legacy of U.S. Involvement in Central America (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1981), 33.

7.Carlos Vilas, The Sandinista Revolution: National Liberation and Social Transformation in Central America (New York: Monthly Review Press 1986), 15, 105; Paul Le Blanc, Workers and Revolution: A Comparative Study of Bolshevik Russia and Sandinist Nicaragua (doctoral dissertation, University of Pittsburgh; Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International), 143–79.

8.Information on conditions of the Nicaraguan population is drawn from Joseph Collins, with Frances Moore Lappé, Nick Allen, and Paul Rice, Nicaragua: What Difference Could A Revolution Make? Food and Farming in the New Nicaragua, 2nd ed. (San Francisco: Institute for Food Development Policy, 1985), 252; Bob Gibson, “A Structural Overview of the Nicaraguan Economy,” in The Political Economy of Revolutionary Nicaragua, Rose J. Spalding, ed. (Boston: Unwin & Allen, 1987), 30, 31; Thomas John Bossert, “Health Care in Revolutionary Nicaragua,” in Nicaragua in Revolution, Thomas W. Walker, ed. (New York: Praeger, 1982), 261–63; Reinaldo Antonio Téfel, Humberto Mendoza López, and Jorge Flores Castillo, “Social Welfare,” in Nicaragua: The First Five Years, Thomas W. Walker, ed. (New York: Praeger, 1985), 366.

9.noteAmong the valuable reminiscences of participants in the Sandinista struggle are Gioconda Belli, The Country under My Skin: A Memoir of Love and War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002); Omar Cabezas, Fire from the Mountain: The Making of a Sandinista (New York: Crown Publishers, 1985); Tomás Borge, Carlos, the Dawn Is No Longer Beyond Our Reach (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1984). A detailed exploration of the FSLN’s martyred founder is provided in Matilde Zimmermann, Sandinista: Carlos Fonseca and the Nicaraguan Revolution (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), and a series of rich reflections by women who played an important role can be found in Margaret Randall, Sandino’s Daughters (Vancouver: New Star Books, 1981).

10.Randall, Sandino’s Daughters, 52.

11.Bruce Marcus, ed., Sandinistas Speak (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1982), 82.

12.Orlando Nuñez, “The Third Force in National Liberation Struggles,” Latin American Perspectives 8, no. 2 (1981): 11–14.

13.Jiri Valenta and Esperanza Duran, eds., Conflict in Nicaragua: A Multidimensional Perspective (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1987), 14.

14.Black, Triumph of the People, 267; Bruce Marcus, ed., Nicaragua: The Sandinista People’s Revolution (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1985), 174.

15.Central American Historical Institute, “Analysis of Electoral Results,” Envío, November 1984, 3a–6c; Harry E. Vanden and Gary Prevost, Democracy and Socialism in Sandinista Nicaragua (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993), 75–88.

16.Arnold Berthau, “Ten Years after the Nicaraguan Revolution,” International Viewpoint, September 18, 1989, 26.

17.Omar Cabezas, “Our Revolution Will Not Be Destroyed,” Socialist Action, April 1986, 7.

18.Thomas W. Walker, ed., Reagan versus the Sandinistas: The Undeclared War on Nicaragua (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), 67–72.

19.Cynthia Brown, ed., With Friends Like These: Americas Watch Report on Human Rights and U.S. Policy in Latin America (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 160; Catholic Institute for International Relations, Right to Survive: Human Rights in Nicaragua (London: CIIR, 1987), 34–40.

20.Thomas W. Walker, ed., Revolution and Counterrevolution in Nicaragua (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), 305, 345.

21.Ibid., 333.

22.Walker, Reagan versus the Sandinistas, 23.

23.Vanden and Prevost, Democracy and Socialism in Sandinista Nicaragua, 82–83.

24.Ibid., 142.

25.Vanden and Prevost, Democracy and Socialism in Sandinista Nicaragua, 129–51.

26.Ilja A. Luciak, The Sandinista Legacy: Lessons from a Political Economy in Transition (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 44, 45.

27.Pierre La Ramée and Erica G. Polakoff, “The Evolution of Popular Organizations in Nicaragua,” in The Undermining of the Sandinista Revolution, Harry E. Vanden and Gary Prevost, eds. (New York: Macmillan, 1997), 191, 196.

28.Stephen Kinzer, Blood of Brothers: Life and War in Nicaragua (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1991), 394.

29.Roger Burbach, “Et Tu, Daniel? The Sandinista Revolution Betrayed,” Global Alternatives, March 2009, http://globalalternatives.org/node/102; Maurice Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega,” Le Monde diplomatique, June 2012, http://mondediplo.com/2012/06/11nicaragua; Victor Figueroa-Clark, “21st Century Sandinismo—or Losing the Revolution?,” Red Pepper, August 8, 2012, www.redpepper.org.uk/central-america-21st-century-sandinismo-or-losing-the-revolution/; Dan Kovalik, “Nicaragua: The Sandinista Revolution Continues!,” Huffington Post, February 9, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/dan-kovalik/sandinista-revolution_b_1265367.html; Stephen Kinzer, “Daniel Ortega Is a Sandinista in Name Only,” Al Jazeera, April 2015, http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/4/daniel-ortega-is-a-sandinista-in-name-only.html.

30.Alberto Cortés-Ramos and Martha Isabel Cranshaw, “Winning Elections, Losing the Revolution,” Red Pepper, August 2012, www.redpepper.org.uk/central-america-21st-century-sandinismo-or-losing-the-revolution; “Bold and Light Interview with Mónica Baltodano,” by pachakuti, Kaos en la Red, November 10, 2012, http://2014.kaosenlared.net/component/k2/37000-entrevista-intr%C3%A9pida-y-liviana-a-m%C3%B3nica-baltodano.html; Augusto Zamora, “Some Reflections on the Piñata,” Envío, July, 1996, www.envio.org.ni/articulo/3019; Tim Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon? ‘Socialist’ President Daniel Ortega,” Christian Science Monitor, October 14, 2009, www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2009/1014/p06s01-woam.html.

31.Burbach, “Et Tu, Daniel?”; Chuck Kaufman, “Nicaragua Will NOT Have the Next Coup,” Alliance for Global Justice, April 22, 2010, http://afgj.org/nicaragua-will-not-have-the-next-coup; Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega.”

32.Mónica Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN into What It Is Today?,” Envío, January 2014, www.envio.org.ni/articulo/4804.

33.Jon Lee Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal,” New Yorker, March 10, 2014, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/03/10/the-comandantes-canal.

34.Chuck Kaufman, “Nicaragua Vive! 35 Years since the Triumph of the Sandinista Revolution,” Truthout, July 25, 2014, www.truth-out.org/opinion/item/25170-nicaragua-vive-35-years-since-the-triumph-of-the-sandinista-revolution; Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega”; Figueroa-Clark, “21st Century Sandinismo”; Rory Carroll, “Second Coming of the Sandinistas Turns Sour,” Guardian, January 10, 2009, www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/11/nicaragua-world-ortega 2009; Hector Tobar, “Old Rivals Unite in New Nicaragua,” Los Angeles Times, October 24, 2006, http://articles.latimes.com/2006/oct/24/world/fg-ortega24.

35.Belli, The Country under My Skin; Andrew Anthony, “From Comandante to Caudillo,” Guardian, November 7, 2006, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2006/nov/07/thecomandantewhobecameaca; Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega”; Cortés-Ramos and Cranshaw, “Winning Elections”; Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal”; Kinzer, Daniel Ortega Is a Sandinista.”

36.Alejandro Gutiérrez, “The Disconcerting ‘Success’ of Nicaragua’s ‘Anti-Poverty’ Programs,” NACLA, February 2010, https://nacla.org/news/disconcerting-%E2%80%98success%E2%80%99-nicaragua%E2%80%99s-anti-poverty-programs; Katherine Hoyt, “Report from a Fact-Finding Trip to Nicaragua: Anti-Poverty Programs Make a Difference,” NACLA, December 2009, https://nacla.org/node/6313; Kovalik, “Nicaragua”; Figueroa-Clark, “21st Century Sandinismo.”

37.Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega”; Hoyt, “Report from a Fact-Finding Trip”; Kovalik, “Nicaragua”; Kaufman, “Nicaragua Will NOT Have the Next Coup”; John Hollis, “Election Night in Nicaragua,” Counterpunch, November 8, 2011, www.counterpunch.org/2011/11/08/election-night-in-nicaragua/; Figueroa-Clark, “21st Century Sandinismo.”

38.Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal.”

39.Ibid.; Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega.”

40.Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”; Tim Johnson, “Despite Nicaragua’s Constitution, Ortega Headed for Re-election,” Miami Herald, November 2, 2011, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/article1938939.html; Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal.”

41.Kinzer, “Daniel Ortega Is a Sandinista.”

42.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

43.Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”; Cortés-Ramos and Cranshaw, “Winning Elections”; Lemoine, “Why Nicaragua Chose Ortega”; Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

44.Tobar, “Old Rivals Unite in New Nicaragua”; Anthony, “From Comandante to Caudillo”; Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal.”

45.Cortés-Ramos and Cranshaw, “Winning Elections”; Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN”; Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”; Gutiérrez, “The Disconcerting ‘Success’ of Nicaragua’s ‘Anti-Poverty’ Programs.”

46.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

47.Diego Cupolo, “Construction of Nicaraguan Canal to Begin in Late 2014,” Upside Down World, January 17, 2014, http://upsidedownworld.org/main/nicaragua-archives-62/4653-construction-of-nicaraguan-canal-to-begin-in-late-2014; Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal”; James S. Henry, “Nicaraguan Ortega’s Power Grab,” The Real News, October 3, 2014, http://therealnews.com/t2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=31&Itemid=74&jumival=11058; Mark Burton and Chuck Kaufman, “Nicaragua’s Grand Canal: The Other Side of the Story,” Liberation, December 26, 2014, www.liberationnews.org/nicaraguas-grand-canal-side-story/.

48.Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal.”

49.Ibid.

50.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

51.Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal”; Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

52.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

53.Envío Team, “Notes Written beneath the Trees of Life,” Envío, August, 2013, www.envio.org.ni/articulo/4733; Henry, “Nicaraguan Ortega’s Power Grab”; Anderson, “The Comandante’s Canal”; Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”

54.Dora Maria Tellez, interview by Arlen Cerda, July 18, 2010, www.laprensa.com.ni/2010/07/18/politica/431030-ortega-fue-reclutado-por-el-somocismo.

55.Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”

56.Tellez, interview.

57.Kinzer, “Daniel Ortega Is a Sandinista”; Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”; Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

58.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

59.Email communication to author from Silvia Torres, August 30, 2017.

60.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

61.“Bold and Light Interview with Mónica Baltodano”; Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

62.Baltodano, “What Mutations Have Turned the FSLN.”

63.Ibid.

64.Ibid.

65.Ibid.; Rodgers, “Nicaragua’s Newest Tycoon?”

10: South Africa

1.Melissa de Villiers et al., South Africa (London: Insight Guides, 2004), 21–23, 52; John Hoffman and Nxumalo Mzala, “‘Non-Historic Nations’: A South African Perspective,” Science and Society 54, no. 4 (1990): 408–26; Allister Sparks, The Mind of South Africa (New York: Ballantine Books, 1991), 121.

2.A useful synthesis is found in Nigel Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000). See also Robert Ross, A Concise History of South Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

3.Rosa Luxemburg, The Accumulation of Capital (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1951), 411–16; Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 86, 98–106.

4.Harold Wolpe, “Capitalism and Cheap Labor Power in South Africa: From Segregation to Apartheid,” in Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth-Century South Africa, William Beinart and Saul Dubow, eds. (London: Routledge, 1995), 88; Ernest Harsch, South Africa: White Rule, Black Revolt, 2nd ed. (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1983), 14.

5.Kevin Danaher, In Whose Interest? A Guide to U.S.-South Africa Relations (Washington, DC: Institute for Policy Studies, 1985), 45; Sparks, The Mind of South Africa, 121.

6.Saul Dubow, The African National Congress (Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2000), 3, 4, 9, 11.

7.Edward Roux, Time Longer than Rope: A History of the Black Man’s Struggle for Freedom in South Africa, 2nd ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), ix, 125, 126, 129.

8.Ibid., 198–217. A. Lerumo [Michael Harmel], Fifty Fighting Years: The Communist Party of South Africa, 1921–1971 (London: Inkululenko, 1971), 63; Thomas K. Ranuga, The New South Africa and the Socialist Vision: Positions and Perspectives toward a Post-Apartheid Society (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1996), 23.

9.Lerumo, Fifty Fighting Years, 63, 67, 72; Dubow, The African National Congress, 12–19; Ranuga, The New South Africa, 25–31.

10.Long Walk to Freedom: The Autobiography of Nelson Mandela (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995), 120–21.

11.Lerumo, Fifty Fighting Years, 98–102; Roux, Time Longer than Rope, 319.

12.Roux, Time Longer than Rope, 308; Lerumo, Fifty Fighting Years, 159; Martin J. Murray, Revolution Deferred: The Painful Birth of Post-Apartheid South Africa (London: Verso, 2000), 126; Dubow, The African National Congress, 31; Steven Mufson, Fighting Years: Black Resistance and the Struggle for a New South Africa (Boston: Beacon Press, 1990), 223; Stephan Ellis and Tsepo Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid: The ANC and the South African Communist Party in Exile (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), 22, 37; George Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1972), 126.

13.Nelson Mandela, The Struggle Is My Life (New York: Pathfinder Press, 1986), 173, 174; Mufson, Fighting Years, 142; Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, 268; Ranuga, The New South Africa, 55–62.

14.Mandela, The Struggle Is My Life, 50–54; Dubow, The African National Congress, 50–52; Ellis and Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid, 28; Mufson, Fighting Years, 224; Ranuga, The New South Africa, 46–52.

15.Dubow, The African National Congress, 51.

16.Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, 339–40.

17.Padmore, Pan-Africanism or Communism, xix. The Four Freedoms are 1) freedom of thought and religion, 2) freedom of speech and expression, 3) freedom from fear, and 4) freedom from want.

18.Ranuga, The New South Africa, 77–87; Roux, Time Longer than Rope, 402–14.

19.Dennis Brutus, “March 21, 1987,” Airs and Tributes, Gil Ott, ed. (Camden, NJ: Whirlwind Press, 1990), 2.

20.Donald Woods, Biko, rev. ed. (New York: Henry Holt, 1987), 57, 59, 122.

21.Black Communities Programs document, quoted in Ranuga, The New South Africa, 98.

22.John Kane-Berman, South Africa: The Method in the Madness (London: Pluto Press, 1979); Mufson, Fighting Years, 13–19; Ellis and Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid, 80–86; Ranuga, The New South Africa, 103–7; Harsch, South Africa, 281–84; Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 135.

23.Murray, Revolution Deferred, 119, 124, 125.

24.Nathaniel Weyl, Traitors’ End: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Movement in Southern Africa (New Rochelle, NY: Arlington House, 1970), 89, 131.

25.Anthony Sampson, Mandela: The Authorized Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 64; Sebastian Mallaby, After Apartheid: The Future of South Africa (New York: Random House, 1993), 233; Ellis and Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid, 24, 25; Ranuga, The New South Africa, 55–56.

26.Sampson, Mandela, 136, 564–65.

27.Mallaby, After Apartheid, 233; Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, 74–75.

28.Ronnie Kasrils, “Armed and Dangerous”: My Undercover Struggle against Apartheid (Cambridge, UK: Heinemann, 1994), 368; Ross, A Concise History of South Africa, 184–85; Lerumo, Five Fighting Years, 133; Mandela, Long Walk to Freedom, 102, 120; Ellis and Sechaba, Comrades against Apartheid, 21; Roux, Time Longer than Rope, 330, 383.

29.Brutus, “For Ruth First,” Airs and Tributes, 13.

30.Desmond Tutu, The Rainbow People of God, John Allen, ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1994), 253.

31.Harsch, South Africa, 13, 80.

32.Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 138.

33.Sparks, The Mind of South Africa, 373.

34.Ibid., 337.

35.Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 145; Martin Murray, South Africa: Time of Agony, Time of Destiny (London: Verso, 1987), 221, 229–30.

36.Murray, South Africa, 229; Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 154.

37.Dubow, The African National Congress, 106; Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 225, 236; Murray, Revolution Deferred, 121–22, 128, 143–46.

38.John S. Saul, “Cry for the Beloved Country: The Post-Apartheid Denouement,” Monthly Review, January 2001, 12, 14.

39.Dubow, The African National Congress, 109; Murray, Revolution Deferred, 5.

40.Patrick Bond, Talk Left, Walk Right: South Africa’s Frustrated Global Reforms (Scottsville, SA: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, 2004), 180; Saul, “Cry for the Beloved Country,” 28, 29, 43.

41.Dale T. McKinley, “Debate and Opposition within the ANC and the Tripartite Alliance since 1994,” Links, no. 16 (2000): 55, 56.

42.Ibid., 71. Also see Bond, Talk Left, Walk Right, 179–90.

43.Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa, 164; de Villiers et al., South Africa, 71, 73;

44.Bond, Talk Left, Walk Right, 14, 15.

45.“The 9th SACP Congress—a Key Strategic Challenge,” and Jeremy Cronin, “Challenging the Neo-Liberal Agenda in South Africa,” South African Communist, no. 139/140, First Quarter (1995): 3, 38, 49.

46.Thompson, A History of South Africa, 290; Murray, Revolution Deferred, 124, 128.

47.Bond, Talk Left, Walk Right, 231.

48.Roy quoted in Paul Le Blanc, “The World Social Forum, 2004,” Against the Current, no. 109, March/April 2004, http://solidarity-us.org/site/node/414.

49.Bond, Talk Left, Walk Right, 4, 192; the quote by the South African analysts comes from “Report of the Anti-War Coalition/Rosa Luxemburg Foundation Seminar, May 20–22, 2004, at the Workers’ Library and Museum, Newtown Precinct, Johannesburg,” Rosa Luxemburg Foundation, 2004.